DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 321 MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

Experiment-5
Calibration of Force Transducer
Group Number ( 1 )
S.No Name of Student University Marks (5)
Number
1 Mohmmed Abdullah Bazarah 435107551
2 Sulaiman Mohammed Alyousefi 436100985
3 Abdulmajeed Ahmad al-sagir 436101240
4 Khaled Bassam Al-Mutairi 434106238
Grading for 4 students
S.No Student Topics Marks
Max Earned

1 1 Introduction 0.5

2 2 Theory 0.5

3 2 Planning 0.5

4 3 Set Up 0.5

5 3 Procedure 0.5

6 4 Uncertainty Analysis 1.0

7 All Data Analysis 1.0

8 1 Tables 1.0

9 2 Graphs 1.0

10 3 Results 0.5

11 4 Discussion 0.5

12 4 Conclusion 0.5

Overall Report 2.0

INTRODUCTION

The measurement of force is most familiar as the process of weighing,

ranging from weighing micrograms of a medicine to weighing trucks on the
highway. Force is a quantity derived from the fundamental dimensions of
mass, length, and time.
The most common techniques for force measurement are
Analytical balance
An analytical balance (often called a "lab balance") is a class
of balance designed to measure small mass in the sub-
milligram range. The measuring pan of an analytical balance
(0.1 mg or better) is inside a transparent enclosure with
doors so that dust does not collect and so any air currents in
the room do not affect the balance's operation. This
enclosure is often called a draft shield. The use of a
mechanically vented balance safety enclosure, which has
uniquely designed acrylic airfoils, allows a smooth
turbulence-free airflow that prevents balance fluctuation and
the measure of mass down to 1 μg without fluctuations or
loss of product.
Lever systems Figure 1 )Mettler digital
analytical balance with 0.1 mg
A lever is a simple machine consisting of a beam readability(.
or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum
ashown in figure2 . A lever is a rigid body capable
of rotating on a point on itself. On the basis of the
location of fulcrum. A lever amplifies an input
force to provide a greater output force, which is
said to provide leverage. The ratio of the output
force to the input force is the mechanical Figure 2 )Lever systems)
advantage of the lever.
Elastic Elements
There are 12 principal types of elastic elements
useful for strain gauging technology
Load Cells
‘‘Load cell’’ is a term used to describe a
transducer that generates a voltage signal as a
result of an applied force, usually along a
particular direction. Such force transducers often
consist of an elastic member and a deflection
sensor. These deflection sensors may employ
changes in capacitance, resistance, or the
piezoelectric effect to sense deflection. A
technology overview for such devices is
provided elsewhere. Consider first load cells that
are designed using a linearly elastic member
instrumented with strain gauges.
Figure 3 (Visualization of the working concept behind
the strain gauge on a beam under exaggerated
bending.)
Strain Gauge Load Cells, Strain gauge load cells are most often constructed
of a metal, and have a shape such that the range of forces to be measured
results in a measurable output voltage over the desired operating range. The
shape of the linearly elastic member is designed to meet the following goals:
(1) provide an appropriate range of force-measuring capability with necessary
accuracy, (2) provide sensitivity to forces in a particular direction, and (3) have
low sensitivity to force components in other directions

Figure 4(Strain Gauge Load Cells)

Piezoelectric Load Cells ,Piezoelectric materials are characterized by their

ability to develop a charge when subject to a mechanical strain. The most
common piezoelectric material single-crystal quartz. The basic principle of
transduction that occurs in a piezoelectric element may best be thought of as
a charge generator and a capacitor. The frequency response of piezoelectric
transducers is very high, since the frequency response is determined primarily
by the size and material properties of the quartz crystal.

Figure 5(Piezoelectric Load Cells )

Theoretical Background
Consider the Euler cantilever beam . Aassumptions: Point load, Direction of force,
Temperature, Vibration The applied force will cause a moment at the location of the
strain gage. The bending moment can be written as,
M = Pl
The bending stress can be expressed as:
𝑀𝑧 𝑃𝑙ℎ 1
𝜎𝑥 = = ; 𝐼𝑧 = 𝑏ℎ3
2𝐼𝑧 2𝐼𝑧 12
Or
6𝑃𝑙
𝜎𝑥 =
𝑏ℎ2
From Hook’s Law 𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥
6𝑃𝑙
𝐸𝜀𝑥 =
𝑏ℎ2
𝜀 6𝑙
or 𝑆𝜀 (sensitivity y µ/N) = 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑏ℎ2 𝐸 (1)
If the output of meter is micro stains Therefore load is
𝜀 𝑏ℎ2 𝐸
𝑃= 𝑥 × 10−6 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
6𝑙
If more than one strain gages are used on the beam then the
bridge constant that depends on the strain gage orientation (Refer table 12.4 of Text
book), is to be used. In the situation existing in the laboratory the bridge constant k=
1+μ, where μ is the poisons ratio of the material of the cantilever beam. Therefore the
load equation becomes
𝜀𝑥 𝑏ℎ2 𝐸
𝑃= × 10−6 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑘 6𝑙
If the strain meter is not avialiable then Wheat Stone Bridge can be used.
Constant Voltage Wheatstone Bridge
In certain cases the output of the bridge is voltage then bridge circuit theory has to be
used.
The bridge output 𝑒0 for a given input 𝑉𝑖 can be written as
𝑅 𝑅 −𝑅 𝑅
𝑒0 = 𝑉𝑖 (𝑅 +1 𝑅3 ) (𝑅 2 +1𝑅 )
1 2 3 4
If 𝑅1 𝑅3 = 𝑅2 𝑅1 → 𝑒0 = 0 (balanced condition)
If each resistance is varied by amount∆𝑅; the change in output
voltage ∆𝑒0 can be reduced to:
∆𝑒0 𝐺. 𝑟
= (𝜀 − 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 − 𝜀4 )
𝑉𝑖 (1 + 𝑟)2 1
𝑅
Where G is the gage factor; r = 𝑅2
1
1 ∆𝑅
𝜀=
𝐺 𝑅
For half bridge configuration (𝑅1 and 𝑅2 ) are active gages ∆𝑅3 = ∆𝑅4 = 0) and
r=1

(𝑅1 and𝑅2 )
∆𝑒0 𝐺
= (𝜀1 − 𝜀2 )
𝑉𝑖 4
If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are attached to the cantilever beam.
Then
∆𝑒0 𝐺
= 𝜀𝑥
𝑉𝑖 2
∆𝑒 𝐺𝑉𝑖
𝑆𝑐 (Circuit sensitivity) = 𝑆 0 =
𝑥 2

Therefore load in terms of voltage output is

𝑏ℎ2 𝐸 ∆𝑒𝑜
𝑃=
3𝐺𝑙 𝑉𝑖
Planning .
There are different methods to calibrating force transducer:
1) Piezoelectric crystal force transducers.
2) Measuring force through pressure.
3) Linear variable differential transducer.
4) Strain gauge load cells.

Piezoelectric crystal force transducers:

To understand how a piezoelectric force transducer works, we first have to take a look inside
it. Here we will always find a piezoelectric crystal, such as quartz, at the heart of the sensor.
Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce an electric charge under mechanical stress.
The principle is really simple: the electric charge obtained is proportional to the applied
mechanical stress. A charge amplifier can convert this charge into an easy to measure 0…10
V signal. In the end, the output voltage is proportional to the mechanical stress.

Figure 6 a piezoelectric crystal

On the left we see the unstressed molecular crystal lattice (in the center is the charge, which is
balanced in this case). On the right, the crystal is subjected to mechanical stress: the centers of
symmetry of the charges move apart and charge can be measured at the top and bottom of the
crystal.

The relationship between the mechanical stress applied to the crystal and the
change in charge is proportional. In other words, the greater the stress, the
greater the charge. This principle is exploited in piezoelectric force
measurement technology. For the crystal to become a transducer, however, it
needs something more. "The output signal does not depend on the size of the
sensor, and this is a particular advantage", says Thomas Kleckers.
As a rule, a sensor contains two crystal elements. An electrode is situated
between these crystals. This electrode picks up the charge on the inward
facing sides of the crystals. A cable connects the electrode to the charge
amplifier. In addition, the crystal disks are housed in a metal enclosure. This
not only protects the crystals, but also provides a second point of contact with
them, as it is connected to the charge amplifier via the cable shield.

Figure 7

The special property of piezoelectric force transducers is that they cover very
large measuring ranges. In other words, the same sensor can be used for
measuring both very small and very large forces. Piezoelectric force
transducers are therefore very flexible – and are available in miniature size
just a few millimeters thick. Their deformation under load is negligible due to
their high rigidity. Consequently, the sensor has an exceptionally low influence
over the structure in which it is integrated.
On the other hand, transducers are prone to drift: "The charge always finds
one way or another to balance itself out," says Thomas Kleckers. For this
reason, the difference in charge required for measurement cannot be
maintained indefinitely. It can be assumed that drift of 10 N/min maximum will
take place. Once the measurement chain has been broken in, this figure gets
much lower during service. It remains the same regardless of the force
measured, however. This means that drift has more of an impact if you
measure low forces over a long period of time than if you measure large
forces, or use short measurement times.
Table1

Piezoelectric force transducers can either be pre-stressed or not, depending

on the intended application. Pre-stressed sensors are calibrated and can be
used immediately after installation. The force washers still have to be pre-
stressed during assembly. This is generally done using screws or load pins.
This produces the best possible contact between the different material
surfaces, enabling the charge to be transferred. However, these additional
components can alter the sensitivity of the measuring point, which therefore
needs to be adjusted, or calibrated, after the pre-stressing process.
It is important to make sure the transducer delivers quantitatively correct
results in its specific installation environment and in all the prevailing ambient
conditions. Piezoelectric force transducers are especially beneficial in cyclic
processes, as Thomas Kleckers explains. One example is when two
components are connected with a defined force, as in the case of riveting.
The transducer and charge amplifier measure the force characteristic of the
riveting process, enabling extremely effective quality control. After
measurement, a reset is initiated, and the transducer returns to zero. Then
comes the next rivet. Drift has no influence whatsoever on the result, as the
measurement time is short. Thomas Kleckers tells us that he finds their use in
presses particularly remarkable. "A press stamps with a force of 50 tons,
that's 500 kilonewtons. As the process plateaus, some fine readjustments
need to be made. Here, we're talking about roughly 100 newtons. A 'RESET'
takes place between this first and second step, so that during step two the
force can be measured at a high resolution. This way, the large measuring
range of piezoelectric force transducers is exploited to the full." Source:HBM
 Set up.
Electrical strain gages, Calibrated strain meter or Digital voltmeter, Data acquisition
system, Weights (1, 2,5,10 Newton’s) and Cantilever beam (10 x 20 x 200 mm).

Figure8 (Electrical strain gages ) Figure 9(Digital strain meter)

Figure 10(Weights)
Figure 11(Data acquisition system)

Figure 12(Cantilever beam)

Procedure.
The strain gages are mounted at the location where the strain is to be
measured. The two gages are mounted on opposite sides of the bar. When
the circuit is balanced, the voltage at both points A and B will be one-half of
the excitation voltage. Therefore, the output voltage will be approximately
zero. When a force is applied, the resistance of the strain gage in tension
increases and the resistance of the gage in compression decreases. This
change in resistance creates a voltage change at point B. The voltage at point
A has not changed and is still equal to one-half the excitation voltage.
Therefore, a small voltage difference will appear across points A and B. The
voltage between these points (Vout) can be monitored, and is proportional to
the amount of bending or strain in the structural member.

Figure 13

The procedure for this measurement will be

1-Observe the connections of strain gages and its attachment to the beam .
2-Note the dimensions of the beam and the location of point of measurement.
3-The gages are connected in a half bridge (Fig.(2)). This would compensate
for temperature effects and insures measurement of bending strain only. This
will also cause a bridge constant k=2.
4-Remove the zero error of the strain meter.
5- Adjust the loading arm for zero reading of the strain meter.
6-Apply a load to the cantilever tip starting from 1N up to 10 N using 1 N step.
7-Record the strain at each load using
the strain indicator.

8-Use load equation to calculate the

force
In this figure it shows the procedure for
Calibration of Force Transducer.
 Tables.
Calibration of Strain Gauge:

loading Unloading
Measured Measured Average
Force Strain Meter Force Force Strain Meter Force Measured
(N) ( strains) (N) (N) ( μ strains ) (N) Force

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 5.5 0.7425 1 4.5 0.6075 0.675

2 11 1.485 2 10 1.350 1.4175

3 17 2.295 3 15.5 2.0928 2.1967

4 22 2.970 4 21 2.835 2.9025

5 29 3.915 5 27 3.645 3.780

6 34 4.590 6 33 4.455 4.225
7 39 5.265 7 39 5.265 5.265
8 45 6.075 8 43 5.805 5.94

9 49 6.615 9 49 6.615 6.615

10 54 7.89 10 54 7.89 7.89

Uncertainty Analysis:

Load = 6 N

Sl.No Strain Meter Measured

( strains) Force
(N)
1 34 4.520

2 33 4.455

3 33 4.455

4 32.5 4.3875

5 32.5 4.3875

6 32.5 4.3875

7 32.5 4.3875

8 33 4.455
 Graphs.
9

8
y = 0.7501x 7.89

R² = 0.9957
6.615
Average Measured Force(N)

7
5.94
6
5.265

5
4.225
3.78
4
2.9025
3
2.1967
2 1.4175

1 0.675
0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10

Force (N)

5
Measured Force(N)

4
Loading

Unloading
3

0
0 2 4 6 8 10

Force (N)
Results
Uncertainty analysis
Load=6N
UB=1x10^-6 m UBP=0.135 N
Sx= 0.049505 N = 4.429375 N
𝑆𝑥
UP=t/2 =0.041437 N UT=√𝑈𝑃2 + 𝑈𝐵 2=0.14126 N
√𝑛

P= 4.429375  0.14126 N

Discussion.
We measured calibration of force transducers by applying different
loads. Then we took values of repeating the same load to
determine the uncertainty. Some of the error sources that could
exist in this experiment are briefly mentioned. First, beam wasn’t
straight neither exactly simply supported. Second, most off
instruments have error while measuring. Lastly, force position
could sometimes produce error.

Conclusion.
UT= ± (0.14126 ) N

Since the uncertainty calculated by applying the force (6 ) N the

uncertainty become very small. So we noticed that the larger force
repeatedly applied is better to calculate the uncertainty.