3.

OSCILLOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS

3.1. WAVEFORM DISPLAY DEVICES

The signal is a physical variable (such as force, velocity, voltage, current etc) associated with
a system and it is almost always a function of time. A waveform is a graphic representation of
a wave. It is a necessity for engineers to observe waveforms for various signals in order to
make certain measurements and compare them to each other. This requires conversion of the
physical variable into a trace through a writing mechanism and a medium over which the
information can be imprinted. What is measured is the distance between certain points on the
marked trace that is a representative of the waveform for the physical variable concerned. The
type and technique of display affect the quality of the measurement.

For inscribing the variations of a signal in time, a pen and paper

can be used. In this case, the writing pen moves vertically in response to
the magnitude of the signal while the writing medium (paper) moves
Figure 3. 1 A wave-
horizontally at a constant speed as illustrated in Figure 3.1. This is form recording device
called y-t recording since the signal is represented on vertical axis (y-
axis) and the horizontal axis represents the time. In some applications the horizontal motion is
controlled by another signal rather than time. This recording is called x-y recording. However,
this technique is limited to recording low frequency applications since the mechanical parts
cannot respond to high frequency signals. Oscilloscopes are used to display high frequency
signals.

An oscilloscope measures voltage waves. One cycle of a wave is the portion of the wave
that repeats. A voltage waveform shows time on the horizontal axis and voltage on the
vertical axis. Oscilloscopes are electronic equipment mainly used in displaying and measuring
electrical voltage signals. Other physical signals can be displayed through proper sensors. The
writing pen in this equipment is the electron beam and writing medium is a special screen that
glows when the electron beam strikes on it. The electron beam can be deflected from its
straight path using electrical or magnetic fields, hence easily moved across the screen.
Eventually a spot of light that can be placed on different locations on the screen under the
control of external electrical signals becomes available. For y-t recording, the spot travels
horizontally across the screen at a constant speed and moves vertically in response to the
magnitude of the input signal. Intensity or brightness of the display is sometimes called the z
 Basic Oscilloscope Operations / 2

axis as illustrated in Figure 3.2. The trajectory looks like a bouncing ball that moves across
the screen and the human eye can follow it if the motion is slow. If the light ball draws the

Figure 3.2 Waveform displayed on an oscilloscope

same trajectory on the screen for more than about 24 times a second, the human eye can not
follow the motion and it will see it as a fixed trace on the screen.

This chapter deals with measurements using oscilloscopes. Details of display devices are
presented in Appendix-B.

3.1.1. Operating Principles of an Oscilloscope

Figure 3.3 Front panel of an analog oscilloscope (Tektronix TAS 465)

Oscilloscopes can be classified as analog and digital. To better understand the oscilloscope
controls, we need to know a little more about how oscilloscopes display a signal. Analog
oscilloscopes work somewhat differently than digital oscilloscopes. However, several of the
internal systems are similar. Analog oscilloscopes are somewhat simpler in concept and are
described below. More information about the oscilloscope circuitries and digital oscilloscopes
are provided in Appendix-B.

Front panel of an oscilloscope is shown in Figure 3.3. It has a display screen with a 8
cm by 10 cm grid drawn on it. The display has controls for the intensity (brightness of the
trace), focus and astigmatism (sharpness of the trace). On the right hand side there are control
sections for vertical, horizontal, and trigger controls and input connectors. The oscilloscope is
a versatile instrument that can be used for measuring signal voltages from a few millivolts up
to hundreds of volts. Depending on how we set the vertical scale (volts/div control), an
attenuator reduces the signal voltage or an amplifier increases the signal voltage. One cycle of
a wave is the portion of the wave that repeats. In general use, only a few cycles are displayed.
For analog oscilloscopes, this specification indicates how fast the trace can sweep across the
screen, allowing us to see fine details. The fastest sweep speed of an oscilloscope is usually
given in nanoseconds/div.

Volts/Div

Vertical Delay Line

Input Amplifier
Signal
CRT
To CRT H
V
Electron
HV Supply
Beam
V Screen
LV Supply Electron H
Gun
To All Circuits

Trigger Time-Base Horizontal

Circuit Generator Amplifier

Time/Div

Figure 3.4 Simplified block diagram of an analog oscilloscope

3.1.2. Simplified Block Diagram of an Oscilloscope

The simplified block diagram of a general-purpose oscilloscope is shown in Figure 3.4. The
heart of an oscilloscope is the cathode ray tube (CRT): electron gun, deflection plates,
phosphorous-coated screen and an evacuated glass tube that encloses all are the main
 Basic Oscilloscope Operations / 4

components of the CRT. The electron beam produced by the electron gun is used to produce a
visual image on the screen. The CRT requires high voltages in the order of a few thousand
volts for the acceleration of the electron, while a low voltage for the electron gun, which emits
the electrons. Supply voltages for other circuits are less than a few hundred volts at maximum.
The power supply block provides voltages required by the CRT and the rest of the
oscilloscope circuitries.

Two signals are needed to deflect the beam on the screen horizontally and vertically. The
laboratory oscilloscope is generally used to display signals in time. The signal to be viewed is
applied to a vertical (deflection) amplifier that increases the potential of the input signal to a
level that will provide a useful deflection of the electron beam.

The time-base circuitry generates a voltage to supply the CRT to deflect the spot at a
constant time-dependant rate. The voltage waveform is named commonly as the sweep signal
and it has the appearance of a repetitive ramp function. A triggering circuit is used to
synchronize the horizontal deflection with the vertical input, so that the horizontal deflection
starts at the same point of the vertical input signal each time it runs (sweeps). Eventually, the
beam moves at a constant time-dependant rate horizontally and the image generated on the
screen indicates the time variation of the input signal.

Each block in a signal path causes certain time delay. Hence, the beam does not start
moving horizontally immediately following the detection of the trigger point. The delay line
delays the signal applied to the vertical plates by an amount equal to the time delay for the
sweep signal applied to the horizontal deflection plates. Eventually, the vertical signal is
displayed on the screen always starting at the trigger point.

VV 3.2. BASIC OSCILLOSCOPE OPERATIONS

3.2.1. Electrostatic Deflection
Two pairs of deflection plates at right angles to each other are used to
provide deflection of the light spot in a Cartesian system as depicted
in Figure 3.5. The amount of voltage that must be applied between a
VH
pair of deflection plates to produce a unit length of deflection of the

Figure 3.5 spot depends upon the deflection factor of the CRT. Deflection
factors for horizontal and vertical deflection plates are not the same.
 + -

+ -

Positive potential on Negative potential on Positive potential on Negative potential on

the left X plate the left X plate the top Y plate the top Y plate

Sawtooth waveform on Sine wave on

Positive potentials on the X plate only Y plate only
left X and top Y plates

Figure 3.6 Deflection of electron beam on the CRT screen due to several combinations of voltages applied to
deflection plates

Various combinations of two voltage waveforms on the screen are illustrated in Figure
3.6. A fixed spot is obtained as DC voltages are applied to both pairs of the plates. A
horizontal line is drawn when a sawtooth waveform is applied to the horizontal (X) plates
only. Similarly, a vertical line is drawn as a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the vertical (Y)
plates only.

VV 3.2.2. Operation in Sweep Mode

3.2.2.1. Principle of Operation
The CRO spot traces an image on the screen when horizontal
and vertical deflection voltages are applied as shown in Figure
3.7. The voltage applied to horizontal deflection mechanism is
VH the sawtooth that is generated by the time-base circuit. It has a
fixed slope and lets the electron beam to travel horizontally
tally at a
Figure 3.7 constant speed. Meanwhile, the input signal (sinusoidal type in
the figure) is amplified and applied to the vertical deflection
plates.
 Basic Oscilloscope Operations / 6

Figure 3.8 shows a detailed illustration. The timing information for both signals is
exposed in the figure. Two cycles of the input signal are displayed on the screen. The second
sweep follows the first one immediately indicating that the retrace time is negligible
compared to the trace time.

Oscilloscope screen
v
1 5 1 1 5

2 2
6 8
0 2 4 6
4 8 0
t
3 7 3 7

Vertical input signal 0

1 v
Time Base Signal

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Figure 3.8 Display of signals on the oscilloscope screen in sweep mode

3.2.2.2. Measurements in Sweep Mode

Amplitude and time variations of the signals can be viewed and measured. In multichannel
oscilloscopes, more than one input can be observed simultaneously and compared to each
other. Figure 3.9 illustrates two signals V1 and V2 displayed together.

The amplitude measurement is made either as reading of the peak value or peak-to-peak
value. The time measurement is done to determine the period of a periodic signal and the
phase shift between two signals. The displacements in both X and Y directions are taken and
multiplied by the scale factors as set at the front panel of the oscilloscope to compute the
amplitude in volt and time in second.
 Both measurements require a
well-focused trace with gain
Period V2
controls at cal (calibrate)
positions. Also, the time
V1
Peak Peak
measurement is possible with the
to
peak least error if it is done between
two steep points on the trace. The
steepest point of a sinusoidal
Phase
shift signal occurs as the signal
Period
crosses the time axis. The
following example illustrates
basic measurements and their
Figure 3.9 Dual channel operation in sweep mode
uncertainties.

Example 3.1
For the dual trace shown in Figure 3.9 above, the vertical settings are 0.1 V/cm and 0.2 V/cm
for V1 and V2 respectively. The time base setting is 5 ms/cm. The trigger source is CH-1 (V1).
Assume uncertainty of ± 0.5 mm in all distances measured. Find:
a. Peak and peak to peak values of V1 and V2 with uncertainties involved.
b. Time period and frequency of V2 and their uncertainties.
c. The trigger level and slope.
d. The phase shift between V1 (CH-1) and V2 (CH-2). Does V1 leads or lags V2? How
much is the uncertainty in the phase shift?
SOLUTION
a) Peak value of V1 = V1p = 2 (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm) = 0.2 V;
peak-to-peak value of V1 = V1p-p = 4 (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm) = 0.4 V. Similarly,
V2p = 3 (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm) = 0.6 V; V2p-p = 6 (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm) = 1.2 V
The uncertainty in distance is 0.5 mm yielding
V1p = (2 ± 0.05) (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm) = 0.2± 0.005 V = 0.2 V± 2.5%
V2p = (3 ± 0.05) (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm) = 0.6± 0.01 V = 0.6 V± 1.67%
V1p-p = (4 ± 2x0.05) (cm) x 0.1 (V/cm) = 0.4± 0.01 V = 0.4 V± 2.5%
V2p-p = (6 ± 0.1) (cm) x 0.2 (V/cm) = 1.2± 0.02 V = 1.2 V± 1.67%
b) Time period and frequency of V2. T=(5± 0.05)(cm)x5(ms/cm) = 25± 0.25 ms = 25ms± 1%
 Basic Oscilloscope Operations / 8

∂f 1
f = 1/T. = − 2 Nominal value of the frequency; f = 40 Hz. Limiting error is the
∂T T
∂f ΔT
same as the expected accuracy for the frequency. Δf = ΔT = f yields the relative
∂T T
accuracy for the period and the frequency are the same as 1%. Hence, f = 40± 0.4 Hz =
40 Hz ± 1%
c) Trigger level = -0.5 cm & (+) slope.
dx360
d) Nominal value of the phase shift is θ = = 0.6(cm)x360°/5(cm) = 43°. Among the
T
two traces, the one that assumes its maximum first is called the leading trace. Hence, V1
is leading V2 (also can be said as V2 is lagging V1). The uncertainty in the phase:
2 2
⎛ ∂θ ⎞ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞ ∂θ 360 θ ∂θ 360 xd θ
(Δθ ) 2
=⎜ ⎟ (Δd ) + ⎜
2
⎟ (ΔT ) ;
2
= = and =− = − yielding
⎝ ∂d ⎠ ⎝ ∂T ⎠ ∂d T d ∂T T 2
T
2 2 2
⎛ Δθ ⎞ ⎛ Δd ⎞ ⎛ ΔT ⎞ −3
⎟ =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = (0.01) + (0.08) = 7.04 x10 and eventually Δθ = ± 8.4%, θ =
2 2
⎜
⎝ θ ⎠ ⎝ d ⎠ ⎝ T ⎠
43°± 3.6° = 43°± 8.4%. The dominant factor in Δθ/θ is Δd/d since it is much larger than ΔT/T

3.2.2.3. Triggered-Sweep Mode

The oscilloscope is either used in storage mode or in refreshed mode. The sweep signal is
applied once only in the storage mode and the traces are stored. Some cathode ray tubes have
a special function that stores the trace on the screen and holds it long enough to record the
readings or to take a picture. These tubes are rather expensive and the storage function is
mostly replaced by a digital storage system that saves the signal in electronic circuits. The
storage function is essential especially in studying transient signals that cannot be repeated.

Periodic signals are commonly used during electronic circuit design and test works. Same
events are repeated over and over. Generation of the sawtooth waveform in the time-base can
be synchronized so that the electron beam follows the same trajectory every time it crosses the
screen. This allows utilization of refreshed type CRTs that gives real-time displays of signals.
The trace will appear stationary on the screen if the repetition rate is more than 24 times a
second.

The trigger circuit is used to obtain the synchronization between the input signal and the
sweep signal as discussed in section 3.3.2. Its operation is summarized here if that section is
skipped.
 The trigger circuit generates a synchronization (trigger) pulse that initiates the sawtooth
waveform. It compares the input signal to a DC signal internally generated. The level of the
DC signal can be controlled from the front panel of the oscilloscope. It must be set to a value
between the most negative (minimum) and most positive (maximum) values of the input
signal. The input signal coincides with the threshold (trigger level) two times during the
cycle; first as it goes above the threshold (positive slope) and second time as it goes below the
threshold (negative slope). The user can select either one of them using the buttons on the
front panel.

Figure 3.10 illustrates the generation of trigger pulses and sawtooth waveforms. The top
trace exemplifies the input signal. The threshold (trigger level) signal is shown on the first
trace as the dashed line. A negative-slope triggering is used in the example and coincidences

Threshold (trigger level)

Repetitive input signal

Trigger pulses
Trace Retrace

Sweep waveform Display on

Hold-off Screen

Figure 3.10 The triggered sweep mode of operation

are marked. The trigger pulses generated are shown as the second trace. The sawtooth
waveform is also named as the sweep signal and it is the third trace.

Trigger pulses that occur during the trace and retrace phases of the sweep are ignored. In
free-running mode sweeps follow each other. The traces are drawn on the screen over each
other and they do not follow the same trajectory unless the frequency of the input signal is a
multiple of the frequency of the sweep signal. In triggered sweep mode, the second sweep is
not generated until a new trigger pulse is received. Hence, all traces follow the same trajectory
yielding a stationary display. The free-running mode is useful in determining the amplitude
range of the input signal in case the trigger threshold is set beyond this range.

The sawtooth waveform drops to zero after it reaches the maximum. This drop takes
certain amount of time depending upon the time-base circuit used. During this time the
 Basic Oscilloscope Operations / 10

electron beam flies back to the left-hand side of the screen and waits (hold-off) there until the
start of the next sweep. The electron gun in the CRT is turned-off (blanked) during the retrace
and hold-off times to avoid the retrace appearing on the screen and a strong glowing spot on
the left side of the screen. The trace, retrace and hold-off intervals are marked on the figure.
The resultant oscilloscope display is shown inside the circle.

The input signal to the trigger circuit is the signal applied to the vertical deflection plates
in Figure 3.10. In case of multi-trace oscilloscopes, any one of the signals displayed can be
used for triggering. Line voltage at 50 Hz / 60 Hz can also be selected as the source of the
trigger. This is important in applications involving the component of the 50 Hz / 60 Hz line
voltage as interference on other signals. The trigger input can be applied from outside as well.
The trigger source is selected using a selector switch on the front panel.

3.2.2.4. Operation at High Frequencies and Function of the Delay Line

There is an inevitable delay between the application of the input and appearance of the output
in all electronic circuit elements. The amount of delay depends upon the element itself and
specified by its manufacturer. In the triggered mode of operation, the input signal is applied to
the trigger circuit that derives the sawtooth waveform generator. Then, the resultant sawtooth
waveform is applied to the horizontal deflection plates via the horizontal amplifier. Hence,
there is a time delay (in the order of a few hundred nanosecond) between the coincidence of

Trigger level

T1 Input signal

Trigger pulses
T2
Sweep signal to
horizontal deflection
T3 plates

Delayed signal

Displayed signal

Figure 3.11 Function of the delay line

the input signal with the trigger level signal (trigger pick-off) and starting of the sweep on the
display. This delay may not be objectionable at low frequency applications. For example, the
period of a 1 kHz sine wave is 1 millisecond. If the delay is 100 nanosecond which is one in a
ten thousand of the period. Hence, it will not be effective on displaying the signal. However,
if we have the frequency as 10 MHz, the period of the signal is 100 nanosecond, which is the
same as the delay. A delay line is added between the vertical amplifier and the vertical
deflection plates that will delay the application of the input signal to the deflection plates by
the amount of time equal to the delay comes from the time-base circuitry. Figure 3.11
illustrates the effect of the delay line. The delay in trigger circuit is T1, delay in sawtooth
generator is T2 and delay in the horizontal amplifier is indicated as T3. The input signal is
delayed by the same amount so that the sweeps starts displaying the input signal from the
coincidence point.

3.2.3. Operation in X-Y Mode

The oscilloscope can be used to display two signals with
VV respect to each other as illustrated in Figure 3.12. The time-
base is switched-off. One of the inputs is applied to vertical
while the other one is applied to the horizontal amplifier. This
is called the X-Y mode.

If two sine waves are simultaneously applied, the resulting

VH
display in the X-Y mode is called a Lissajous pattern. The
magnitudes of signals and the phase shift between them can be
Figure 3.12 determined easily if both have the same frequency. In this
case, the pattern is a diagonal straight line, an ellipse or circle
as shown in Figure 3.13.
The operation can be studied analytically as follows: Assume that two signals vx(t) and
vy(t) are applied to horizontal and vertical deflection plates respectively as shown in the
figure. Both are sinusoidal signals with magnitudes Vx and Vy for vx(t) and vy(t) respectively.
The plot on the screen can be expressed by the parametric equation
vx(t) = Vx sin(ωt) and vy(t) = Vy sin(ωt) ............................................................... (3.1)
 Basic Oscilloscope Operations / 12

Vy(t) Vy(t) Vy(t)

Vy Vy Vy
-Vx Vx(t) Vx -Vx Vx(t)
Vx -Vx Vx(t) Vx
-Vy -Vy
-Vy
vx(t) = Vx sin(ωt) vx(t) = Vx sin(ωt) vx(t) = Vx sin(ωt)
vy(t) = Vy sin(ωt) vy(t) = -Vy sin(ωt) vy(t) = Vy sin(ωt+θ)

Figure 3.13 Displays for two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency in X-Y mode

for the first plot. This represents a straight line in the X-Y plane that can be written as
y = (Vy/Vx)x .......................................................................................................... (3.2)
The slope of the line is Vy/Vx . The middle plot has a negative slope due to the negative sign
in the definition of vy(t). There is a phase shift between the two signals in the third case. The
plot is an ellipse. If the phase shift is 90° and magnitudes are identical, then the ellipse is
converted to a circle with radius Vx = Vy.

The magnitudes of signals can be determined from the peak values of the ellipse as
shown in the previous figure. The phase shift between them is found using the magnitudes
and zero crossing for vy(t) . At t = 0, vy(t) = Vysinθ and vx(t) = 0. Hence,
sinθ = yintercept/ymax ............................................................................................... (3.3)
Both negative and positive angles lead to the same plot on the screen. Thus, it is not possible
to tell which one of the signal is leading. Following examples illustrate the utilization of the
X-Y mode.

Example 3.2
Sketch the scope waveforms:

1. In sweep mode for v1(t) = 1 sin(4000πt), v2(t) = 2 sin(4000πt + 45°) with vertical settings
0.5 V/cm for both channels, time base setting 0.1 ms/cm, screen height 8 cm, screen width
10 cm, trigger source channel-1, trigger level 0 V, and slope positive.
2. Assume the scope is switched to X-Y mode, v1(t) is applied to vertical (Y) and v2(t) to
horizontal (X) amplifiers. The settings for are 0.5 V/cm for both inputs.
The waveforms for the sweep mode of operation are shown in Figure 3.14 at the left. The
display for the X-Y mode of operation for the same signals is shown at the right in Figure
3.14.
 V2(t)

V1(t)

Figure 3.14 Display of signals in example 3.2 in sweep and X-Y modes

Example 3.3
The time-base is switched off and the
oscilloscope is switched to XY mode of Ym

operation. V1 is connected to the X input Yo

with sensitivity 0.1 V/cm, and V2 is

connected to the Y input with sensitivity 0.2 -Xm Xm
-Xo Xo
V/cm. The resulting ellipse is shown in
Figure 3.15 with marking of distances Ym,
-Yo
Y0, Xm, and X0.
-Ym
Ym = 3 cm, Y0 = 2.1 cm, Xm = 2 cm, and X0
= 1.4 cm
Figure 3.15 Measurements in X-Y mode
Similarly, -Ym = -3 cm, -Y0 = -2.1 cm, -Xm =
-2 cm, and -X0 = -1.4 cm
Phase shift between V1 and V2 : sinθ = 2.1/3
= 0.7 yielding θ = 44°

Example 3.4
The oscilloscope is switched to XY mode of
operation. V1 is connected to the X input
with sensitivity 10 mV/cm, and V2 is
connected to the Y input with sensitivity 0.5
V/cm. The resulting ellipse is shown in
Figure 3.16. Calculate
Figure 3.16 Display for example 3.4
 Basic Oscilloscope Operations / 14

a. Distances Ym, Y0, Xm, and X0.

b. Phase shift between signal in X and signal in Y.
c. Peak-to-peak values of voltage for V1 and V2
9 Distances Ym, Y0, Xm, and X0 are 2.4 cm, 1.8 cm, 3.6 cm and 2.75cm respectively
9 Phase shift between signal in X and signal in Y is θ = 180° - sin-1(Y0/Ym) = 131°
9 V1p-p= 2xXmx10 mV/cm = 72 mV p-p; V2p-p= 2.4 V p-p

If the two signals used in the X-Y mode have frequencies that are not identical, then the
resulting Lissajous patterns are not straight lines or ellipses any more. The pattern will be
stable if the frequency ratio can be expressed in a small whole number or a simple fraction.
This is used in setting the frequency of an unknown oscillator using a standard oscillator. The
frequency of the unknown is varied until a stable trace is obtained. Then, the ratio of
frequencies can be computed easily from the horizontal and vertical tangency as
fx # of vertical tan gency
= ............................................................................ (3.4)
f y # of horizontal tan gency

fx = 2fy 3fx = 4fy 3fx = 2fy 2fx = 5fy

Figure 3.17 Examples of Lissajous figures

Figure 3.17 shows four examples. The shape of the plot changes with the phase shift although
the ratio of frequencies is fixed. If the contact with the tangent is from one direction, then that
contact is counted as a half tangent. If the contact is from two directions, this is counted as a
full tangent. In the first plot at the left, the horizontal tangent has ½ tangency, while the
vertical tangent has 2x1/2 if it is taken at the left and one full tangent if it taken at the right.
Eventually, the ratio of horizontal to vertical frequencies is 2. In other plots the ratios are
found in a similar manner as 4/3, 2/3 and 5/2.
3.3. MULTI-TRACE OSCILLOSCOPES
Most laboratory oscilloscopes display two more traces simultaneously although they have a
single electron gun. Each trace can represent an independent input signal. There are identical
input connector, attenuator and amplifier for each input. Outputs of vertical amplifiers are
selected one-by-one by an electronic switch and applied to the driver amplifier for the vertical
deflection plate assembly as illustrated in Figure 3.18. There are two modes of operation of
the electronic switch as chopped and alternate. In the chopped mode, the switch runs at high

BNC connector Position Gain Electronic

Probe V/cm switch
AC
Attenuator-1 Vertical
Input to Amplifier-1
Channel-1 DC
Ground (chassis) Position Gain
To vertical
V/cm deflection
Vertical driver
Attenuator-2
Input to Amplifier-2 amplifier
Channel-2
Figure 3.18 Multi-trace operation using an electronic switch

frequency (around 500 kHz) and calls at each input for a fraction of the total sweep duration.
Hence, traces are drawn as short spots of light on the screen. For example, if we have two
input signals each at 1 kHz and the sweep rate is 500 kHz, then there are 250 spots across one
period of each trace. The illumination of the spot covers the gap between the spots. Also, the
chopping is not synchronous with the sweep leading to the dots appearing at different places
along the trajectory for successive sweeps. Hence, the traces are seen continuous at low
frequency applications. Therefore, the chopped mode is useful at low frequencies.

In the second operational mode, the switch remains in one of the channel throughout the
complete sweep duration and it picks the other one in the next sweep. Since switch displays
each channel at alternate cycles of the sweep signal, the name alternate mode is used. This is
useful at high frequency operations. Some laboratory oscilloscopes incorporate the selection
of chopped or alternate mode in the time-base switch. Only one of the input channels is used
for the trigger control in both modes. In the alternate mode if channel-1 is selected as the
trigger input, it is used even while channel-2 is displayed.
 Digital Storaage Oscilloscopes (DS
SO) / 16

3.4. DIGITAL
L STORA
AGE OSC
CILLOSCO
OPES (D
DSO)
Oscillosscopes also come in annalog and digital types. An analog oscilloscoppe works by directly
applyingg a voltage being meassured to an electron
e beaam moving across the ooscilloscopee
screen. The voltagee deflects thhe beam up and down proportional
p lly, tracing the waveforrm on
the screeen. This givves an immeediate pictuure of the waaveform as described inn previous
sectionss. In contrasst, a digital oscilloscope samples th
he waveform
m and uses an analog-tto-
digital converter
c (oor ADC) to convert
c the voltage beiing measureed into digittal informattion. It
then usees this digitaal informatiion to reconnstruct the waveform
w onn the screenn (Figure 3.19).

Figure 3.19 Digital and An

nalog Oscilloscopes Displaay Waveform
ms

For manny applicatiions either an

a analog orr digital osccilloscope will
w do. How
wever, each type
does poossess some unique chaaracteristics making it more
m or lesss suitable foor specific taasks.
People often
o preferr analog osccilloscopes when
w it is im
mportant to display rappidly varyin
ng
signals in "real tim
me" (or as theey occur). Digital
D oscillloscopes alllow us to caapture and view
v
events that
t may happpen only once.
o They can
c processs the digital waveform ddata or send
d the
data to a computer for processsing. Also, they
t can sto
ore the digitaal waveform
m data for laater
viewingg and printinng.

3.4.1. Necess sity for DS SO and Its

s Advantages
If an obj
bject passes in front of our
o eyes moore than abo
out 24 timess a second oover the sam
me
trajectorry, we cannnot follow thhe trace of the
t object an
nd we will see
s the trajeectory as a
continuoous line of action.
a Hennce, the trajeectory is sto
ored in our physiologic
p al system. This
T
principlle is used inn obtaining a stationaryy trace needeed to study waveforms in conventiional
oscilloscopes. This is however, is not possible for slowly varying signals and transients that
occur once and then disappear. Storage oscilloscopes have been developed for this purpose.

Digital storage oscilloscopes came to existence in 1971 and developed a lot since then.
They provide a superior method of trace storage. The waveform to be stored is digitized,
stored in a digital memory, and retrieved for displayed on the storage oscilloscope. The stored
waveform is continuously displayed by repeatedly scanning the stored waveform. The
digitized waveform can be further analyzed by either the oscilloscope or by loading the
content of the memory into a computer. They can present waveforms before, during and after
trigger. They provide markers, called the cursors, to help the user in measurements in
annotation (detailing) of the measured values.

3.4.2. Principles of Operation

3.4.2.1. Digitization of Analog Signals
Figure 3.20 illustrates the digitization of analog signals. The analog input signal is continuous

1111
Dynamic range
1100
Discrete value

1000
Any value

Any value

0100

Any time Discrete time Discrete time 0000

Continuous-time signal Discrete-time signal Quantized signal

Figure 3.20Principle of operation of the analog to digital conversion

in time and it can take any value at any time. This is converted to a discrete-time signal that
can accept any value but at certain times. The next stage is to divide the amplitude range into
discrete steps as well by a process called the quantization. Figure 3.20 exemplifies the
principles for a 4-bit converter in which the dynamic range (the maximum peak to peak
amplitude that the input signal can attain) is divided into 24 = 16 steps. A binary code is
assigned for each level from 0000 to 1111. Most digital storage oscilloscopes however, use 8-
bit or 9-bit converters that divide the dynamic range into 28 = 256 or 29 = 512 steps.
 Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO) / 18

3.4.2.2. Principle Diagram Representing Operation of the DSO

Vertical Data
Amplifier In Data
Td
Input Input Sample Analog-to Out
Memory
Attenuator & Digital converter
Vi Hold
Read-Write
Ti Address
Trigger
Vertical deflection
Circuit
Amplifier
Ti Cathode
aTd Ray Tube
D/A
Control
Logic
Horizontal deflection
Amplifier
Horizontal clock
Binary D/A
pulses (Digital)
Counter
aTd

Figure 3.21 Simplified block diagram of a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)

A simplified block diagram of a digital storage oscilloscope is shown in Figure 3.21. The
input circuitry of the DSO and probes used for the measurement are the same as the
conventional oscilloscopes. The input is attenuated and amplified with the input amplifiers as
in any oscilloscope. This is done to scale the input signal so that the dynamic range of the
A/D converter can be utilized maximally. Many DSOs can also operate in a conventional
mode, bypassing the digitizing and storing features. The output of the input amplifier drives
the trigger circuit that provides signal to the control logic. It is also sampled under the control
of the control logic. The sample and hold circuit takes the sample and stores it as a charge on
a capacitor. Hence, the value of the signal is kept constant during the analog to digital
conversion. The analog to digital converter (A/D) generates a binary code related to the
magnitude of the sampled signal. The speed of the A/D converter is important and “flash”
converters are mostly used. The binary code from the A/D converter is stored in the memory.
The memory consists of a bank of random access memory (RAM) integrated circuits (ICs).

3.4.2.3. The Time-Base Circuit

The control logic generates a clock signal applied to the binary counter. The counter
accumulates pulses and produces a binary output code that delivered to a digital to analog
(D/A) converter to generate the ramp signal applied to the horizontal deflection amplifier. The
horizontal deflection plates are supplied with this ramp signal to let the electron to travel
across the screen horizontally at a constant speed. The speed of the transition of electron
depends upon the slope of the ramp that is controlled by the clock rate. The capacity of the
counter is taken to have the maximum number accumulated corresponding to the rightmost
position on the screen. With the next clock pulse, the binary output of the counter drops to all
zeros yielding the termination of the ramp.

3.4.2.4. The Displayed Signal

Meanwhile, the data currently in the store is read out sequentially and the samples pass to the
second D/A converter. There they are reconstructed into a series of discrete voltage levels
forming a stepwise approximation of the original waveform. This is fed to the vertical
deflection plates via the vertical deflection amplifier. For a multi-trace oscilloscope, each
channel has the same circuitry and outputs of the D/A converters are combined in the vertical
deflection amplifier.

The delay line used in conventional oscilloscopes for synchronization is not needed in
digital storage oscilloscopes since this function can be easily handled by the control logic. The
read out and display of samples constituting the stored waveform need not occur at the same
sample rate that was used to acquire the waveform in the first place. It is sufficient to use a
display sample rate adequate to ensure that each and every trace displayed is rewritten fifty or
more times a second to prevent the flicker of the display. Eventually, the time interval of the
signal on the display is not Td of the input signal. Assume that we have a sampling rate of
1000 samples per second and we use 1000 samples for the display. The time referred to the
input signal is Td = 1 second and it takes 1 second for the DSO to store the information into
the memory. Writing to the memory and reading from the memory are independent activities.
Once the information is stored, it can be read at any rate. Assume the memory is scanned
using a clock signal of 50 kHz. Then, it takes (1/50) second to scan 1000 memory cells and
aTd which is the duration of the signal that actually appears on the screen becomes 20 milli
second.

3.4.3. Current Trends

The DSOs can work at low sweep rates allowing utilization of cheaper CRTs with wider
screen and deflection yoke (coils that provide magnetic field instead of electrical field
produced by the deflection plates). In some current DSOs, even liquid crystal displays (LCDs)
are used with television like scanning techniques. This allows the development of hand-held
and battery operated instruments.
 Problems / 20

3.5. PROBLEMS
3.5.1. Solved Examples
1. Sketch the scope waveforms for v1(t) =
1 sin(2000πt), v2(t) = 0.5 sin(2000πt-30°) CH-2

with vertical settings 0.5 V/cm and 0.2

CH-1
V/cm for channel 1 and 2 respectively, time
base setting 0.2 ms/cm, screen height 8 cm,
screen width 10 cm, trigger source channel-
1, trigger level 0 V, and slope negative.

2. The input and output to an amplifier are

two sinusoidal voltages V1 and V2
Figure for solved examples 1.
respectively. These voltages are applied to
an oscilloscope in dual-trace operation as V1 to CH-1 and V2 to CH-2. The vertical settings
for CH-1 = 20 mV/cm and CH-2 = 0.5 V/cm, time-base setting = 1 ms/cm. Assume an
uncertainty of ± 0.5 mm in all distances measured. CH-2 is used for triggering. Determine:

a. Trigger level and trigger slope, and phase shift. Does V1 leads or lags V2?
b. The period and frequency of the signals.
c. Values of voltages V1 and V2 and their uncertainties.
d. Assume that the output is applied to a resistor 1 kΩ ± 10%. Determine the RMS value
of the power delivered to the resistor and its uncertainty.

Answer
a. Trigger level is -0.75V; trigger slope (+), V1 lags V2. T=6.2 cm and d=2.3 cm leading
to θ=2πx2.3/6.2 = 2.33 rad = 133.5°
CH-2
b. The period T = 6.2 ms and
frequency f= 161 Hz. CH-1

c. V1 = (2.4 ± 0.05)x20x10-3 = (48 ±

1)mV (peak); and V2 = (3.6 ± 0.05)x0.5
= (1.8 ± 0.025)V (peak).

Figure for solved examples 2.

 2 2
V2 V peak V peak
d. P = RMS ; VRMS
2
= ; P= Assume peak value of the voltage is used.
R 2 2R
∂P V P ∂P V2 P ∂P ∂P
Then, = =2 ; = − 2 = − ; (ΔP) 2 = ( ) 2 (ΔV ) 2 + ( ) 2 (ΔR) 2 leading
∂V R V ∂R 2R R ∂V ∂R
ΔP 2 ΔV 2 ΔR 2
to ( ) = 4( ) + ( ) = 0.0108 and uncertainty in P = 10.4%. So, P= 1.62 mW ±
P V R
10.4%.

V2
V1

Figures for solved examples 3.

3. Two sinusoidal voltages are applied to an oscilloscope in dual-trace operation and X-Y
mode of operation as shown in the figures. The sensitivities are 0.1 V/cm and 0.5 V/cm for
V1 and V2 respectively. The time base sensitivity is 1 ms/cm. The trigger source is V1. In the
X-Y mode, V1 is applied to X-input and V2 is applied to the Y-input. Using both plots,
calculate
a. Peak-to-peak values for both signals
9 V1p-p = 5 cm x 0.1 V/cm = 0.5 V p-p; V2p-p = 7.6 cm x 0.5 V/cm = 3.8 V p-p
b. The frequency and time period of both signals
9 T1 = 3.1 cm x 1 ms/cm = 3.1 ms , T2 = 4.15 ms ; f1 = 1/T1 = 323 Hz, f2 = 241 Hz
c. The ratio of frequencies. f1/f2 = 4/3 as obtained from the tangents in X-Y mode

3.5.2. Questions
1. Draw a diagram showing all major blocks of the oscilloscope, and shortly describe what
does each do. Show the input and output signals in blocks related to the time-base circuitry.

2. For a cathode ray tube:

a. What are the major components? What are the factors effecting the brightness of the
trace?
 Problems / 22

b. Referring to Appendix-B: The accelerating voltage is 2,000 V, the length of deflection

plates is 4 cm and separation between plates is 1 cm.
i. What is the velocity of the electron as it enters the deflection plates?
ii. How much is the maximum deflection angle possible?
iii. What is the minimum distance required between the center of the plates and the
screen if the maximum deflection on the screen is 4 cm?
iv. How much is the voltage is required across two deflection plates to full scale
deflection?
c. What is the deflection sensitivity? What is the deflection factor?

3. The oscilloscope has a screen size of 8 cm vertically and 10 cm horizontally. Sketch the
scope waveforms for v1(t) = 1.5 sin(300πt), v2(t) = 0.5 sin(300πt-30°) on a graph paper.
Available vertical settings (V/cm): 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, and 10; horizontal
settings (s/cm): 0.001, 0.002, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1. Select vertical and
horizontal settings to obtain minimum possible measurement errors for the amplitude and
time readings. Indicate your selections. Assume trigger source is channel-1, trigger level is 0
V, and trigger slope is negative.

4. For an oscilloscope:
a. What are the parameters affected by the following knobs
i. Intensity
ii. Volts/cm
iii. Time/cm
iv. Trigger level
v. Focus?
b. What are the functions of the vertical deflection system?
c. How do you obtain a multi-trace display using a single electron gun?
5. An oscilloscope is used for the measurement of phase shift θ between two signals V1 and
V2 of the same frequency. The following results were obtained:
a. For the ellipse method [θ = sin-1(y0/ym)], y0 = (3.5 ± 0.05) cm, ym = (5 ± 0.05) cm
b. For the dual trace method [θ = 2πd/D rad]; d = (1 ± 0.05) cm, D = (8 ± 0.05) cm.
In both cases determine the phase shift θ and its uncertainty. Can any one of the methods (a)
or (b) be used to determine if V1 leads or lags V2?
6. The input and output to an
amplifier are two sinusoidal
voltages V1 and V2 V2

respectively. These voltages are

V1
applied to an oscilloscope in
dual-trace operation as V1 to
CH-1 and V2 to CH-2. The
vertical settings for CH-1 = 20
mV/cm and CH-2 = 0.5 V/cm,
time-base setting = 1 ms/cm.
Assume an uncertainty of ± 0.5
mm in all distances measured.
Figure p6.
CH-2 is used for triggering.
Determine:

a. Trigger level and trigger slope, and phase shift. Does V1 leads or lags V2?
b. The period and
frequency of the signals.
c. Values of voltages V1
and V2 and their
uncertainties.
d. Determine the gain of
the amplifier (G=V2/V1) and
its uncertainty.

7. Now the time-base is

switched off and the
oscilloscope is set to XY mode
of operation. V1 is connected to
the X input with sensitivity 20 Figure p7.
mV/cm, and V2 is connected to
the Y input with sensitivity 0.5 V/cm. Draw the resulting ellipse to the space at the right.
Mark carefully the values of distances Ym, Y0, Xm, and X0.
 Problems / 24

8. Draw the block diagram related to the trigger and time-base circuitry of the oscilloscope
including all input/output and control connections. Describe the function of each block
shortly. Show the input and output signals that would appear in the blocks.
9. For the oscilloscope, explain:
a. Functions of the intensity control and the focus adjustments;
b. Generation of the sweep signal that drives the x deflection plates of the CRT in a
digital storage oscilloscope (DSO).
c. Explain how to obtain a dual-trace display using a single electron gun;
d. The input and output to an amplifier are two sinusoidal voltages V1 and V2
respectively. These voltages are applied to an oscilloscope in dual-trace operation as V1
to CH-1 and V2 to CH-2. The vertical settings for CH-1 = 20 mV/cm and CH-2 = 0.5
V/cm, time-base setting = 2 ms/cm. Assume an uncertainty of ± 0.5 mm in all distances
measured. Determine:
i. Value of voltages (with errors) if the peak vertical deflections on the screen are 3.5
cm and 2.8 cm for CH-1 and CH-2 respectively;
ii. The gain of the amplifier and it’s uncertainty (G=V2/V1)
iii. The frequency of the signal with percentile error if one signal period is 6.2 cm.

10. For an oscilloscope:

a. What are the major components of a cathode ray tube (CRT)? What are the factors
effecting the brightness of the trace? Explain conversion of voltage into displacement in
the CRT. What is the deflection sensitivity?
b. For the digital storage oscilloscope, explain the function of sample and hold circuit
by showing typical input and output signals.
c. The triangular voltage waveform shown is applied to the oscilloscope in trigger
mode. Trigger level is “0” and slope “-”. Time-base setting = 0.5ms/div. and vertical
setting = 0.2 V/div. 1div. = 1cm. Draw the waveform carefully to the CRO screen given.
d. A sinusoidal voltage waveform with frequency 1.0 kHz is applied to the X-input and
other sinusoidal voltage waveforms with unknown frequencies are applied to the Y-input
one-by-one. Following stable figures are obtained.
 V(t)
0.6V

3 9 15
6 12 t(ms)

-0.6V

Figure p10-c.

i. Determine the frequency for each case.

11. Compute the phase shifts between X and Y for (b), (c) and (d) and write them down
below the figure.

(a) f = kHz (b) f = kHz (c) f = kHz (d) f = kHz

θ= ° θ= ° θ= °

Figure p11.

12. In the sketch shown, the vertical settings are given as 0.2 V/div and 0.5 V/div for CH-1

CH-2

CH-1

Figure p12.
 Problems / 26

and CH-2 respectively. The time base setting is 1 ms/div. CH-2 is used for triggering. The
uncertainty is ± 0.5 mm in all distances measured. Make necessary measurements and fill in
the blank spaces:
Peak to peak amplitude for CH-1: __________V; % error = _______ %
Peak to peak amplitude for CH-2: _________ V; % error = _______ %
Trigger level: ____V and slope: __
Frequency of the signal in CH-1: _____ kHz with % error = _______ %
The phase shift is: _____ degrees with % error = _______ % CH- ___ is the leading one.
Sketch the X-Y plot for the waveforms displayed. Use CH-1 for the X-input and CH-2 for the
Y-input.
13. Two sinusoidal voltages are applied to an oscilloscope in dual-trace operation. The
vertical settings are 10 mV/cm and 0.5 V/cm for CH-1 and CH-2 respectively. The time base
setting is 10 ms/cm. The trigger source is CH-2. For the dual trace shown, find
a. The peak to peak values for voltages in CH-1 and CH-2
b. The time period and frequency of both signals.
c. The trigger level and trigger slope.
d. The phase shift between V1 (CH-1) and V2 (CH-2). Does V1 leads or lags V2?

CH-2

CH-1

Figure p13.

14. Now the oscilloscope is switched to XY mode of operation. V1 is connected to the X

input with setting 10 mV/cm, and V2 is connected to the Y input with setting 0.5 V/cm.
Draw the resulting ellipse, and calculate
a. Distances Ym, Y0, Xm, and X0.
b. Phase shift between signal in X and signal in Y.
c. Peak-to-peak values of voltage for V1 and V2
15. Using the X-Y plot given, calculate the required parameters and write down the

Figure p15.

corresponding values into the fill in the blank spaces provided. The settings for both
channels is 1 V/div.
Maximum value of the signal in X: ____ V
Maximum value of the signal in Y: ____ V
The phase shift between X and Y : _____ degrees.
16. Sketch the sweep mode display for figure p15 that you would see on the oscilloscope
screen if X is applied to CH-1 and Y is applied to CH-2. Assume the frequency is 1 kHz,
time-base setting is 0.2 ms/div. Trigger source is CH-1 with 0 level and positive slope.
17. Explain the following terms related to the digital storage oscilloscope:
a. Sampling;
b. Quantization
c. Control logic
d. Digital to analog converter.
 Problems / 28

3.1.  WAVEFORM DISPLAY DEVICES ......................................................................... 1 

3.1.1.  Operating Principles of an Oscilloscope ............................................................ 2 
3.1.2.  Simplified Block Diagram of an Oscilloscope ................................................... 3 
3.2.  BASIC OSCILLOSCOPE OPERATIONS ................................................................ 4 
3.2.1.  Electrostatic Deflection ...................................................................................... 4 
3.2.2.  Operation in Sweep Mode .................................................................................. 5 
3.2.3.  Operation in X-Y Mode ................................................................................... 11 
3.3.  MULTI-TRACE OSCILLOSCOPES ...................................................................... 15 
3.4.  DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPES (DSO) .................................................. 16 
3.4.1.  Necessity for DSO and Its Advantages ............................................................ 16 
3.4.2.  Principles of Operation..................................................................................... 17 
3.4.3.  Current Trends.................................................................................................. 19 
3.5.  PROBLEMS ............................................................................................................. 20 
3.5.1.  Solved Examples .............................................................................................. 20 
3.5.2.  Questions .......................................................................................................... 21