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Porosity of Hydrocarbon Reservoir

Presentation · July 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33720.90886

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Hassan Z. Harraz
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 Prof. Dr. Hassan Z. Harraz
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University
[email protected]
Many slides contain more detailed notes that Spring 2019
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@Hassan Z. Harraz 2019 1

Reservoir Porosity
OBJECTIVES
❑To provide an understanding of
❖The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
❖The difference between original (primary) and
induced (secondary) porosity
❖The difference between Total and Effective Porosity
❖Laboratory methods of porosity determination
❖Determination of porosity from well logs
❖Discussion Topics:
• Origins and descriptions
• Factors that effect porosity
• Methods of determination

2
Outlines
❑ Introduction 1) Porosity in Sandstone:
❑ Reservoir Porosity ▪ Major Components of Sandstone
❑ Porosity Definition ▪ Sandstone Classification
❑ A Pore space ▪ Sandstones Porosity Types
❑ Rock Matrix and Pore Space ▪ Factors That Affect Porosity in Sandstones
❑ Classification of Rocks ▪ Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone
❑ Sedimentary Rock Types ▪ Grain Packing in Sandstone
❑ Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments ▪ Types of Textural Changes Sensed by the Naked Eye as
Bedding
❑ Comparison of Compositions of Clastic and Carbonate Rocks
▪ Progressive Destruction of Bedding Through Bioturbation
❑ Types Porosity:
▪ Diagenesis
I) Origins of Porosity in Clastics and Carbonates:
▪ Dual Porosity in Sandstone
1) Primary (Original) Porosity
▪ Dissolution Porosity in Sandstone
2) Secondary (Induced) Porosity
▪ The role of Rock Texture
II) Pore Space Porosity Classification:
2) Porosity in Carbonate:
1) Absolute (or Total) Porosity
▪ Carbonate Rock Classification
2) Effective Porosity
▪ Carbonates Porosity Types
❑ Porosity Calculated
▪ Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types
❑ Porosity Values
❑ Comparison of Total and Effective Porosities
❑ Reservoir Average Porosity
❑ MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY:
▪ Core samples (Laboratory)

▪ Openhole wireline logs

3
Introduction
❑Reservoir rocks may range from very loose and unconsolidated
sand to a very hard and dense sandstone, limestone, and dolomite.

❑Knowing the physical properties of the rock and the existing

interactions between the hydrocarbon system and the formation is
essential in understanding and evaluating the performance of a
given reservoir

❑Rock properties are determined by performing laboratory analysis on

cores from the reservoirs.

❑These laboratory core analysis are divided in to:

➢ routine (porosity, permeability, and saturation) and

➢ special tests (overburden pressure, capillary pressure, relative

permeability, wettability, and surface and interfacial tension)
❑The rock properties data are essential for reservoir engineering
calculations as they affect both the quantity and the distribution of
HC and with the fluid properties, control flow of existing phases
within the reservoir.

4
 Reservoir Porosity

Definition:
▪ Porosity is the fraction of a rock that is occupied by voids (pores).
▪ Ratio of the volume of space to the total volume of a rock.
▪ Porosity is expressed as a percentage (%) of the total rock which is
taken up by pore space.
▪ Porosity units are fraction or %
▪ Quantitatively
➢ Example: a sandstone may have 8% porosity……This means
92 % is solid rock and 8 % is open space containing oil, gas,
or water.
❖ The porosity is a measure of the storage capacity (pore volume)
that is capable of holding fluids
❖ Porosity of a rock is a measure of its ability to hold a fluid.
❖ Porosity is an intensive property describing the fluid storage
capacity of rock.

5
A Pore
Elements of Pore Throat:
• Size & frequency distribution-uncorrelated,
Correlated
• Connectivity of pores and throat-No of pore
throat connecting to pores
• Spatial arrangement-Arrangement of pores of
different sizes w.r.t each other

• The texture of a rock

consists of it's grain or
mineral crystal size, the
arrangement of the
grains or crystals, and
the degree of uniformity
of the grains or crystals.

6
 Rock Matrix and Pore Space

• Geologist - Rock matrix is the grains of • Water often exists as a thin film
sandstone, limestone, dolomite, and/or coating the rock grain surface.
shale that do not make up the supporting • Oil and gas occupy the larger pore
structure. spaces with a film of water between
• Engineer - Matrix is the non-pore space the rock surface and the
• Pore space is filled with fluids (water, oil, hydrocarbons.
natural gas)
Note different use of “matrix” by geologists and engineers

7
 Classification of Rocks
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids

8
9
 Sedimentary Rock Types

Relative Abundances

Clastic and Carbonate Rocks

10
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments

11
Comparison of Compositions of Clastic and
Carbonate Rocks

12
 Types Porosity

Pore Space
Genetic Porosity Porosity
Classification Classification
(Origins of Porosity in (In Terms of Fluid
Clastics and Carbonates) Properties)

1) Primary 1) Absolute (or

(Original) Porosity Total) Porosity

2) Secondary 2) Effective Porosity

(Induced) Porosity

13
 I) Origins of Porosity in Clastics and Carbonates
(Genetic Porosity Classification)

1) Primary (Original) Porosity

❑ Porosity of the rock that formed at the time of its deposition.
❑ Primary porosity of a sediment or rock consists of the spaces between the grains.
❑ Primary porosity decrease due compaction and packing of grains.
❑ Primary porosity less than one percent in crystalline rocks like granite.
❑ Developed during the deposition of the rock material (e.g., intergranular porosity of sandstone
and intercrystalline porosity of limestone).
❑ Typified by:
➢ Intergranular pores of clastics or carbonates
➢ Intercrystalline and fenestral pores of carbonates

❑ Rocks with the original porosity are more uniform in their characteristics
❑ Usually more uniform than induced porosity
❑ more than 55% in some soils

14
2) Secondary (Induced) Porosity
❑ develops after deposition of the rock.
❑Developed by some geologic processes after deposition of
the rock (diagenetic processes)
❑Examples:
➢ Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates
❑ Vugs and solution cavities in carbonate rocks created by the
chemical process of leaching.
❑ Fracture: Fracture development in some sandstones, shales,
and carbonates (Examples of geologic processes include
faulting and uplifting).

15
 II) Pore Space Porosity Classification
(In Terms of Fluid Properties)
❑Some void spaces become isolated due to excessive
cementation, thus many void spaces are interconnected
and others are isolated. This leads to the following
classification:
1) Absolute (abs) [or Total (t)] Porosity is the ratio between
the total pore volume (interconnected pores and
isolated ones) and the bulk volume of material (i.e., the
ratio of the entire pore space in a rock to its bulk
volume).

2) Effective Porosity (e)

➢is the ratio between the interconnected pore space volume and the
bulk volume,
➢indicates the percentage of the total volume of reservoir rock where
the void space is connected by flow channels.
16
Porosity Calculated

Vp is pore volume, ft3

Vb is bulk volume (Vb= Vg + Vp) or Bulk
volume of reservoir rock, ft3
Vg is grain volume, ft3
17
Absolute (φabs ) or Total Pore Volume
Total (t) Porosity =
Bulk Volume

Effective Porosity (e) = Interconne cted Pore Space

Bulk Volume

❖ Effective porosity: of great importance; contains the

mobile fluid.
❖ Production only occurs from the interconnected pore space

18
Porosity Values
❑ Porosity Values: What is good porosity?
• 0-5% - Negligible
• 5-10%- Poor
• 10-15%- Fair
• 15-20%- Good
• 20 -25% - Very good
• >25% Excellent

❑Practical Scale for cut-off for Oil:

• Sandstone ~8%
• Limestone ~5%
❑For Natural Gas the cut off is lower
Net pay: the fraction of the reservoir that has porosity above a minimum
threshold (this is the sum of the productive zones)

19
1) Porosity in Sandstone
• Sandstone usually has
regular grains; and is
referred to as a grain-stone.
• Porosity (): Determined
mainly by the packing and
mixing of grains.
• Fractures may be present.

➢ The porosity of a sandstone depends

on the packing arrangement of its
grains.

20
Sandstone Classification

21
 Four Major Components of Sandstone
1) Framework: Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
2) Matrix: Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
3) Cement: Material Precipitated Post-depositionally, During Burial. Cements
Fill Pores and Replace Framework Grains
4) Pores: Voids Among the Above Components
Geologist’s Classification

1. Framework
2. Matrix Engineering
3. Cement “matrix”
4. Pores

 Note different use of “matrix”

by geologists and engineers

22
 Sandstones Porosity Types
i) Intergranular (Primary):
Interstitial Void Space
between Framework
Grains.
ii) Micropores: Small Pores
Mainly Between detrital
Framework Grains or
Cement.
iii) Dissolution: Partial or
Complete Dissolution of or
Authigenic Grains (Can
Also Occur Within Grains)
iv) Fractures: Breakage Due
to Earth Stresses.
23
Factors That Affect Porosity in Sandstones:

i) Primary Factors:
➢ Particle sphericity and angularity
➢ Packing
➢ Sorting (variable grain sizes)
ii) Secondary (Diagenetic):
➢ Cementing materials
➢ Overburden stress (compaction)
➢ Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

24
Factors which influence clastic depositional systems

25
 Roundness and Sphericity of Clastic Grains

Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone

26
 Grain Packing in Sandstone
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts

Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact

This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)

27
 CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 48% Porosity = 27 %

Pore Volume
Porosity =
Bulk Volume
Note that for uniform-sized
=
Bulk Volume − Matrix Volume spheres with cubic packing,
Bulk Volume
porosity is independent of grain
8 r
3
− 4 /3  r
3

size.
= = 1 − = 47 . 6 %
8 r
3
2 (3 )

28
Porosity Calculations - Uniform Spheres

• Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

3
• Matrix volume = 4  r
3
• Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

29
Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres
Porosity = 14%

Mixing of larger and smaller

particles clearly has a significant
affect on porosity, reducing the
original porosity of 47.6% to 14%.
Real formations do not consist of
these perfectly shaped spheres,
but these theoretical packing
models help us understand the
effects of particle size and
distribution on porosity.

Porosity increases as the range of particle size decreases

30
Types of Textural Changes Sensed by the Naked
Eye as Bedding

31
 Progressive Destruction of
Bedding Through Bioturbation

32
 Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks

Some Diagenetic Effects Include

Compaction
Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela Photo by W. Ayers
33
 Dual Porosity in Sandstone
Dual porosity is comprised of two entirely different types of void space,
intergranular pore space, and voids in fractures:
Geologist’s Classification 1) Primary and secondary “matrix” porosity system
1. Framework 2) Fracture porosity system
2. Matrix Engineering
3. Cement “matrix”
4. Pores

Note different use of “matrix”

by geologists and engineers

34
Sandstone Composition,
Framework Grains

Average Detrital Mineral Composition of

Shale and Sandstone

35
Porosity in Sandstone

Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

36
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Offshore Alabama, USA ~ 10 mm
(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
37
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Electron Photomicrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
38
Intergranular Pore and Microporosity

Intergranular Pores
Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids

Micropores Contain
Irreducible Water

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
39
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
40
Dissolution Porosity in Sandstones

41
The role of Rock Texture…

Soi=(1-Swi) high

Soi=(1-Swi) low

42
 Poor Reservoir Rock Good Reservoir Rock
(Isolated Void Space) (Interconnected Void Space)

• This is sandstone would be an

• This sandstone would not be an acceptable reservoir rock
acceptable reservoir rock, regardless because of the interconnected
of the value of its porosity and the pore spaces and hydrocarbon
hydrocarbon saturations, because saturation.
each void space is isolated from the
• This sandstone has a high
other void spaces. absolute porosity and a high
• This sandstone has a high absolute effective porosity
porosity but a zero effective porosity

43
Pore Network-Reconstructed using thin section
IMAGE Analysis

Porosity intergranular- 0.23 Porosity intergranular- 0.37

Porosity total- 0.28 Porosity total- 0.39
Absolute Permeability- 426md Absolute Permeability- 5600md

44
2) Porosity in Carbonates

Folk Carbonate Rock Classification

45
 Dunham Carbonate Rock Classification

• Carbonate rocks are often subjected to early cementation, so reservoir

quality depends very strongly on dissolution, fracturing and dolomitization.
➢ Most carbonate reservoirs are due to secondary porosity.
• Reefs sometimes preserve primary porosity.

46
Carbonates Porosity Types
i) Interparticle porosity: Each grain
is separated, giving a similar pore
space arrangement as sandstone.
ii) Intergranular porosity: Pore
space is created inside the
individual grains which are
interconnected.
iii) Intercrystalline porosity:
Produced by spaces between
carbonate crystals.
iv) Mouldic porosity: Pores created
by the dissolution of shells, etc.
v) Fractured porosity: Pore spacing
created by the cracking of the rock
fabric.
vi) Channel porosity: Similar to
fracture porosity but larger.
vii) Vuggy porosity: Created by the
dissolution of fragments, but
unconnected.

47
 Carbonates Porosity Types
Interparticle Pores Between Particles or Grains
Intraparticle Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains

Intercrystal Pores Between Crystals

Moldic Pores Formed by Dissolution of an
Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock
Fenestral Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported
Interstices
Fracture Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock
Vug Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate
Dissolution of Cements and Grains

48
Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)

49
Carbonate Porosity - Example

50
51
 Comparison of Total and Effective Porosities
• Very clean sandstones : e → t
• Poorly to moderately well -cemented
intergranular materials: t  e
• Highly cemented materials and most
carbonates: e < t
▪ Effective porosity (e) → of great importance;
contains the mobile fluid
➢Production only occurs from the interconnected
pore space.

53
In the geology section, we show core photographs with examples of
porosity.
For now, it is useful to note these effects:

❖ Secondary (induced) porosity are more complex than primary (Original) porosity.

❖ Porosity increases as angularity of particles increases.

❖ Porosity increases as the range of particle size decreases.

❖ In contrast, porosity decreases as the volume of interstitial and cementing material increases.

❖ Porosity decreases as the compaction increases (greater depth generally means higher
overburden stresses, higher compaction forces, and lower porosity)

❖ Vugs and fractures will contribute to porosity, but to understand their affect on effective
porosity requires careful study of cores and special logging measurements.

❖ A Total Porosity less the fraction of the pore space occupied by shale or clay

❖ In very clean sands, Total Porosity is equal to Effective Porosity.

❖ Effective porosity – of great importance; contains the mobile fluid

❖ Production only occurs from the interconnected pore space.

54
 Reservoir Average Porosity
• In case of large variation in the porosity vertically
and no or small variation horizontally or parallel
to the planes, then the arithmetic average or
thickness-weighted average porosity is used:

Due to the change in sedimentation or depositional conditions can

cause porosity in one portion of the reservoir to be greatly different
from that in another area, so the areal-weighted average or the
volume-weight average can be used:

55
 MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY

• Core samples (Laboratory)

• Openhole wireline logs

56
Sandstone Porosity Measured by
Various Techniques

57
 Information From Cores*

Standard Analysis Special Core Analysis

• Porosity • Vertical permeability to air
• Relative permeability
• Horizontal permeability to
air • Capillary pressure

• Grain density • Cementation exponent (m)

and saturation exponent (n)

*Allows calibration of wireline log results

58
Coring Assembly and Core Bit

59
Coming Out of Hole
With Core Barrel

60
Whole Core
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela

Photo by W. Ayers

61
Sidewall Sampling Gun

Core bullets

Formation rock

Core sample

62
Sidewall Coring Tool

Coring bit

Samples

63
Whole Core Analysis vs. Plugs or Sidewall Cores

Whole Core Plugs or Sidewall Cores

• Provides larger samples • Smaller samples

• Less representative of
• Better and more heterogeneous formations
consistent representation
of formation • Within 1 to 2% of whole cores
for medium-to high-porosity
formation
• Better for heterogeneous
rocks or for more • In low-porosity formations, 
complex lithologies from core plugs tends to be
much greater than  from
whole cores
• Scalar effects in fractured
reservoirs

64
CORE PLUG

Sparks and Ayers, unpublished

65
 Student Questions / Answers
• intraparticle porosity in carbonates (JC1):
• vugs and fractures
• why are clays important (JC1):
• one major reason is that clays conduct electricity, this can
effect water saturation calculations if not accounted for
• fines (ABW):
• solid particles so small that they can flow with fluids through
pores - but they can also plug pore throats
• tortuousity (ABW):
• the indirect curvy flow path through the pore system to get
from point A to point B
• holocene:
• referring to the Holocene Epoch (geology) or in general
meaning about the last 10,000 years.
66
 REFERENCES:
• Bradley, H.: “Petroleum engineering handbook-chapter 26
properties of reservoir rocks”, 1987
• Ursin, J. and Zolotukhin, A.B.: “Introduction to reservoir
engineering-Fundamentals-4-fundamentals of rock
properties”, Stavanger,1997.
• Folk, R.L. (1974). Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, 2nd edn.,
Hemphill Publication Company, Texas, 182pp. ISBN:
0914696033, 9780914696032
• Folk, R.L., Ward, W.C. (1957). Brazos River bar: A study in the
significance of grain size parameters. J
• Pettijohn, F.J. (1975). Sedimentary Rocks. 2nd edition, Harper
and Row, New York, 183 pp.
• Pettijohn, F.J.; Potter, P.E., Siever, R. (1987). Sand and
Sandstones. Springer, New York, 553 pp.

67
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