2.

1 THE CONSERVATION OF MASS AND THE LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS 35

P
eople have always been fascinated by changes, particularly by changes that are
dramatic or useful. In the ancient world, the change that occurred when a stick
of wood burned, gave off heat, and turned into a small pile of ash was espe-
cially important. Similarly, the change that occurred when a reddish lump of rock
(iron ore) was heated with charcoal and produced a gray metal (iron) useful for mak-
ing weapons, tools, and other implements was of enormous value. Observing such
changes eventually caused philosophers to think about what different materials
might be composed of and led to the idea of fundamental substances that we today
call elements.
At the same time philosophers were pondering the question of elements, they
were also thinking about related matters: What is an element made of? Is matter con-
tinuously divisible into ever smaller and smaller pieces, or is there an ultimate limit?
Can you cut a piece of gold in two, take one of the pieces and cut it in two, and so on
infinitely, or is there a point at which you must stop? Most thinkers, including Plato
and Aristotle, believed that matter is continuously divisible, but the Greek philoso-
pher Democritus (460–370 B.C.) disagreed. Democritus proposed that matter is
composed of tiny, discrete particles, which we now call atoms, from the Greek word
atomos, meaning “indivisible.” Little else was learned about elements and atoms
until the birth of modern experimental science some 2000 years later.

2.1 THE CONSERVATION OF MASS AND THE

LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
The Englishman Robert Boyle (1627–1691) is generally credited with being the first to
study chemistry as a separate intellectual discipline and the first to carry out rigorous
chemical experiments. Through a careful series of researches into the nature and behav-
ior of gases, Boyle provided clear evidence for the atomic makeup of matter. In addition,
Boyle was the first to clearly define an element as a substance that cannot be chemically
broken down further and to suggest that a substantial number of different elements
might exist. Atoms of these different elements, in turn, can join together in different
ways to yield a vast number of different substances we call chemical compounds.
Progress in chemistry was slow in the decades following Boyle, and it was not
until the work of Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) that the next great leap was made.
Priestley prepared and isolated the gas oxygen in 1774 by heating the compound
mercury oxide (HgO) according to the chemical equation we would now write as
2 HgO : 2 Hg + O2.

Hg
O
O2

Hg

 Heating the red powder HgO causes it

to decompose into the silvery liquid
mercury and the colorless gas oxygen.
36 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

In this standard format for writing chemical transformations, each compound is

described by its chemical formula, which lists the symbols of its constituent ele-
ments and uses subscripts to indicate the number of atoms of each. If no subscript is
given, the number 1 is understood. Thus, sodium chloride (table salt) is written as
NaCl, water as H2O, and sucrose (table sugar) as C12H22O11. A chemical reaction is
written in a standard format called a chemical equation, in which the reactant sub-
stances undergoing change are written on the left, the product substances being
formed are written on the right, and an arrow is drawn between them to indicate the
direction of the chemical transformation.
Soon after Priestley’s discovery, Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) showed that
oxygen is the key substance involved in combustion. Furthermore, Lavoisier demon-
strated with careful measurements that when combustion is carried out in a closed
container, the mass of the combustion products exactly equals the mass of the start-
ing reactants. When hydrogen gas burns and combines with oxygen to yield water
(H2O), for instance, the mass of the water formed is equal to the mass of the hydro-
gen and oxygen consumed. Called the law of mass conservation, this principle is a
cornerstone of chemical science.

Law of Mass Conservation Mass is neither created nor destroyed in

chemical reactions.

It’s easy to demonstrate the law of mass conservation by carrying out an experi-
ment like that shown in Figure 2.1. If 3.25 g of mercury nitrate [Hg(NO3)2] and 3.32 g of
potassium iodide (KI) are each dissolved in water and the solutions are mixed, an
immediate chemical reaction occurs leading to formation of the insoluble orange solid
mercury iodide (HgI2). Filtering the reaction mixture gives 4.55 g of mercury iodide,
and evaporation of the water from the remaining solution leaves 2.02 g of potassium
nitrate (KNO3). Thus, the combined mass of the reactants (3.25 g + 3.32 g = 6.57 g) is
exactly equal to the combined mass of the products (4.55 g + 2.02 g = 6.57 g).
The combined masses of . . . equals the combined
these two reactants . . . masses of these two products.

Hg(NO3)2 + 2 KI HgI2 + 2 KNO3

Mercury Potassium Mercury Potassium
nitrate iodide iodide nitrate

Known amounts of solid KI and solid Hg(NO3)2 The solutions are mixed to give The solution that remains is evaporated to give
are weighed and then dissolved in water. solid HgI2, which is removed solid KNO3. On weighing, the combined masses
by filtration. of the products equals the combined masses of
the reactants.

Figure 2.1
An illustration of the law of mass conservation. In any chemical reaction, the combined
mass of the final products equals the combined mass of the starting reactants.
 2.2 THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS AND DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY 37

Further investigations in the decades following Lavoisier led the French chemist
Joseph Proust (1754–1826) to formulate a second fundamental chemical principle
that we now call the law of definite proportions:

Law of Definite Proportions Different samples of a pure chemical

compound always contain the same pro-
portion of elements by mass.

Every sample of water (H2O) contains 1 part hydrogen and 8 parts oxygen by
mass; every sample of carbon dioxide (CO2) contains 3 parts carbon and 8 parts oxygen
by mass; and so on. Elements combine in specific proportions, not in random proportions.

2.2 THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS AND

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
At the same time that Proust was formulating the law of definite proportions, the Eng-
lish schoolteacher John Dalton (1766–1844) was exploring along similar lines. His work
led him to propose what has come to be called the law of multiple proportions:

Law of Multiple Proportions Elements can combine in different ways to

form different chemical compounds, with
mass ratios that are small whole-number
multiples of each other.

The key to Dalton’s proposition was his realization that the same elements some-
times combine in different ratios to give different chemical compounds. For example,
nitrogen and oxygen can combine either in a 7 : 8 mass ratio to make the compound
we know today as nitric oxide (NO) or in a 7 : 16 mass ratio to make the compound
we know as nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The second compound contains exactly twice as
much oxygen as the first.

NO: 7 g nitrogen per 8 g oxygen N : O mass ratio = 7 : 8

NO2: 7 g nitrogen per 16 g oxygen N : O mass ratio = 7 : 16
 Copper metal reacts with nitric acid
Comparison of N : O ratios N : O mass ratio in NO (7 g N)>(8 g O) (HNO3) to yield the brown gas NO2.
= = 2
in NO and NO 2 N : O mass ratio in NO 2 (7 g N)>(16 g O)

This result makes sense only if we assume that matter is composed of discrete
atoms that have characteristic masses and combine with one another in specific and
well-defined ways (Figure 2.2).

Atoms of nitrogen and

oxygen can combine in
specific proportions to N + O N O
make either NO or NO2. NO2 contains
exactly twice as
many atoms of
N oxygen per atom
N + O + O O O of nitrogen as NO
does.

Figure 2.2
An illustration of Dalton’s law of multiple proportions.
38 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Taking all three laws together—the law of mass conservation, the law of definite
proportions, and the law of multiple proportions—ultimately led Dalton to propose
a new theory of matter. He reasoned as follows:
• Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms. Although Dalton didn’t know
what atoms were like, he nevertheless felt they were necessary to explain why
there were so many different elements.
• Each element is characterized by the mass of its atoms. Atoms of the same element have
the same mass, but atoms of different elements have different masses. Dalton realized
that there must be some feature that distinguishes the atoms of one element from
those of another. Because Proust’s law of definite proportions showed that ele-
ments always combine in specific mass ratios, Dalton reasoned that the
distinguishing feature among atoms of different elements must be mass.
• The chemical combination of elements to make different chemical compounds occurs when
atoms join in small whole-number ratios. Only if whole numbers of atoms combine
will different samples of a pure chemical compound always contain the same
proportion of elements by mass (the law of definite proportions and the law of
multiple proportions). Fractional parts of atoms are never involved in chemical
reactions.
 These samples of sulfur and carbon • Chemical reactions only rearrange how atoms are combined in chemical compounds; the
have different masses but contain the atoms themselves don’t change. Dalton realized that atoms must be chemically inde-
same number of atoms. structible for the law of mass conservation to be valid. If the same numbers and
kinds of atoms are present in both reactants and products, then the masses of
reactants and products must also be the same.
Not everything that Dalton proposed was correct. He thought, for instance, that
water had the formula HO rather than H2O. Nevertheless, his atomic theory of mat-
ter was ultimately accepted and came to form a cornerstone of modern chemical
science.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1

USING THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

Methane and propane are both constituents of natural gas. A sample of methane con-
tains 5.70 g of carbon atoms and 1.90 g of hydrogen atoms combined in a certain way,
whereas a sample of propane contains 4.47 g of carbon atoms and 0.993 g of hydrogen
atoms combined in a different way. Show that the two compounds obey the law of mul-
tiple proportions.

STRATEGY
Find the C : H mass ratio in each compound, and then compare the ratios to see whether
they are small whole-number multiples of each other.

SOLUTION
5.70 g C
Methane: C : H mass ratio = = 3.00
1.90 g H
4.47 g C
Propane: C : H mass ratio = = 4.50
0.993 g H
C : H mass ratio in methane 3.00 2
= =
C : H mass ratio in propane 4.50 3

쑺 PROBLEM 2.1 Compounds A and B are colorless gases obtained by combining sulfur
with oxygen. Compound A results from combining 6.00 g of sulfur with 5.99 g of oxygen,
 Sulfur burns with a bluish flame to and compound B results from combining 8.60 g of sulfur with 12.88 g of oxygen. Show
yield colorless SO2 gas. that the mass ratios in the two compounds are simple multiples of each other.
 2.3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE: ELECTRONS 39

2.3 ATOMIC STRUCTURE: ELECTRONS

Dalton’s atomic theory is fine as far as it goes, but it leaves unanswered the obvious
question: What is an atom made of? Dalton himself had no way of answering this
question, and it was not until nearly a century later that experiments by the English
physicist J. J. Thomson (1856–1940) provided some clues. Thomson’s experiments
involved the use of cathode-ray tubes (CRTs), early predecessors of the tubes found in
older televisions and computer displays.
As shown in Figure 2.3a, a cathode-ray tube is a sealed glass vessel from which the
air has been removed and in which two thin pieces of metal, called electrodes, have been
sealed. When a sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrodes, an electric cur-
rent flows through the tube from the negatively charged electrode (the cathode) to the
positively charged electrode (the anode). If the tube is not fully evacuated but still con-
tains a small amount of air or other gas, the flowing current is visible as a glow called a
cathode ray. Furthermore, if the anode has a hole in it and the end of the tube is coated
with a phosphorescent substance such as zinc sulfide, some of the rays pass through
the hole and strike the end of the tube, where they are visible as a bright spot of light—
exactly what happens in a CRT television screen or computer monitor.

(a) The electron beam ordinarily travels in a straight line. (b) The beam is deflected by either a magnetic field or an electric field.

Visible Phosphorescent
Slit cathode ray background

(−) (+)
Cathode Anode

Figure 2.3
A cathode-ray tube. In a cathode-ray tube, a stream of electrons emitted from the negatively
charged cathode passes through a slit, moves toward the positively charged anode, and is
detected by a phosphorescent strip.

Experiments by a number of physicists in the 1890s had shown that cathode rays
can be deflected by bringing either a magnet or an electrically charged plate near the
tube (Figure 2.3b). Because the beam is produced at a negative electrode and is
deflected toward a positive plate, Thomson proposed that cathode rays must consist
of tiny, negatively charged particles, which we now call electrons. Furthermore,
because electrons are emitted from electrodes made of many different metals, all
these different metals must contain electrons.
Thomson reasoned that the amount of deflection of the electron beam in a cathode-
ray tube due to a nearby magnetic or electric field should depend on three factors:
1. The strength of the deflecting magnetic or electric field. The stronger the magnet or the
higher the voltage on the charged plate, the greater the deflection.
40 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

2. The size of the negative charge on the electron. The larger the charge on the particle,
the greater its interaction with the magnetic or electric field and the greater the
deflection.
3. The mass of the electron. The lighter the particle, the greater its deflection (just as a
Ping-Pong ball is more easily deflected than a bowling ball).
By carefully measuring the amount of deflection caused by electric and magnetic
fields of known strength, Thomson was able to calculate the ratio of the electron’s
electric charge to its mass: its charge-to-mass ratio, e/m. The modern value is
e
= 1.758 820 * 108 C>g
m
where e is the magnitude of the charge on the electron in coulombs (C) and m is the
mass of the electron in grams. (We’ll say more about coulombs and electrical charge
in Chapter 17.) Note that because e is defined as a positive quantity, the actual (nega-
tive) charge on the electron is -e.
Thomson was able to measure only the ratio of charge to mass, not charge or
mass itself, and it was left to the American R. A. Millikan (1868–1953) to devise a
method for measuring the mass of an electron (Figure 2.4). In Millikan’s experiment, a
fine mist of oil was sprayed into a chamber, and the tiny droplets were allowed to fall
between two horizontal plates. Observing the spherical droplets through a telescopic
eyepiece made it possible to determine how rapidly they fell through the air, which
in turn allowed their masses to be calculated. The droplets were then given a nega-
tive charge by irradiating them with X rays. By applying a voltage to the plates, with
the upper plate positive, it was possible to counteract the downward fall of the
charged droplets and keep them suspended.

Experiment Results

1. Oil droplets were

allowed to reach their
Oil sprayed in
terminal velocity to
fine droplets calculate the mass of
Pinhole each drop.

(+) 2. The falling oil droplets

− are given a negative
charge by x-rays and are
− suspended between two
electrically charged
−
Electrically plates.
charged
brass plates
Conclusion
(−)
3. The charge on the drop
can be calculated from
Charged oil the mass of the drop and
−
droplet under Telescopic the voltage on the plates.
observation eyepiece

Figure 2.4
Millikan’s oil drop experiment.

With the voltage on the plates and the mass of the droplets known, Millikan
was able to show that the charge on a given droplet was always a small whole-
number multiple of e, whose modern value is 1.602 176 * 10-19 C. Substituting the
 2.4 ATOMIC STRUCTURE: PROTONS AND NEUTRONS 41

value of e into Thomson’s charge-to-mass ratio then gives the mass m of the elec-
tron as 9.109 382 * 10-28 g:
e
Because = 1.758 820 * 108 C>g
m
e 1.602 176 * 10-19 C
then m = =
1.758 820 * 108 C>g 1.758 820 * 108 C>g

= 9.109 382 * 10-28 g

2.4 ATOMIC STRUCTURE:

PROTONS AND NEUTRONS
Think about the consequences of Thomson’s cathode-ray experiments. Because mat-
ter is electrically neutral overall, the fact that the atoms in an electrode can give off
negatively charged particles (electrons) must mean that those same atoms also con-
tain positively charged particles for electrical balance. The search for those positively ++
charged particles and for an overall picture of atomic structure led to a landmark
experiment published in 1911 by the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford An alpha particle
(1871–1937). (relative mass = 7000;
Rutherford’s work involved the use of alpha (a) particles, a type of emission previ- charge = +2e)
ously found to be given off by a number of naturally occurring radioactive elements, −
including radium, polonium, and radon. Rutherford knew that alpha particles are An electron
about 7000 times more massive than electrons and that they have a positive charge (relative mass = 1;
that is twice the magnitude of the charge on an electron, but opposite in sign. charge = −1e)
When Rutherford directed a beam of alpha particles at a thin gold foil, he found
that almost all the particles passed through the foil undeflected. A very small num-
ber, however (about 1 of every 20,000), were deflected at an angle, and a few actually
bounced back toward the particle source (Figure 2.5).

Experiment Conclusion
Because the majority of particles are not deflected, the gold atoms
Radioactive sample emits must be almost entirely empty space. The atom’s mass is concentrated
beam of alpha particles in a tiny dense core, which deflects the occasional alpha particle.
Zinc sulfide
screen

Lead block Gold foil A closeup view shows

shield how most of an atom
α is empty space and
only alpha particles
Gold foil α that strike a nucleus
are deflected.
α

α
Some alpha Most alpha α
particles particles hit α
are deflected here
Nucleus
Results
Surrounding Gold atom
When a beam of alpha particles is directed at a thin gold foil, most electrons
particles pass through undeflected, but some are deflected at large
angles and a few bounce back toward the particle source.

Figure 2.5
Rutherford’s scattering experiment.
42 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Rutherford explained his results by proposing that a metal atom must be almost
entirely empty space and have its mass concentrated in a tiny central core that he
called the nucleus. If the nucleus contains the atom’s positive charges and most of its
mass, and if the electrons are a relatively large distance away, then it is clear why the
observed scattering results are obtained: most alpha particles encounter empty space
as they fly through the foil. Only when a positive alpha particle chances to come near
a small but massive positive nucleus is it repelled strongly enough to make it bounce
backward.
Modern measurements show that an atom has a diameter of roughly 10-10 m and
that a nucleus has a diameter of about 10-15 m. It’s difficult to imagine from these
numbers alone, though, just how small a nucleus really is. For comparison purposes,
if an atom were the size of a large domed stadium, the nucleus would be approxi-
 The relative size of the nucleus in an
atom is roughly the same as that of a pea mately the size of a small pea in the center of the playing field.
in the middle of this huge stadium. Further experiments by Rutherford and others between 1910 and 1930 showed
that a nucleus is composed of two kinds of particles, called protons and neutrons.
Protons have a mass of 1.672 622 * 10-24 g (about 1836 times that of an electron) and
are positively charged. Because the charge on a proton is opposite in sign but equal
in size to that on an electron, the numbers of protons and electrons in a neutral atom
are equal. Neutrons (1.674 927 * 10-24 g) are almost identical in mass to protons but
carry no charge, and the number of neutrons in a nucleus is not directly related to the
numbers of protons and electrons. Table 2.1 compares the three fundamental sub-
atomic particles, and Figure 2.6 gives an overall view of the atom.

TABLE 2.1 A Comparison of Subatomic Particles

Mass Charge
Particle grams amu* coulombs e
-28 -4 -19
Electron 9.109 382 * 10 5.485 799 * 10 -1.602 176 * 10 -1
Proton 1.672 622 * 10-24 1.007 276 +1.602 176 * 10-19 +1
Neutron 1.674 927 * 10-24 1.008 665 0 0

* The atomic mass unit (amu) is defined in Section 2.6.

Proton
(positive charge)

Neutron
(no charge)

Approximately 10−10 m Approximately 10−15 m

Volume occupied by negatively
charged electrons

A number of electrons equal to the number The protons and neutrons in the nucleus take
of protons move about the nucleus and up very little volume but contain essentially all
account for most of the atom’s volume. the atom’s mass.
Figure 2.6
A view of the atom.
 2.5 ATOMIC NUMBERS 43

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2

CALCULATIONS USING ATOMIC SIZE

Ordinary “lead” pencils actually are made of a form of carbon called graphite. If
a pencil line is 0.35 mm wide and the diameter of a carbon atom is 1.5 * 10-10 m, how
many atoms wide is the line?

STRATEGY
Begin with the known information, and set up an equation using appropriate conver-
sion factors so that the unwanted units cancel. In this example, let’s begin with the
width of the pencil line in millimeters, then convert to meters, and then divide the line
width in meters by the diameter of a single atom in meters.

SOLUTION

1m 1 atom
Atoms = 0.35 mm * * = 2.3 * 106 atoms
1000 mm -10
1.5 * 10 m
BALLPARK CHECK
A single carbon atom is about 10-10 m across, so it takes 1010 carbon atoms placed side
by side to stretch 1 m, 107 carbon atoms to stretch 1 mm, and about 0.3 * 107 (or 3 * 106;
3 million) carbon atoms to stretch 0.35 mm. The estimate agrees with the solution.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.2 The gold foil Rutherford used in his scattering experiment had a thick-
ness of approximately 0.005 mm. If a single gold atom has a diameter of 2.9 * 10-8 cm,
how many atoms thick was Rutherford’s foil?

쑺 PROBLEM 2.3 A small speck of carbon the size of a pinhead contains about 1019
atoms, the diameter of a carbon atom is 1.5 * 10-10 m, and the circumference of the Earth
at the equator is 40,075 km. How many times around the Earth would the atoms from this
speck of carbon extend if they were laid side by side?

2.5 ATOMIC NUMBERS

Thus far, we’ve described atoms only in general terms and have not yet answered
the most important question: What is it that makes one atom different from
another? How, for example, does an atom of gold differ from an atom of carbon?
The answer turns out to be quite simple. Elements differ from one another according to
the number of protons in their atoms’ nuclei, a value called the element’s atomic num-
ber (Z). That is, all atoms of a given element contain the same number of protons in
their nuclei. All hydrogen atoms, atomic number 1, have 1 proton; all helium
atoms, atomic number 2, have 2 protons; all carbon atoms, atomic number 6, have
6 protons; and so on. In addition, every neutral atom contains a number of elec-
trons equal to its number of protons.

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons in an atom’s nucleus

= Number of electrons around an atom’s nucleus

1+ 1– 6+ 6– 79+ 79–

A hydrogen atom A carbon atom A gold atom

(1 proton; 1 electron) (6 protons; 6 electrons) (79 protons; 79 electrons)
44 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

In addition to protons, the nuclei of all atoms (other than hydrogen) also contain
neutrons. The sum of the numbers of protons (Z) and neutrons (N) in an atom is
called the atom’s mass number (A). That is, A = Z + N.

Mass Number (A) = Number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (N)

Most hydrogen atoms have 1 proton and no neutrons, so their mass number is
A = 1 + 0 = 1. Most helium atoms have 2 protons and 2 neutrons, so their mass
number is A = 2 + 2 = 4. Most carbon atoms have 6 protons and 6 neutrons, so
their mass number is A = 6 + 6 = 12; and so on. Except for hydrogen, stable atoms
always contain at least as many neutrons as protons, although there is no simple way
to predict how many neutrons a given atom will have.
Notice that we said most hydrogen atoms have mass number 1, most helium
atoms have mass number 4, and most carbon atoms have mass number 12. In fact,
different atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers depending on
how many neutrons they have. Atoms with identical atomic numbers but different
mass numbers are called isotopes. Hydrogen, for example, has three isotopes.

+ 1– + 1– + 1–

Protium—one proton Deuterium—one proton Tritium—one proton

( ) and no neutrons; ( ) and one neutron ( ); ( ) and two neutrons ( );
mass number = 1 mass number = 2 mass number = 3

All hydrogen atoms have 1 proton in their nucleus (otherwise they wouldn’t be
hydrogen), but 99.985% of them have no neutrons. These hydrogen atoms, called
protium, have mass number 1. In addition, 0.015% of hydrogen atoms, called deuterium,
have 1 neutron and mass number 2. Still other hydrogen atoms, called tritium, have
2 neutrons and mass number 3. An unstable, radioactive isotope, tritium occurs only in
trace amounts on Earth but is made artificially in nuclear reactors. As other examples,
there are 15 known isotopes of nitrogen, only 2 of which occur naturally on Earth, and
25 known isotopes of uranium, only 3 of which occur naturally. In total, more than
3600 isotopes of the 118 known elements have been identified.
A specific isotope is represented by showing its element symbol, along with its
mass number as a left superscript and its atomic number as a left subscript. Thus,
protium is represented as 11H, deuterium as 21H, and tritium as 31H. Similarly, the two
naturally occurring isotopes of nitrogen are represented as 147N (spoken as “nitrogen-
14”) and 157N (nitrogen-15). The number of neutrons in an isotope is not given
explicitly but can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number (subscript) from
the mass number (superscript). For example, subtracting the atomic number 7 from
the mass number 14 indicates that a 147N atom has 7 neutrons.

Mass number (number

of protons plus neutrons)
14
7N
Element symbol
Atomic number (number
of protons or electrons)

The number of neutrons in an atom has relatively little effect on the atom’s chem-
ical properties. The chemical behavior of an element is determined almost entirely by
the number of electrons it has, which in turn is determined by the number of protons
in its nucleus. All three isotopes of hydrogen therefore behave similarly (although
not identically) in their chemical reactions.
 2.6 ATOMIC MASSES AND THE MOLE 45

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.3

INTERPRETING AN ISOTOPE SYMBOL

235
The isotope of uranium used to generate nuclear power is 92U. How many protons,
neutrons, and electrons does an atom of 235
92U have?

STRATEGY
The atomic number (subscript 92) in the symbol 235
92U indicates the number of protons
and electrons in the atom. The number of neutrons is the difference between the mass
number (superscript 235) and the atomic number (92).
SOLUTION
An atom of 235
92U has 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 235 - 92 = 143 neutrons.  Uranium-235 is used as fuel in this
nuclear-powered icebreaker.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.4

WRITING AN ISOTOPE SYMBOL

Element X is toxic to humans in high concentration but is essential to life in low concen-
trations. Identify element X, whose atoms contain 24 protons, and write the symbol for
the isotope of X that has 28 neutrons.
STRATEGY
The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is the element’s atomic number. The mass
number is the sum of the atomic number and the number of neutrons.
SOLUTION
According to the periodic table, the element with atomic number 24 is chromium (Cr).
The particular isotope of chromium in this instance has a mass number of 24 + 28 = 52
and is written 52
24Cr.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.4 The isotope 75

34Se is used medically for the diagnosis of pancreatic
disorders. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons does an atom of 75
34Se have?

쑺 PROBLEM 2.5 Chlorine, one of the elements in common table salt (sodium chloride),
has two main isotopes, with mass numbers 35 and 37. Look up the atomic number of
chlorine, tell how many neutrons each isotope contains, and give the standard symbol
for each.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.6 An atom of element X contains 47 protons and 62 neutrons. Identify

the element, and write the symbol for the isotope in the standard format.

2.6 ATOMIC MASSES AND THE MOLE

Pick up a pencil, and look at the small amount of tip visible. How many atoms (pen-
cil lead is made of carbon) do you think are in the tip? One thing is certain: atoms are
so tiny that the number needed to make a visible sample is enormous. In fact, even
the smallest speck of dust visible to the naked eye contains at least 1017 atoms. Thus,
the mass in grams of a single atom is much too small a number for convenience so
chemists use a unit called an atomic mass unit (amu), also called a dalton (Da) in bio-
logical work. One amu is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of an atom of 126C and is
equal to 1.660 539 * 10-24 g.

Mass of one 126C atom = 12 amu (exactly)

Mass of one 126C atom
1 amu = = 1.660 539 * 10-24 g
12
Because the mass of an atom’s electrons is negligible compared to the mass of its
protons and neutrons, defining 1 amu as 1/12 the mass of a 126C atom means that pro-
tons and neutrons both have a mass of almost exactly 1 amu (Table 2.1 on page 42).
46 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Thus, the mass of a specific atom in atomic mass units—called the atom’s isotopic
mass—is numerically close to the atom’s mass number. A 11H atom, for instance, has a
mass of 1.007 825 amu; a 23592U atom has a mass of 235.043 930 amu; and so forth.
Most elements occur naturally as a mixture of different isotopes. Thus, if you
look at the periodic table inside the front cover, you’ll see listed below the symbol for
each element a value called the element’s atomic mass, or atomic weight. The unit amu
is understood but not specified.

6 Atomic number

C Symbol

12.011 Atomic mass

An element’s atomic mass is the weighted average of the isotopic masses of the
element’s naturally occurring isotopes. Carbon, for example, occurs on Earth as a
mixture of two major isotopes, 126C (98.89% natural abundance) and 136C (1.11% natu-
ral abundance). Although the isotopic mass of any individual carbon atom is either
12 amu (a carbon-12 atom) or 13.0034 amu (a carbon-13 atom), the average isotopic
mass—that is, the atomic mass—of a large collection of carbon atoms is 12.011 amu.
A third carbon isotope, 146C, also exists, but its natural abundance is so small that it
can be ignored when calculating atomic mass.
Atomic mass of C = (Mass of 126C)(Abundance of 126C) + (Mass of 136C)(Abundance of 136C)
= (12 amu)(0.9889) + (13.0034 amu)(0.0111)
= 11.867 amu + 0.144 amu = 12.011 amu

A particularly useful point about atomic masses is that they act as conversion fac-
tors between numbers of atoms and masses; that is, they allow us to count a large
number of atoms by weighing a sample of the substance. For instance, knowing that
carbon has an atomic mass of 12.011 amu lets us calculate that a small pencil tip
made of carbon and weighing 15 mg (1.5 * 10-2 g) contains 7.5 * 1020 atoms:

ba b = 7.5 * 1020 C atoms

1 amu 1 C atom
(1.5 * 10-2 g)a -24
1.6605 * 10 g 12.011 amu

As another example, the fact that the atomic mass of silver is 107.868 amu means
that a silver ring weighing 1.872 g contains 1.045 * 1022 silver atoms:
1 Ag atom
ba b = 1.045 * 1022 Ag atoms
1 amu
(1.872 g)a -24
1.6605 * 10 g 107.868 amu

Let’s think some more about what it means to be able to count atoms using atomic
masses. As we’ve just seen, the total mass of a given number of atoms is the atom’s
atomic mass times the number of atoms. Thus, if you have two samples of different ele-
ments that both contain the same number of atoms, then the ratio of masses of the two
samples is the same as the ratio of their atomic masses. Take carbon and silver, for
instance. The average mass ratio of one carbon atom (12.011 amu) to one silver atom
(107.868 amu) is 12.011 : 107.868, so the mass ratio of any given number of C atoms to
the same number of Ag atoms is always 12.011 : 107.868. Furthermore, the numerical
value of the ratio is the same regardless of the mass units used. That is, 12.011 amu of
carbon contains exactly the same number of atoms as 107.868 amu of silver, and 12.011
grams of carbon contains exactly the same number of atoms as 107.868 grams of silver.

12.011 amu 12.011 mg 12.011 g 12.011 kg

= = = = 0.111 35
107.868 amu 107.868 mg 107.868 g 107.868 kg

When referring to the enormous numbers of atoms that make up the visible
amounts we typically deal with, chemists use the fundamental SI unit for amount
called a mole, abbreviated mol. One mole of any element is the amount whose mass in
 2.6 ATOMIC MASSES AND THE MOLE 47

grams, called its molar mass, is numerically equal to its atomic mass. One mole of
carbon atoms has a mass of 12.011 g, one mole of silver atoms has a mass of 107.868 g,
and so on. Molar mass thus acts as a conversion factor that lets you convert between
mass in grams and number of atoms. Whenever you have the same number of moles
of different elements, you also have the same number of atoms.
How many atoms are there in a mole? Experiments show that one mole of any
element contains 6.022 141 * 1023 atoms, a value called Avogadro’s number, abbre-
viated NA, after the Italian scientist who first recognized the importance of the
mass/number relationship. Avogadro’s number of atoms of any element—that is,
one mole—has a mass in grams equal to the element’s atomic mass.
It’s hard to grasp the magnitude of a quantity as large as Avogadro’s number, but
some comparisons might give you a sense of scale: The age of the universe in
seconds (13.7 billion years, or 4.32 * 1017 s) is less than a millionth the size of
Avogadro’s number. The number of milliliters of water in the world’s oceans
(1.3 * 10 24 mL) is only twice the size of Avogadro’s number. The mass of the Earth
in kilograms (5.98 * 1024 kg) is only ten times Avogadro’s number, and so on.
Age of Earth (seconds)
Amount of water in
world’s oceans (liters) Population of Earth
 These samples of helium, sulfur,
copper, and mercury each contain 1 mole.
Avogadro’s number: 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 Do they have the same mass?

Distance from Earth Average college tuition

to sun (centimeters) (U.S. dollars)

We’ll return to the mole and see its uses in Section 3.3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.5

CALCULATING AN ATOMIC MASS

Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes: 35
17C1, with a natural abundance of
75.76% and an isotopic mass of 34.969 amu, and 37 17Cl, with a natural abundance
of 24.24% and an isotopic mass of 36.966 amu. What is the atomic mass of chlorine?
STRATEGY
The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the isotopic masses, which
equals the sum of the masses of each isotope times the natural abundance of that isotope:
Atomic mass = A Mass of 35
17Cl B A Abundance of 17Cl B
35

+ A Mass of 37
17Cl B A Abundance of 17Cl B
37

SOLUTION
Atomic mass = (34.969 amu)(0.7576) + (36.966 amu)(0.2424) = 35.45 amu
BALLPARK CHECK
The atomic mass is somewhere between 35 amu and 37 amu, the masses of the two
individual isotopes, and is closer to 35 amu, the mass of the more abundant isotope—
perhaps about 35.5 amu.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.6

CONVERTING FROM MASS TO NUMBERS OF MOLES AND ATOMS

How many moles and how many atoms of silicon are in a sample weighing 10.53 g?
The atomic mass of silicon is 28.0855 amu.
STRATEGY
The fact that the atomic mass of silicon is 28.0855 amu means that 1 mol of silicon has a
mass of 28.0855 g. Use this molar mass to convert between mass and number of moles,
and then use Avogadro’s number to find the number of atoms.
continued on the next page
48 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

SOLUTION

b = 0.3749 mol Si
1 mol Si
(10.53 g Si)a
28.0855 g Si

6.022 * 1023 atoms Si

(0.3749 mol Si)a b = 2.258 * 1023 atoms Si
1 mol Si
BALLPARK CHECK
A mass of 10.53 g of silicon is a bit more than 1/3 the molar mass of silicon
(28.0855 g/mol), so the sample contains a bit more than 0.33 mol. This number of
moles, in turns, contains a bit more than 1/3 of Avogadro’s number of atoms, or about
2 * 1023 atoms.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.7 Copper metal has two naturally occurring isotopes: copper-63
(69.15%; isotopic mass = 62.93 amu) and copper-65 (30.85%; isotopic mass = 64.93 amu).
Calculate the atomic mass of copper, and check your answer in a periodic table.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.8 Based on your answer to Problem 2.7, how many atoms of copper are
in an old penny made of pure copper and weighing 2.15 g?

쑺 PROBLEM 2.9 What is the mass in grams of each of the following samples?
(a) 1.505 mol of Ti (b) 0.337 mol of Na (c) 2.583 mol of U

쑺 PROBLEM 2.10 How many moles are in each of the following samples?
(a) 11.51 g of Ti (b) 29.127 g of Na (c) 1.477 kg of U

2.7 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY: THE CHANGE

OF ONE ELEMENT INTO ANOTHER
We saw at the beginning of this chapter, and we’ll see repeatedly throughout the
book, that the identities of atoms don’t change when different chemical substances
react with one another to give products. When natural gas (methane; CH4) burns in
oxygen, for instance, the C, H, and O atoms combine in a different way to yield carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), but they still remain C, H, and O atoms. When metal-
lic sodium (Na) reacts with gaseous chlorine atoms (Cl), solid sodium chloride (NaCl)
forms but the Na and Cl atoms remain the same. Yet anyone who reads a newspaper
or watches television knows that atoms can change identity, resulting in the conver-
sion of one element into another. Atomic weapons, nuclear energy, and radioactive
radon gas in our homes are all topics of societal importance, and all involve nuclear
chemistry—the study of the properties and changes of atomic nuclei.
Take the element carbon, for example. There are 15 known isotopes of carbon,
two of which occur commonly (12C and 13C) and one of which (14C) is produced in
small amounts in the upper atmosphere by the action of cosmic rays on 14N atoms.
The remaining 12 carbon isotopes have been produced artificially. Only the two com-
monly occurring isotopes are stable; the other 13 undergo spontaneous changes to
their nuclei. Carbon-14, for instance, slowly decays to give nitrogen-14 plus an elec-
tron, a process we can write as the following nuclear equation (as opposed to a
chemical equation, described previously in Section 2.1).
14
6C : 147N + 0
-1e

In a nuclear equation, the element symbols represent only the nuclei of atoms
rather than the entire neutral atoms, so the subscript represents only the number of
nuclear charges (protons). An emitted electron is written as -10 e, where the super-
script 0 indicates that the mass of an electron is essentially zero when compared to
that of a proton or neutron, and the subscript indicates that the charge is -1.
Nuclear reactions, such as the spontaneous change of 14C to 14N, are distinguished
from chemical reactions, such as that of sodium with chlorine, in several ways:
 2.8 RADIOACTIVITY 49

• A nuclear reaction involves a change in an atom’s nucleus, usually producing a

different element. A chemical reaction, by contrast, involves only a change in the
way that different atoms are combined. A chemical reaction never changes the
nuclei themselves or produces a different element.
• Different isotopes of an element have essentially the same behavior in chemical
reactions but often have completely different behavior in nuclear reactions.
• The energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction is far greater than that
accompanying a chemical reaction. The nuclear transformation of 1.0 g of
uranium-235 (23592U) releases more than one million times as much energy as the
chemical combustion of 1.0 g of methane.

2.8 RADIOACTIVITY
Scientists have known since 1896 that many nuclei are radioactive—they undergo a
spontaneous decay and emit some form of radiation. Early studies of radioactive iso-
topes, or radioisotopes, by Ernest Rutherford in 1897 showed that there are three
common types of radiation with markedly different properties: alpha (a), beta ( b ),
and gamma (g) radiation, named after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet.

Alpha (a) Radiation

Using the simple experiment shown in Figure 2.7, Rutherford found that a radiation
consists of a stream of particles that are repelled by a positively charged electrode,
attracted by a negatively charged electrode, and have a mass-to-charge ratio identify-
ing them as helium nuclei, 42He2+. Alpha particles thus consist of two protons and
two neutrons.

Figure 2.7
Beta radiation is strongly deflected The effect of an electric field on a, b,
toward the positive electrode. and g radiation.

β rays
+

Gamma radiation
is undeflected.

γ rays

−
α rays
The radioactive source in the shielded
Alpha radiation is deflected
box emits radiation, which passes
toward the negative electrode.
between two electrodes.

Because the emission of an  particle from a nucleus results in a loss of two pro-
tons and two neutrons, it reduces the mass number of the nucleus by 4 and reduces
the atomic number by 2. Alpha emission is particularly common for heavy radio-
active isotopes. Uranium-238, for example, spontaneously emits an  particle and
forms thorium-234.
2 protons 90 protons
2 neutrons 144 neutrons
4 nucleons 234 nucleons
92 protons
146 neutrons
238 nucleons
238 4 234
92 U 2 He + 90 Th
50 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Note how the nuclear equation for the radioactive decay of uranium-238 is writ-
ten. The equation is said to be balanced because the total number of neutrons and
protons, collectively called nucleons, or nuclear particles, is the same on both sides
of the equation and the number of charges on the nuclei and on any elementary
particles (protons and electrons) is the same on both sides. In the decay of 23892U to
give 42He and 234
90 Th, for instance, there are 238 nucleons and 92 nuclear charges on
both sides of the equation.

Beta (b) Radiation

Further work by Rutherford in the late 1800s showed that b radiation consists of a
stream of particles that are attracted to a positive electrode (Figure 2.7), repelled by a
negative electrode, and have a mass-to-charge ratio identifying them as electrons, -10e
or b-. Beta emission occurs when a neutron in the nucleus spontaneously decays into
a proton plus an electron, which is then ejected. The product nucleus has the same
mass number as the starting nucleus because a neutron has turned into a proton, but
it has a higher atomic number because it has the newly created proton. The reaction
of 131I to give 131Xe is an example:
54 protons
77 neutrons 0 nucleons
131 nucleons but −1 charge
53 protons
78 neutrons
131 nucleons
131 131 0
53 I 54 Xe + −1 e

Writing the emitted b particle as -10e in the nuclear equation makes clear the
charge balance of the nuclear reaction. The subscript in the 13153I nucleus on the left
(53) is balanced by the sum of the two subscripts on the right (54 - 1 = 53).

Gamma (g) Radiation

Gamma (g) radiation is unaffected by either electric or magnetic fields (Figure 2.7)
and has no mass. Like visible light, ultraviolet rays, and X rays, g radiation is simply
electromagnetic radiation of very high energy, which we’ll discuss in more detail in
Section 5.1. Gamma radiation almost always accompanies a and b emission as a
mechanism for the release of energy, but it is often not shown when writing nuclear
equations because it changes neither the mass number nor the atomic number of the
product nucleus.

Positron Emission and Electron Capture

In addition to a, b, and g radiation, two other types of radioactive decay processes
also occur commonly: positron emission and electron capture. Positron emission occurs
when a proton in the nucleus changes into a neutron plus an ejected positron (+10e or
b+), a particle that can be thought of as a positive electron. A positron has the
same mass as an electron but an opposite charge.
The result of positron emission is a decrease in the atomic number of the product
nucleus but no change in the mass number. Potassium-40, for example, undergoes
positron emission to yield argon-40, a nuclear reaction important in geology for dating
rocks. Note once again that the sum of the two subscripts on the right of the nuclear
equation (18 + 1 = 19) is equal to the subscript in the 40
19K nucleus on the left.
18 protons
22 neutrons 0 nucleons
40 nucleons but +1 charge
19 protons
21 neutrons
40 nucleons
40 40 0
19 K 18 Ar + 1 e
 2.8 RADIOACTIVITY 51

You might already know that the acronym PET used in medical imaging stands
for positron emission tomography. A chemical compound containing a positron-
emitting isotope, usually 18F, is injected into the body and accumulates at a certain
site, such as in a tumor. When decay occurs, the emitted positron reacts with a nearby
electron and is instantly annihilated, releasing gamma rays whose position in the
body can be detected.
Electron capture is a process in which the nucleus captures one of the surrounding
electrons in an atom, thereby converting a proton into a neutron. The mass number of
the product nucleus is unchanged, but the atomic number decreases by 1, just as in
positron emission. The conversion of mercury-197 into gold-197 is an example:
79 protons
Inner-shell 118 neutrons
electron 197 nucleons
80 protons
117 neutrons  A PET scan of a 62 year old man with a
197 nucleons brain tumor, as indicated by the yellow
197 0 197 and orange area in the lower left portion
80 Hg  –1 e 79 Au
of the brain.
Characteristics of the different kinds of radioactive decay processes are summa-
rized in Table 2.2.

TABLE 2.2 A Summary of Radioactive Decay Processes

Change in Change in Change in
Process Symbol Atomic Number Mass Number Neutron Number
4
Alpha emission 2He or a -2 -4 -2
0 -
Beta emission -1e or b +1 0 -1
0
Gamma emission 0g or g 0 0 0
0 +
Positron emission 1e or b -1 0 +1
Electron capture E. C. -1 0 +1

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.7

BALANCING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

Write a balanced nuclear equation for each of the following processes:
(a) Alpha emission from curium-242: 242 4
96Cm : 2He + ?
(b) Beta emission from magnesium-28: 28 0
12Mg : -1e + ?
118 0
(c) Positron emission from xenon-118: 54Xe : 1e + ?

STRATEGY
The key to writing nuclear equations is to make sure that the number of nucleons is the
same on both sides of the equation and that the number of nuclear charges plus elec-
tron or positron charges is the same.

SOLUTION
(a) In  emission, the mass number decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by
2, giving plutonium-238: 242 4 238
96Cm : 2He + 94Pu
(b) In  emission, the mass number is unchanged and the atomic number increases by
1, giving aluminum-28: 28 0 28
12Mg : -1e + 13Al
(c) In positron emission, the mass number is unchanged and the atomic number
decreases by 1, giving iodine-118: 118 0 118
54Xe : 1e + 53I
52 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

쑺 PROBLEM 2.11 Write a balanced nuclear equation for each of the following processes:
(a) Beta emission from ruthenium-106: 106 0
44Ru : -1e + ?
(b) Alpha emission from bismuth-189: 189 4
83Bi : 2He + ?
(c) Electron capture by polonium-204: 84Po + -10e : ?
204

쑺 PROBLEM 2.12 What particle is produced by decay of thorium-214 to radium-210?

214 210
90Th : 88Ra + ?

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM 2.13 Identify the isotopes involved, and tell what type of
decay process is occurring in the following nuclear reaction:

81

Neutrons
80

79
67 68 69
Atomic number

2.9 NUCLEAR STABILITY

Why do some nuclei undergo spontaneous radioactive decay while others do not?
Why, for instance, does a carbon-14 nucleus, with 6 protons and 8 neutrons, sponta-
neously emit a b particle, whereas a carbon-13 nucleus, with 6 protons and 7
neutrons, is nonradioactive?
The answer has to do with the neutron/proton ratio in the nucleus and with the
forces holding the nucleus together. To see the effect of the neutron/proton ratio on
nuclear stability, look at the grid in Figure 2.8. Numbers on the side of the grid give
the number of neutrons in different nuclei, and numbers along the bottom give the

200 The “island of

stability” near
180 114 protons and
Combinations outside the
band are not stable enough 184 neutrons
160 corresponds to
to be detected.
a group of
Number of neutrons (N)

140 superheavy
Band of stability
nuclei that are
120 predicted to be
radioactive but
100 stable enough to
be detected. The
80 first member of
this group was
60 reported in 1999.
1:1 neutron/proton ratio
40
Figure 2.8
The band of nuclear stability. The band 20
indicates various neutron/proton
combinations that give rise to nuclei that 0
are either nonradioactive or that are 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
radioactive but decay slowly enough to Number of protons (Z)
exist for a measurable time.
 2.9 NUCLEAR STABILITY 53

number of protons. The first 92 elements are naturally occurring, while the remain-
der are the artificially produced transuranium elements. (Actually, only 90 of the
first 92 elements occur naturally. Technetium and promethium do not occur naturally
because all their isotopes are radioactive and have very short lifetimes. Francium and
astatine occur on Earth only in very tiny amounts.)
When the more than 3600 known isotopes are plotted on the neutron/proton grid
in Figure 2.8, they fall in a curved band sometimes called the band of nuclear stability.
Even within the band, only 264 of the isotopes are nonradioactive. The others decay
spontaneously, although their rates of decay vary enormously. On either side of the
band is a so-called sea of instability representing the large number of unstable
neutron–proton combinations that have never been detected. Particularly interesting
is the island of stability predicted to exist for a few superheavy isotopes near
114 protons and 184 neutrons. The first members of this group—287114, 288114, and
289
114—were prepared in 1999 and do indeed seem to be stable enough to live for
several seconds before they decay.
Several generalizations can be made about nuclear stability:
• Every element in the periodic table has at least one radioactive isotope.
• Hydrogen is the only element whose most abundant isotope (11H) contains more
protons (1) than neutrons (0).
• The ratio of neutrons to protons gradually increases, giving a curved appearance
to the band of stability.
• All isotopes heavier than bismuth-209 are radioactive, even though they may
decay slowly and be stable enough to occur naturally.
A close-up look at a segment of the band of nuclear stability (Figure 2.9) shows the
interesting trend that radioactive nuclei with higher neutron/proton ratios (top side

130

125

Nuclei with higher 120

neutron/proton ratios
tend to undergo β
emission.
115
Beta emission
Number of neutrons (N)

110
Nonradioactive

105
Positron emission or
electron capture
100
Alpha emission

95

Nuclei with lower 90

neutron/proton ratios
tend to undergo
positron emission, 85 Figure 2.9
electron capture, A close-up look at the band of nuclear
or α emission. stability. This look at the region from
80 Z = 66 (dysprosium) through Z = 79
65 70 75 80
(gold) shows the types of radioactive
Number of protons (Z) processes that various radioisotopes
undergo.
54 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

of the band) tend to emit b particles while nuclei with lower neutron/proton ratios
(bottom side of the band) tend to undergo nuclear decay by positron emission, elec-
tron capture, or  emission.
The trend shown in Figure 2.9 makes sense if you think about it: The nuclei on the
top side of the band are neutron-rich and therefore undergo a process—b emission—
that decreases the neutron/proton ratio by converting a neutron into a proton. The
nuclei on the bottom side of the band, by contrast, are neutron-poor and therefore
undergo processes that increase the neutron/proton ratio. Take a minute to convince
yourself that  emission does, in fact, increase the neutron/proton ratio for heavy
nuclei in which n>p.

e Beta emission:
This process decreases
Neutron : Proton + b -
the neutron>proton ratio:

Positron emission: Proton : Neutron + b +

These processes increase
Electron capture: Proton + Electron : Neutron
the neutron>proton ratio: L Alpha emission: A A-4 4
ZX : Z - 2 Y + 2He

쑺 PROBLEM 2.14
(a) Of the two isotopes 173Au and 199Au, one decays by b emission and one decays by
 emission. Which does which?
(b) Of the two isotopes 196Pb and 206Pb, one is nonradioactive and one decays by
positron emission. Which is which?

2.10 MIXTURES AND CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS;

MOLECULES AND COVALENT BONDS
Although only 90 elements occur naturally, there are far more than 90 different kinds
of matter on Earth. Just look around, and you’ll surely find a few hundred. All the
many kinds of matter you see can be classified as either mixtures or pure substances
(Figure 2.10). Pure substances, in turn, can be either elements or chemical compounds.

Matter

Mixtures Pure substances

Elements Chemical compounds

Figure 2.10
A scheme for the classification of matter.

A mixture is simply a blend of two or more substances added together in some

arbitrary proportion without chemically changing the individual substances them-
selves. Thus, the constituent units in the mixture are not all the same, and the
proportion of the units is variable. Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, for instance, can be
 2.10 MIXTURES AND CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS; MOLECULES AND COVALENT BONDS 55

mixed in any ratio without changing them (as long as there is no flame nearby to ini-
tiate reaction), just as a spoonful of sugar and a spoonful of salt can be mixed.
A chemical compound, in contrast to a mixture, is a pure substance that is formed
when atoms of different elements combine in a specific way to create a new material
with properties completely unlike those of its constituent elements. A chemical com-
pound has a constant composition throughout, and its constituent units are all
identical. For example, when atoms of sodium (a soft, silvery metal) combine with
atoms of chlorine (a toxic, yellow-green gas), the familiar white solid called sodium
chloride (table salt) is formed. Similarly, when two atoms of hydrogen combine with
one atom of oxygen, water is formed.
To see how a chemical compound is formed, imagine what must happen when
two atoms approach each other at the beginning of a chemical reaction. Because the
electrons of an atom occupy a much greater volume than the nucleus, it’s the elec-
trons that actually make the contact when atoms collide. Thus, it’s the electrons that
form the connections, or chemical bonds, that join atoms together in compounds.
Chemical bonds between atoms are usually classified as either covalent or ionic. As a  The crystalline quartz sand on this
general rule, covalent bonds occur primarily between nonmetal atoms, while ionic beach is a pure compound (SiO2), but the
bonds occur primarily between metal and nonmetal atoms. Let’s look briefly at both seawater is a liquid mixture of many
compounds dissolved in water.
kinds, beginning with covalent bonds.
A covalent bond, the most common kind of chemical bond, results when two
atoms share several (usually two) electrons. A simple way to think about a covalent
bond is to imagine it as a tug-of-war. If two people pull on the same rope, they are
effectively joined together. Neither person can escape from the other as long as both
hold on. Similarly with atoms: when two atoms both hold on to some shared elec-
trons, the atoms are bonded together (Figure 2.11).

+ +

Similarly, two atoms are

joined together when both
nuclei (+) tug on the same
The two teams are joined together because both are tugging on the same rope. electrons (dots).

Figure 2.11
A covalent bond between atoms is analogous to a tug-of-war.

The unit of matter that results when two or more atoms are joined by covalent
bonds is called a molecule. A hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl) results when a
hydrogen atom and a chlorine atom share two electrons. A water molecule (H2O)
results when each of two hydrogen atoms shares two electrons with a single oxygen
atom. An ammonia molecule (NH3) results when each of three hydrogen atoms
shares two electrons with a nitrogen atom, and so on. To visualize these and other
molecules, it helps to imagine the individual atoms as spheres joined together to
form molecules with specific three-dimensional shapes, as shown in Figure 2.12. Ball-
and-stick models specifically indicate the covalent bonds between atoms, while
space-filling models accurately portray overall molecular shape but don’t explicitly
show covalent bonds.
56 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Figure 2.12
Molecular models. Drawings such as
these help in visualizing molecules.
Ball-and-stick
models show atoms
(spheres) joined
together by covalent
bonds (sticks).

Space-filling models
portray the overall
molecular shape but
don’t explicitly show
covalent bonds.
Hydrogen chloride Water Ammonia Methane
(HCl) (H2O) (NH3) (CH4)

Chemists normally represent a molecule by giving its structural formula, which

shows the specific connections between atoms and therefore gives much more infor-
mation than the chemical formula alone. Ethyl alcohol, for example, has the chemical
formula C2H6O and the following structural formula:

H H

C2H6O H C C O H

H H
Chemical Structural Molecular
formula formula model

Ethyl alcohol

A structural formula uses lines between atoms to indicate the covalent bonds.
Thus, the two carbon atoms in ethyl alcohol are covalently bonded to each other, the
oxygen atom is bonded to one of the carbon atoms, and the six hydrogen atoms are
distributed three to one carbon, two to the other carbon, and one to the oxygen.
Structural formulas are particularly important in organic chemistry—the chem-
istry of carbon compounds—where the behavior of large, complex molecules is
almost entirely governed by their structure. Take even a relatively simple substance
like glucose, for instance. The molecular formula of glucose, C6H12O6, tells nothing
about how the atoms are connected. In fact, you could probably imagine a great
many different ways in which the 24 atoms might be connected. The structural for-
mula for glucose, however, shows that 5 carbons and 1 oxygen form a ring of atoms,
with the remaining 5 oxygens each bonded to 1 hydrogen and distributed on differ-
ent carbons.

H H

O C H
C O O H
H
C C
O H H H
H O H
C C

H O H
Glucose—C6H12O6 [Red  O, gray  C, ivory  H]
 2.10 MIXTURES AND CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS; MOLECULES AND COVALENT BONDS 57

Even some elements exist as molecules rather than as individual atoms. Hydro-
gen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine all exist as diatomic
(two-atom) molecules whose two atoms are held together by covalent bonds. We
therefore have to write them as such—H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2—when using
any of these elements in a chemical equation. Notice that all these diatomic elements
except hydrogen cluster toward the far right side of the periodic table.

1A 8A
H2 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
N2 O2 F2

3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Cl2
Br2
I2

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.8

DRAWING A STRUCTURAL FORMULA

Propane, C3H8, has a structure in which the three carbon atoms are bonded in a row, each
end carbon is bonded to three hydrogens, and the middle carbon is bonded to two hydro-
gens. Draw the structural formula, using lines between atoms to represent covalent bonds.
SOLUTION

H H H

H C C C H

H H H
Propane

WORKED CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 2.9

VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS OF MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

Which of the following drawings represents a mixture, which a pure compound, and
which an element?

(a) (b) (c)

STRATEGY
Most people (professional chemists included) find chemistry easier to grasp when they
can visualize the behavior of atoms, thereby turning symbols into pictures. The Con-
ceptual Problems in this text are intended to help you do that, frequently representing
atoms and molecules as collections of spheres. Don’t take the pictures literally; focus
instead on interpreting what they represent.
continued on the next page
58 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

SOLUTION
Drawing (a) represents a mixture of two diatomic elements, one composed of two red
atoms and one composed of two blue atoms. Drawing (b) represents molecules of a
pure diatomic element because all atoms are identical. Drawing (c) represents mole-
cules of a pure compound composed of one red and one blue atom.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.15 Draw the structural formula of methylamine, CH5N, a substance

responsible for the odor of rotting fish. The carbon atom is bonded to the nitrogen atom
and to three hydrogens. The nitrogen atom is bonded to the carbon and two hydrogens.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.16 Methionine, one of the 20 amino acid building blocks from which
proteins are made, has the following structure. What is the chemical formula of methio-
nine? In writing the formula, list the element symbols in alphabetical order and give the
number of each element as a subscript.

H H O

H S C C H
C C C O Methionine
(an amino acid)
H H H H H N H
H

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM 2.17 Which of the following drawings represents a collec-

tion of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) molecules? The red spheres represent oxygen atoms
and the ivory spheres represent hydrogen.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM 2.18 Adrenaline, the so-called “flight or fight” hormone,

can be represented by the following ball-and-stick model. What is the chemical formula
of adrenaline? (Gray = C, ivory = H, red = O, blue = N)

2.11 IONS AND IONIC BONDS

In contrast to a covalent bond, an ionic bond results not from a sharing of electrons
but from a transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another. As noted pre-
viously, ionic bonds generally form between a metal and a nonmetal. Metals, such as
sodium, magnesium, and zinc, tend to give up electrons, whereas nonmetals, such as
oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine, tend to accept electrons.
 2.11 IONS AND IONIC BONDS 59

For example, when sodium metal comes in contact with chlorine gas, a sodium
atom gives an electron to a chlorine atom, resulting in the formation of two charged
particles, called ions. Because a sodium atom loses one electron, it loses one negative
charge and becomes an Na+ ion with a charge of +1. Such positive ions are called
cations (pronounced cat-ions). Conversely, because a chlorine atom gains an elec-
tron, it gains a negative charge and becomes a Cl- ion with a charge of -1. Such
negative ions are called anions (an-ions).
A sodium atom A sodium cation

1
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl–
2 2
A chlorine molecule A chloride anion

A similar reaction takes place when magnesium and chlorine molecules (Cl2)
come in contact to form MgCl2. A magnesium atom transfers an electron to each of
two chlorine atoms, yielding the doubly charged Mg2+ cation and two Cl- anions.
Mg + Cl2 : Mg2+ + Cl- + Cl- (MgCl2)  Chlorine is a toxic green gas, sodium is
a reactive metal, and sodium chloride is a
Because opposite charges attract, positively charged cations like Na+ and Mg2+ harmless white solid.
experience a strong electrical attraction to negatively charged anions like Cl-, an
attraction that we call an ionic bond. Unlike what happens when covalent bonds are
formed, though, we can’t really talk about discrete Na+Cl- molecules under normal
conditions. We can speak only of an ionic solid, in which equal numbers of Na+ and
Cl- ions are packed together in a regular way (Figure 2.13). In a crystal of table salt, for
instance, each Na+ ion is surrounded by six nearby Cl- ions, and each Cl- ion is sur-
rounded by six nearby Na+ ions, but we can’t specify what pairs of ions “belong” to
each other as we can with atoms in covalent molecules.

Na Na+

Cl–
Cl

In the sodium chloride

crystal, each Na+ ion is
surrounded by six nearest-
neighbor Cl– ions …

… and each Cl– ion

is surrounded by six
nearest-neighbor
Na+ ions.
Figure 2.13
The arrangement of Naⴙ ions and Clⴚ
ions in a crystal of sodium chloride.
There is no discrete “molecule” of NaCl.
Instead, the entire crystal is an ionic solid.

Charged, covalently bonded groups of atoms, called polyatomic ions, are also
common—ammonium ion (NH4+), hydroxide ion (OH-), nitrate ion (NO3-), and the
doubly charged sulfate ion (SO42-) are examples. You can think of these polyatomic
ions as charged molecules because they consist of specific numbers and kinds of
atoms joined together by covalent bonds, with the overall unit having a positive or
negative charge. When writing the formulas of substances that contain more than
one of these ions, parentheses are placed around the entire polyatomic unit. The for-
mula Ba(NO3)2, for instance, indicates a substance made of Ba2+ cations and NO3-
polyatomic anions in a 1 : 2 ratio. We’ll say more about these ions in Section 2.12.
60 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.10

IDENTIFYING IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic and which molecular
(covalent)?
(a) BaF2 (b) SF4 (c) PH3 (d) CH3OH
STRATEGY
Remember that covalent bonds generally form between nonmetal atoms, while ionic
bonds form between metal and nonmetal atoms.
SOLUTION
Compound (a) is composed of a metal (barium) and a nonmetal (fluorine) and is likely
to be ionic. Compounds (b)–(d) are composed entirely of nonmetals and therefore are
probably molecular.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.19 Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic and
which molecular (covalent)?
(a) LiBr (b) SiCl4 (c) BF3 (d) CaO

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM 2.20 Which of the following drawings is most likely to rep-
resent an ionic compound and which a molecular (covalent) compound? Explain.
(a) (b)

2.12 NAMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

In the early days of chemistry, when few pure substances were known, newly discov-
ered compounds were often given fanciful names—morphine, quicklime, potash,
and barbituric acid (said to be named by its discoverer in honor of his friend Barbara)
to cite a few. Today, with more than 40 million pure compounds known, there would
be chaos unless a systematic method for naming compounds were used. Every
chemical compound must be given a name that not only defines it uniquely but also
allows chemists (and computers) to know its chemical structure.
Different kinds of compounds are named by different rules. Ordinary table salt,
for instance, is named sodium chloride because of its formula NaCl, but common table
sugar (C12H22O11) is named b -D-fructofuranosyl-a-D-glucopyranoside because of spe-
 Morphine, a pain-killing agent found in cial rules for carbohydrates. (Organic compounds often have quite complex
the opium poppy, was named after structures and correspondingly complex names, though we’ll not discuss them in
Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. this text.) We’ll begin by seeing how to name simple ionic compounds and then
introduce additional rules in later chapters as the need arises.

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

Binary ionic compounds—those made of only two elements—are named by identify-
ing first the positive ion and then the negative ion. The positive ion takes the same
name as the element, while the negative ion takes the first part of its name from the
element and then adds the ending -ide. For example, KBr is named potassium bro-
mide: potassium for the K+ ion, and bromide for the negative Br- ion derived from the
element bromine. Figure 2.14 shows some common main-group ions, and Figure 2.15
shows some common transition-metal ions.

LiF CaBr2 AlCl3

Lithium fluoride Calcium bromide Aluminum chloride
 2.12 NAMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS 61

1 18
1A 8A
H+
H− 2 13 14 15 16 17
Hydride 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A

N3− O 2− F−
Li+ Be 2+
Nitride Oxide Fluoride

S 2− Cl−
Na+ Mg 2+ Al 3+
Sulfide Chloride

Se 2− Br−
K+ Ca 2+ Ga3+
Selenide Bromide

Sn 2+ Te 2− I−
Rb+ Sr 2+ In3+
Sn 4+ Telluride Iodide

Tl+ Pb 2+
Cs+ Ba 2+
Tl3+ Pb 4+

Figure 2.14
Main-group cations (blue) and anions (purple). A cation bears the same name as the
element it is derived from; an anion name has an -ide ending.

Figure 2.14 illustrates several interesting points. Note, for instance, that metals
tend to form cations and nonmetals tend to form anions, as mentioned previously in
Section 2.11. Note also that elements within a given group of the periodic table form
similar kinds of ions and that the charge on the ion is related to the group number.
Main-group metals usually form cations whose charge is equal to the group number.
Group 1A elements form singly positive ions (M+, where M is a metal), group 2A ele-
ments form doubly positive ions (M2+), and group 3A elements form triply positive
ions (M3+). Main-group nonmetals usually form anions whose charge is equal to the
group number in the U.S. system minus eight. Thus, group 6A elements form doubly
negative ions (6 - 8 = -2), group 7A elements form singly negative ions
(7 - 8 = -1), and group 8A elements form no ions at all (8 - 8 = 0). We’ll see the
reason for this behavior in Chapter 6.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Cr2+ Fe2+ Cu+
Sc 3+ Ti3+ V3+ Mn2+ Co2+ Ni2+ Zn2+
Cr3+ Fe3+ Cu2+

Y3+ Ru3+ Rh3+ Pd2+ Ag+ Cd2+

Hg2+

Figure 2.15
Common transition metal ions. Only ions that exist in aqueous solution are shown.

Notice also, in both Figures 2.14 and 2.15, that some metals form more than one
kind of cation. Iron, for instance, forms both the doubly charged Fe2+ ion and the
triply charged Fe3+ ion. In naming these ions, we distinguish between them by using
a Roman numeral in parentheses to indicate the number of charges. Thus, FeCl2 is
62 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

named iron(II) chloride and FeCl3 is iron(III) chloride. Alternatively, an older method
distinguishes between the ions by using the Latin name of the element (ferrum in the
case of iron) together with the ending -ous for the ion with lower charge and -ic for
the ion with higher charge. Thus, FeCl2 is sometimes called ferrous chloride and
FeCl3 is called ferric chloride. Although still in use, this older naming system is being
phased out and we’ll rarely use it in this book.
Fe2+ Fe3+ Sn2+ Sn4+
Iron(II) ion Iron(III) ion Tin(II) ion Tin(IV) ion
Ferrous ion Ferric ion Stannous ion Stannic ion
(From the Latin ferrum = iron) (From the Latin stannum = tin)

In any neutral compound, the total number of positive charges must equal the
total number of negative charges. Thus, you can always figure out the number of
 Crystals of iron(II) chloride tetrahydrate positive charges on a metal cation by counting the number of negative charges on the
are greenish, and crystals of iron(III)
associated anion(s). In FeCl2, for example, the iron ion must be Fe(II) because there
chloride hexahydrate are brownish yellow.
are two Cl- ions associated with it. Similarly, in TiCl3 the titanium ion is Ti(III)
because there are three Cl- anions associated with it. As a general rule, a Roman
numeral is needed for transition-metal compounds to avoid ambiguity. In addition,
the main-group metals tin (Sn), thallium (Tl), and lead (Pb) can form more than one
kind of ion and need Roman numerals for naming their compounds. Metals in group
1A and group 2A form only one cation, however, so Roman numerals are not needed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.11

NAMING BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS

Give systematic names for the following compounds:
(a) BaCl2 (b) CrCl3 (c) PbS (d) Fe2O3

STRATEGY
Try to figure out the number of positive charges on each cation by counting the num-
ber of negative charges on the associated anion(s). Refer to Figures 2.14 and 2.15 as
necessary.
SOLUTION
(a) Barium chloride No Roman numeral is necessary because barium, a
group 2A element, forms only Ba2+.
(b) Chromium(III) chloride The Roman numeral III is necessary to specify the +3
charge on chromium (a transition metal).
(c) Lead(II) sulfide The sulfide anion (S2-) has a double negative charge, so
the lead cation must be doubly positive.
(d) Iron(III) oxide The three oxide anions (O2-) have a total negative charge
of -6, so the two iron cations must have a total charge of
+6. Thus, each is Fe(III).

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.12

CONVERTING NAMES INTO FORMULAS

Write formulas for the following compounds:
(a) Magnesium fluoride (b) Tin(IV) oxide (c) Iron(III) sulfide
STRATEGY
For transition metal compounds, the charge on the cation is indicated by the Roman
numeral in the name. Knowing the number of positive charges, you can then figure out
the number of necessary negative charges for the associated anions.
SOLUTION
(a) MgF2 Magnesium (group 2A) forms only a 2+ cation, so there must be two fluo-
ride ions (F-) to balance the charge.
 2.12 NAMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS 63

(b) SnO2 Tin(IV) has a +4 charge, so there must be two oxide ions (O2-) to balance the
charge.
(c) Fe2S3 Iron(III) has a +3 charge and sulfide ion a -2 charge (S2-), so there must be
two irons and three sulfurs.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.21 Give systematic names for the following compounds:

(a) CsF (b) K2O (c) CuO (d) BaS (e) BeBr2

쑺 PROBLEM 2.22 Write formulas for the following compounds:

(a) Vanadium(III) chloride (b) Manganese(IV) oxide
(c) Copper(II) sulfide (d) Aluminum oxide

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM 2.23 Three binary ionic compounds are represented on the
following periodic table: red with red, green with green, and blue with blue. Name each,
and tell its likely formula.

Naming Binary Molecular Compounds

Binary molecular compounds with covalent bonds are named in much the same way
as binary ionic compounds by assuming that one of the elements in the compound is
more cationlike and the other element is more anionlike. As with ionic compounds,
the cationlike element takes the name of the element itself, and the anionlike element
takes an -ide ending. The compound HF, for example, is called hydrogen fluoride.

HF Hydrogen is more cationlike because it is farther left in the periodic

table, and fluoride is more anionlike because it is farther right. The com-
pound is therefore named hydrogen fluoride.

We’ll see a quantitative way to decide which element is more cationlike and
which is more anionlike in Section 7.4 but you might note for now that it’s usually
possible to decide by looking at the relative positions of the elements in the periodic
table. The farther left and toward the bottom of the periodic table an element occurs,
the more likely it is to be cationlike; the farther right and toward the top an element
occurs (except for the noble gases), the more likely it is to be anionlike.

More
anionlike

More
cationlike

The following examples show how this generalization applies:

CO Carbon monoxide (C is in group 4A; O is in group 6A)

CO2 Carbon dioxide
PCl3 Phosphorus trichloride (P is in group 5A; Cl is in group 7A)
SF4 Sulfur tetrafluoride (S is in group 6A; F is in group 7A)
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide (N is in group 5A; O is in group 6A)
64 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Because nonmetals often combine with one another in different proportions to

TABLE 2.3 Numerical Prefixes form different compounds, numerical prefixes are usually included in the names of
for Naming Compounds binary molecular compounds to specify the numbers of each kind of atom present.
Prefix Meaning The compound CO, for example, is called carbon monoxide, and CO2 is called car-
bon dioxide. Table 2.3 lists the most common numerical prefixes. Note that when
mono- 1 the prefix ends in a or o (but not i) and the anion name begins with a vowel (oxide,
di- 2 for instance), the a or o on the prefix is dropped to avoid having two vowels
tri- 3 together in the name. Thus, we write carbon monoxide rather than carbon
tetra- 4 monooxide for CO and dinitrogen tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide for
penta- 5 N2O4. A mono- prefix is not used for the atom named first: CO2 is called carbon
hexa- 6 dioxide rather than monocarbon dioxide.
hepta- 7
octa- 8 WORKED EXAMPLE 2.13
nona- 9 NAMING BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
deca- 10 Give systematic names for the following compounds:

(a) PCl3 (b) N2O3 (c) P4O7 (d) BrF3

STRATEGY
Look at a periodic table to see which element in each compound is more cationlike (far-
ther to the left or lower) and which is more anionlike (farther to the right or higher).
Then name the compound using the appropriate numerical prefix.

SOLUTION
(a) Phosphorus trichloride (b) Dinitrogen trioxide
(c) Tetraphosphorus heptoxide (d) Bromine trifluoride

쑺 PROBLEM 2.24 Give systematic names for the following compounds:

(a) NCl3 (b) P4O6 (c) S2F2 (d) SeO2

쑺 PROBLEM 2.25 Write formulas for compounds with the following names:
(a) Disulfur dichloride (b) Iodine monochloride
(c) Nitrogen triiodide

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM 2.26 Give systematic names for the following compounds:

(a) (b)

Purple = P, green = Cl Blue = N, red = O

Naming Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

Ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions (Section 2.11) are named in the same
way as binary ionic compounds: First the cation is identified and then the anion. For
example, Ba(NO3)2 is called barium nitrate because Ba2+ is the cation and the NO3-
polyatomic anion has the name nitrate. Unfortunately, there is no simple systematic
way of naming the polyatomic ions themselves, so it’s necessary to memorize the
names, formulas, and charges of the most common ones, listed in Table 2.4. The
ammonium ion (NH4+) is the only cation on the list; all the others are anions.
 2.12 NAMING CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS 65

TABLE 2.4 Some Common Polyatomic Ions

Formula Name Formula Name
Cation Singly charged anions (continued)
NH4+ Ammonium NO2- Nitrite
NO3- Nitrate
Singly charged anions
CH3CO2- Acetate Doubly charged anions
- CO32- Carbonate
CN Cyanide
ClO- Hypochlorite CrO4 2-
Chromate
ClO2- Chlorite Cr2O72- Dichromate
ClO3- Chlorate O2 2-
Peroxide
ClO4- Perchlorate HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate
H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate SO32- Sulfite
HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate SO4 2-
Sulfate
(or bicarbonate) S2O32- Thiosulfate
HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate
(or bisulfate)
Triply charged anion
OH- Hydroxide
PO43- Phosphate
MnO4- Permanganate

Several points about the ions in Table 2.4 need special mention. First, note that
the names of most polyatomic anions end in -ite or -ate. Only hydroxide (OH-),
cyanide (CN-), and peroxide (O22-) have the -ide ending. Second, note that several of
the ions form a series of oxoanions, binary polyatomic anions in which an atom of a
given element is combined with different numbers of oxygen atoms—hypochlorite
(ClO-), chlorite (ClO2-), chlorate (ClO3-), and perchlorate (ClO4-), for example.
When there are only two oxoanions in a series, as with sulfite (SO32-) and sulfate
(SO42-), the ion with fewer oxygens takes the -ite ending and the ion with more oxy-
gens takes the -ate ending.

SO32- Sulfite ion (fewer oxygens) SO42- Sulfate ion (more oxygens)
NO2- Nitrite ion (fewer oxygens) NO3- Nitrate ion (more oxygens)

When there are more than two oxoanions in a series, the prefix hypo- (meaning
“less than”) is used for the ion with the fewest oxygens, and the prefix per- (meaning
“more than”) is used for the ion with the most oxygens.

ClO- Hypochlorite ion (less oxygen than chlorite)

ClO2- Chlorite ion
ClO3- Chlorate ion
ClO4- Perchlorate ion (more oxygen than chlorate)

Third, note that several pairs of ions are related by the presence or absence of a
hydrogen. The hydrogen carbonate anion (HCO3-) differs from the carbonate anion
(CO32-) by the presence of H+, and the hydrogen sulfate anion (HSO4-) differs from
the sulfate anion (SO42-) by the presence of H+. The ion that has the additional
hydrogen is sometimes referred to using the prefix bi-, although this usage is now
discouraged; for example, NaHCO3 is sometimes called sodium bicarbonate.

HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) ion CO32- Carbonate ion

HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate) ion SO42- Sulfate ion
66 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.14

NAMING COMPOUNDS WITH POLYATOMIC IONS

Give systematic names for the following compounds:
(a) LiNO3 (b) KHSO4 (c) CuCO3 (d) Fe(ClO4)3
STRATEGY
Unfortunately, there is no alternative: The names and charges of the common poly-
atomic ions must be memorized. Refer to Table 2.4 if you need help.
SOLUTION
(a) Lithium nitrate Lithium (group 1A) forms only the Li+ ion and
does not need a Roman numeral.
(b) Potassium hydrogen sulfate Potassium (group 1A) forms only the K+ ion.
(c) Copper(II) carbonate The carbonate ion has a -2 charge, so copper must
be +2. A Roman numeral is needed because copper,
a transition metal, can form more than one ion.
(d) Iron(III) perchlorate There are three perchlorate ions, each with a -1
charge, so the iron must have a +3 charge.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.15

WRITING FORMULAS OF COMPOUNDS WITH POLYATOMIC IONS

Write formulas for the following compounds:
(a) Potassium hypochlorite (b) Silver(I) chromate
(c) Iron(III) carbonate
SOLUTION
(a) KClO Potassium forms only the K+ ion, so only one ClO- is needed.
(b) Ag2CrO4 The polyatomic chromate ion has a -2 charge, so two Ag+ ions are
needed.
(c) Fe2(CO3)3 Iron(III) has a +3 charge and the polyatomic carbonate ion has a -2
charge, so there must be two iron ions and three carbonate ions. The
polyatomic carbonate ion is set off in parentheses to indicate that
there are three of them.

쑺 PROBLEM 2.27 Give systematic names for the following compounds:

(a) Ca(ClO)2 (b) Ag2S2O3 (c) NaH2PO4
(d) Sn(NO3)2 (e) Pb(CH3CO2)4 (f) (NH4)2SO4

쑺 PROBLEM 2.28 Write formulas for the following compounds:

(a) Lithium phosphate (b) Magnesium hydrogen sulfate
(c) Manganese(II) nitrate (d) Chromium(III) sulfate

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEM 2.29 The following drawings are those of solid ionic com-
pounds, with red spheres representing the cations and blue spheres representing the
anions in each.
(1) (2)

Which of the following formulas are consistent with each drawing?

(a) LiBr (b) NaNO2 (c) CaCl2
(d) K2CO3 (e) Fe2(SO4)3
 INQUIRY WHERE DO CHEMICAL ELEMENTS COME FROM 67

INQUIRY WHERE DO CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

COME FROM?
Cosmologists theorize that the universe began some 13.7 billion years ago in an
extraordinary event they call the big bang. Initially, the temperature must have been
inconceivably high, but after 1 second, the temperature had dropped to about 1010 K
and elementary particles began to form: protons, neutrons, and electrons, as well as
positrons and neutrinos—neutral particles with a mass much less than that of an
electron. After 3 minutes, the temperature had dropped to 109 K, and protons began
fusing with neutrons to form helium nuclei (42He 2 + ). Matter remained in this form for
many millions of years until the expanding universe had cooled to about 10,000 K.
Electrons were then able to bind to protons and to helium nuclei, forming stable
hydrogen and helium atoms.
The attractive force of gravity acting on regions of higher-than-average density
slowly produced massive local concentrations of matter and ultimately formed bil-
lions of galaxies, each with many billions of stars. As the gas clouds of hydrogen and  The stars in the Milky Way galaxy
helium condensed under gravitational attraction and stars formed, their tempera- condensed from gas clouds under
gravitational attraction.
tures reached 107 K and their densities reached 100 g/cm3. Protons and neutrons
again fused to yield helium nuclei, generating vast amounts of heat and light.
Most of these early stars probably burned out after a few billion years, but a few
were so massive that, as their nuclear fuel diminished, gravitational attraction
caused a rapid contraction leading to still higher core temperatures and higher den-
sities—up to 5 * 108 K and 5 * 105 g/cm3. Much larger nuclei were now formed,
including carbon, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and iron. Ultimately, these massive
stars underwent gravitational collapse, resulting in the synthesis of still heavier ele-
ments and explosions visible throughout the universe as supernovas.
Matter from exploding supernovas was blown throughout the galaxy, forming a
new generation of stars and planets. Our own sun and solar system formed only
about 4.5 billion years ago from matter released by former supernovas. Except for
hydrogen and helium, all the atoms in our bodies, our planet, and our solar system
were created more than 5 billion years ago in exploding stars. We are made of
stardust.
쑺 PROBLEM 2.30 What two elements are thought to be the first ones formed in the
big bang?  In 1667, the instantaneous gravitational
collapse of the massive star Cassiopeia A
resulted in a supernova explosion, whose
remnants are still visible.
68 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

SUMMARY
Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms, which can com- different element. Nuclear reactions are written using balanced
bine in simple numerical ratios according to the law of multiple nuclear equations, in which the element symbols represent only
proportions. Atoms are composed of three fundamental particles: the nuclei rather than neutral atoms.
protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation from
and neutrons are neutral. According to the nuclear model of an an unstable nucleus. Alpha (a) radiation consists of helium nuclei,
atom proposed by Ernest Rutherford, protons and neutrons are small particles containing two protons and two neutrons (42He2+).
clustered into a dense core called the nucleus, while electrons Beta (b) radiation consists of electrons ( -10e), and gamma (g) radia-
move around the nucleus at a relatively great distance. tion consists of high-energy electromagnetic radiation that has no
Elements differ from one another according to how many pro- mass. Positron emission is the conversion of a proton in the
tons their atoms contain, a value called the atomic number (Z) of nucleus into a neutron plus an ejected positron (01e or b+), a particle
the element. The sum of an atom’s protons and neutrons is its mass that has the same mass as an electron but a positive charge.
number (A). Although all atoms of a specific element have the Electron capture is the capture of a surrounding electron by a pro-
same atomic number, different atoms of an element can have dif- ton in the nucleus. The process is accompanied by the emission of
ferent mass numbers, depending on how many neutrons they g rays and results in the conversion of a proton in the nucleus into
have. Atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass a neutron.
numbers are called isotopes. Atomic masses are measured using Most substances are chemical compounds, formed when
the atomic mass unit (amu), defined as 1/12 the mass of a atoms of two or more elements combine in a chemical reaction.
12 The atoms in a compound are held together by one of two kinds of
C atom. Because both protons and neutrons have a mass of
approximately 1 amu, the mass of an atom in atomic mass units chemical bonds. Covalent bonds form when two atoms share
(the isotopic mass) is numerically close to the atom’s mass number. electrons to give a new unit of matter called a molecule. Ionic
The element’s atomic mass is a weighted mass average of its natu- bonds form when one atom completely transfers one or more elec-
rally occurring isotopes. trons to another atom, resulting in the formation of ions. Positively
When referring to the enormous numbers of atoms that make charged ions (cations) are strongly attracted to negatively charged
up visible amounts of matter, the fundamental SI unit called a mole ions (anions) by electrical forces.
is used. One mole is the amount whose mass in grams, called its Chemical compounds are named systematically by following a
molar mass, is numerically equal to the atomic mass. Numerically, series of rules. Binary ionic compounds are named by identifying
one mole of any element contains 6.022 * 1023 atoms, a value first the positive ion and then the negative ion. Binary molecular
called Avogadro’s number (NA). compounds are similarly named by identifying the cationlike and
Nuclear chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions anionlike elements. Naming compounds with polyatomic ions
of atomic nuclei. Nuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions involves memorizing the names and formulas of the most common
in that they involve a change in an atom’s nucleus, producing a ones.

KEY WORDS
alpha (a) radiation 49 chemical equation 36 law of mass nucleon 50
anion 59 chemical formula 36 conservation 36 nucleus 42
atom 38 covalent bond 55 law of multiple oxoanion 65
atomic mass 46 electron 39 proportions 37 polyatomic ion 59
atomic mass unit (amu) 45 electron capture 51 mass number (A) 44 positron emission 50
atomic number (Z) 43 gamma (g) radiation 50 mixture 54 proton 42
Avogadro’s number (NA) ion 59 molar mass 47 radioactive 49
47 ionic bond 58 mole 46 radioisotope 49
beta (b) radiation 50 ionic solid 59 molecule 55 structural formula 56
cation 59 isotope 44 neutron 42 transuranium element 53
chemical bond 55 law of definite nuclear chemistry 48
chemical compound 35 proportions 37 nuclear equation 48

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS
Problems 2.1–2.30 appear within the chapter. (a) (b)
2.31 In the following drawings, red spheres represent cations
and blue spheres represent anions. Match each of the draw-
ings (a)–(d) with the following ionic compounds:
(i) Ca3(PO4)2 (ii) Li2CO3
(iii) FeCl2 (iv) MgSO4
 CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS 69

(c) (d) (a) (b)

2.32 If yellow spheres represent sulfur atoms and red spheres

represent oxygen atoms, which of the following drawings
(c) (d)
shows a collection of sulfur dioxide (SO2) units?
(a) (b)

2.35 Which of the following three drawings represents a neutral

(c) (d) Na atom, which represents a Ca atom with two positive
electrical charges (Ca2+), and which represents an F atom
with one minus charge (F-)?

(a) (b) (c)

2.33 Assume that the mixture of substances in drawing (a)

undergoes a reaction. Which of the drawings (b)–(d) repre- 9+ 10− 11+ 11− 20+ 18−
sents a product mixture consistent with the law of mass
conservation?

(a)
2.36 Give molecular formulas corresponding to each of the fol-
lowing ball-and-stick molecular representations (red = O,
gray = C, blue = N, ivory = H). In writing the formula,
list the elements in alphabetical order.
(a) Alanine
(an amino acid)

(b) (c) (d)

(b) Ethylene glycol

(automobile antifreeze)

2.34 If red and blue spheres represent atoms of different ele- (c) Acetic acid
ments, which two of the following drawings illustrate the (vinegar)
law of multiple proportions?
70 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

2.37 Isotope A decays to isotope E through the following series

of steps, in which the products of the individual decay
148
events are themselves radioactive and undergo further A
decay until a stable nucleus is ultimately reached. Two

Number of neutrons (N)

B
kinds of processes are represented, one by the shorter 146
arrows pointing right and the other by the longer arrows
pointing left. C
144
(a) To what kind of nuclear decay process does each kind
of arrow correspond?
(b) Identify and write the symbol A 142 D
Z X for each isotope in the
series:
140 E

90 92 94 96
Atomic number (Z)

SECTION PROBLEMS
Atomic Theory (Sections 2.1 and 2.2) 2.46 If the atomic mass of an element is x, what is the mass in
2.38 How does Dalton’s atomic theory account for the law of grams of 6.02 * 1023 atoms of the element?
mass conservation and the law of definite proportions? 2.47 If 6.02 * 1023 atoms of element Y have a mass of 83.80 g,
2.39 What is the law of multiple proportions, and how does what is the identity of Y?
Dalton’s atomic theory account for it? 2.48 If the atomic mass of an element is x, what is the mass in
2.40 A sample of mercury with a mass of 114.0 g was combined grams of 3.17 * 1020 atoms of the element?
with 12.8 g of oxygen gas, and the resulting reaction gave 2.49 If 4.61 * 1021 atoms of element Z have a mass of 0.815 g,
123.1 g of mercury(II) oxide. How much oxygen was left what is the identity of Z?
over after the reaction was complete? 2.50 A compound of zinc and sulfur contains 67.1% zinc by mass.
2.41 A sample of CaCO3 was heated, causing it to form CaO and What is the ratio of zinc and sulfur atoms in the compound?
CO2 gas. Solid CaO remained behind, while the CO2 2.51 There are two compounds of titanium and chlorine. One
escaped to the atmosphere. If the CaCO3 weighed 612 g compound contains 31.04% titanium by mass, and the
and the CaO weighed 343 g, how many grams of CO2 were other contains 74.76% chlorine by mass. What are the ratios
formed in the reaction? of titanium and chlorine atoms in the two compounds?
2.42 Benzene, ethane, and ethylene are just three of a large num- 2.52 In methane, one part hydrogen combines with three parts
ber of hydrocarbons—compounds that contain only carbon carbon by mass. If a sample of a compound containing only
and hydrogen. Show how the following data are consistent carbon and hydrogen contains 32.0 g of carbon and 8.0 g of
with the law of multiple proportions. hydrogen, could the sample be methane? If the sample is
not methane, show that the law of multiple proportions is
Mass of carbon Mass of hydrogen followed for methane and this other substance.
Compound in 5.00 g sample in 5.00 g sample
2.53 In borane, one part hydrogen combines with 3.6 parts
Benzene 4.61 g 0.39 g boron by mass. A compound containing only hydrogen
Ethane 4.00 g 1.00 g and boron contains 6.0 g of hydrogen and 43.2 g of boron.
Could this compound be borane? If it is not borane, show
Ethylene 4.29 g 0.71 g
that the law of multiple proportions is followed for borane
and this other substance.
2.43 In addition to carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide
(CO2), there is a third compound of carbon and oxygen Elements and Atoms (Sections 2.3–2.6)
called carbon suboxide. If a 2.500 g sample of carbon subox- 2.54 What is the difference between an atom’s atomic number
ide contains 1.32 g of C and 1.18 g of O, show that the law and its mass number?
of multiple proportions is followed. 2.55 What is the difference between an element’s atomic
2.44 The atomic mass of carbon (12.011 amu) is approximately number and its atomic mass?
12 times that of hydrogen (1.008 amu). 2.56 The subscript giving the atomic number of an atom is often
(a) Show how you can use this knowledge to calculate left off when writing an isotope symbol. For example, 136C is
possible formulas for benzene, ethane, and ethylene often written simply as 13C. Why is this allowable?
(Problem 2.42). 2.57 Iodine has a lower atomic mass than tellurium (126.90 for
(b) Show how your answer to part (a) is consistent with the iodine, 127.60 for tellurium) even though it has a higher
actual formulas for benzene (C6H6), ethane (C2H6), and atomic number (53 for iodine, 52 for tellurium). Explain.
ethylene (C2H4). 2.58 Copper has two naturally occurring isotopes, including
2.45 What is a possible formula for carbon suboxide (Problem 65
Cu. Look at the periodic table and tell whether the second
2.43)? isotope is 63Cu or 66Cu.
 SECTION PROBLEMS 71

2.59 Sulfur has four naturally occurring isotopes, including 33S, Nuclear Reactions and Radioactivity (Sections 2.7–2.9)
34
S, and 36S. Look at the periodic table and tell whether the 2.74 Positron emission and electron capture both give a product
fourth isotope is 32S or 35S. nucleus whose atomic number is 1 less than the starting
2.60 Give the names and symbols for the following elements: nucleus. Explain.
(a) An element with atomic number 6 2.75 What is the difference between an  particle and a helium
(b) An element with 18 protons in its nucleus atom?
(c) An element with 23 electrons 2.76 Why does beta emission raise the atomic number of the prod-
uct while positron emission lowers the atomic number?
2.61 The radioactive isotope cesium-137 was produced in large
amounts in fallout from the 1985 nuclear power plant dis- 2.77 Why do nuclei that are neutron rich emit b particles, but
aster at Chernobyl, Ukraine. Write the symbol for this nuclei that are neutron poor emit a particles or positrons or
isotope in standard format. undergo electron capture?
2.62 Write symbols for the following isotopes: 2.78 Complete and balance the following nuclear equations:
(a) Radon-220 (a) 126 0
50Sn : -1e + ? (b) 210 4
88Ra : 2He + ?

(b) Polonium-210 (c) 77 0

37Rb : 1e + ? (d) 76 0
36Kr + -1e : ?
(c) Gold-197 2.79 Complete and balance the following nuclear equations:
2.63 Write symbols for the following isotopes: (a) 90 0
38Sr : -1e + ? (b) 247 4
100Fm : 2He + ?

(a) Z = 58 and A = 140 (c) 49 0

25Mn : 1e + ? (d) 37 0
18Ar + -1e : ?
(b) Z = 27 and A = 60 2.80 What particle is produced in each of the following decay
reactions?
2.64 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in each of
the following atoms? (a) 188 188
80Hg : 79Au + ?
218 214
(a) 157N (b) 60
27Co (c) 131
53I (b) 85At : 83Bi + ?
142 234 234
(d) 58Ce (c) :
90Th 91Pa + ?
2.65 How many protons and neutrons are in the nucleus of the 2.81 What particle is produced in each of the following decay
following atoms? reactions?
(a) 27Al (b) 32S (c) 64Zn (a) 24 24
11Na : 12Mg + ?
207
(d) Pb 135 135
(b) 60Nd : 59Pr + ?
2.66 Identify the following elements: 170 166
(c) 78Pt : 76Os + ?
(a) 24
12X (b) 58
28X (c) 104
46X 2.82 Write balanced nuclear equations for the following
183
(d) 74X processes:
2.67 Identify the following elements: (a) Alpha emission of 162Re
(a) 20280X (b) 195
78X (c) 184
76X (b) Electron capture of 138Sm
(d) 20983 X (c) Beta emission of 188W
2.68 Which of the following isotope symbols can’t be correct? (d) Positron emission of 165Ta
18 12 33 18 11 2.83 Write balanced nuclear equations for the following
9F 5C 35Br 8O 5Bo
2.69 Which of the following isotope symbols can’t be correct? processes:
14 131 54 73 1 (a) Beta emission of 157Eu
7Ni 54Xe 26Fe 23Ge 2He
2.70 Naturally occurring boron consists of two isotopes: (b) Electron capture of 126Ba
10
B (19.9%) with an isotopic mass of 10.0129 amu and (c) Alpha emission of 146Sm
11
B (80.1%) with an isotopic mass of 11.009 31 amu. What is (d) Positron emission of 125Ba
the atomic mass of boron? Check your answer by looking 2.84 Of the two isotopes of tungsten, 160W and 185W, one decays
at a periodic table. by b emission and one decays by a emission. Which does
2.71 Naturally occurring silver consists of two isotopes: which? Explain.
107
Ag (51.84%) with an isotopic mass of 106.9051 amu and 2.85 Of the two isotopes of iodine, 136I and 122I, one decays by b
109
Ag (48.16%) with an isotopic mass of 108.9048 amu. emission and one decays by positron emission. Which does
What is the atomic mass of silver? Check your answer in a which? Explain.
periodic table. 2.86 Americium-241, a radioisotope used in smoke detectors,
2.72 Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes: 24Mg decays by a series of 12 reactions involving sequential loss
(23.985 amu) with 78.99% abundance, 25Mg (24.986 amu) of a, a, b, a, a, b, a, a, a, b, a, and b particles. Identify each
with 10.00% abundance, and a third with 11.01% abun- intermediate nucleus and the final stable product nucleus.
dance. Look up the atomic mass of magnesium, and then 2.87 Radon-222 decays by a series of three  emissions and two
calculate the mass of the third isotope.  emissions. What is the final stable nucleus?
2.73 A sample of naturally occurring silicon consists of 28Si 2.88 Thorium-232 decays by a 10-step series, ultimately yielding
(27.9769 amu), 29Si (28.9765 amu), and 30Si (29.9738 amu). If lead-208. How many  particles and how many b particles
the atomic mass of silicon is 28.0855 amu and the natural are emitted?
abundance of 29Si is 4.68%, what are the natural abundances 2.89 How many  particles and how many b particles are emit-
of 28Si and 30Si? ted in the 11-step decay of 235U into 207Pb?
72 Chapter 2 ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS

Chemical Compounds (Sections 2.10 and 2.11) 2.101 Fructose, C6H12O6, is the sweetest naturally occurring
2.90 What is the difference between a covalent bond and an sugar and is found in many fruits and berries. Each carbon
ionic bond? Give an example of each. has four covalent bonds, each oxygen has two covalent
bonds, each hydrogen has one covalent bond, and the
2.91 Which of the following bonds are likely to be covalent and
atoms are connected in the sequence shown. Draw the
which ionic? Explain.
complete structural formula of fructose.
(a) B...Br (b) Na...Br (c) Br...Cl (d) O...Br
2.92 The symbol CO stands for carbon monoxide, but the sym- O C C O
O
bol Co stands for the element cobalt. Explain.
C C
2.93 Correct the error in each of the following statements:
O
(a) The formula of ammonia is NH3. C C
(b) Molecules of potassium chloride have the formula KCl. O O
(c) Cl- is a cation.
(d) CH4 is a polyatomic ion.
Naming Compounds (Section 2.12)
2.94 How many protons and electrons are in each of the follow-
ing ions? 2.102 Write formulas for the following binary compounds:
(a) Be2+ (b) Rb+ (c) Se2- (d) Au3+ (a) Potassium chloride (b) Tin(II) bromide
2.95 What is the identity of the element X in the following ions? (c) Calcium oxide (d) Barium chloride
(a) X2+, a cation that has 36 electrons (e) Aluminum hydride
(b) X-, an anion that has 36 electrons 2.103 Write formulas for the following compounds:
2.96 The structural formula of isopropyl alcohol, better known (a) Calcium acetate (b) Iron(II) cyanide
as “rubbing alcohol,” is shown. What is the chemical for-
(c) Sodium dichromate (d) Chromium(III) sulfate
mula of isopropyl alcohol?
(e) Mercury(II) perchlorate
H 2.104 Name the following ions:
H O H (a) Ba2+ (b) Cs+ (c) V3+
(d) HCO3- (e) NH4+ (f) Ni2+
H C C C H -
(g) NO2 (h) ClO2- (i) Mn2+
H H H -
(j) ClO4
Isopropyl alcohol 2.105 Name the following binary molecular compounds:
2.97 Lactic acid, a compound found both in sour milk and in (a) CCl4 (b) ClO2
tired muscles, has the structure shown. What is its chemical (c) N2O (d) N2O3
formula?
2.106 What are the formulas of the compounds formed from the
following ions:
H H O (a) Ca2+ and Br-
H C C C O H (b) Ca2+ and SO42-
(c) Al3+ and SO42-
H O
2.107 What are the formulas of the compounds formed from the
H following ions:
Lactic acid (a) Na+ and NO3- (b) K+ and SO42- (c) Sr2+ and Cl-
2.98 Butane, the fuel used in disposable lighters, has the for- 2.108 Write formulas for compounds of calcium with each of the
mula C4H10. The carbon atoms are connected in the following:
sequence C¬C¬C¬C, and each carbon has four covalent (a) chlorine (b) oxygen (c) sulfur
bonds. Draw the structural formula of butane. 2.109 Write formulas for compounds of rubidium with each of
2.99 Cyclohexane, C6H12, is an important starting material used the following:
in the industrial synthesis of nylon. Each carbon has four (a) bromine (b) nitrogen (c) selenium
covalent bonds, two to hydrogen and two to other carbons.
2.110 Give the formulas and charges of the following ions:
Draw the structural formula of cyclohexane.
(a) Sulfite ion (b) Phosphate ion
2.100 Isooctane, the substance in gasoline from which the term
octane rating derives, has the formula C8H18. Each carbon (c) Zirconium(IV) ion (d) Chromate ion
has four covalent bonds, and the atoms are connected in (e) Acetate ion (f) Thiosulfate ion
the sequence shown. Draw the complete structural formula 2.111 What are the charges on the positive ions in the following
of isooctane. compounds?
C C (a) Zn(CN)2 (b) Fe(NO2)3
C C C C C (c) Ti(SO4)2 (d) Sn3(PO4)2
(e) Hg2S (f) MnO2
C (g) KIO4 (h) Cu(CH3CO2)2
 CHAPTER PROBLEMS 73

2.112 Name the following binary compounds of nitrogen and 2.114 Fill in the missing information to give formulas for the
oxygen: following compounds:
(a) NO (b) N2O (c) NO2 (a) Na?SO4 (b) Ba?(PO4)? (c) Ga?(SO4)?
(d) N2O4 (e) N2O5 2.115 Write formulas for each of the following compounds:
2.113 Name the following binary compounds of sulfur and oxygen: (a) Sodium peroxide
(a) SO (b) S2O2 (c) S5O (b) Aluminum bromide
(d) S7O2 (e) SO3 (c) Chromium(III) sulfate

CHAPTER PROBLEMS
2.116 Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes: 70Ge,
20.5%, 69.924 amu; 72Ge, 27.4%, 71.922 amu; 73Ge, 7.8%,
72.923 amu; 74Ge, 36.5%, 73.921 amu; and 76Ge, 7.8%, 75.921
amu. What is the atomic mass of germanium?
2.117 Fluorine occurs naturally as a single isotope. How many
protons, neutrons, and electrons are present in deuterium
fluoride (2HF)? (Deuterium is 2H.)
2.118 Ammonia (NH3) and hydrazine (N2H4) are both com-
pounds of nitrogen and hydrogen. Based on the law of
multiple proportions, how many grams of hydrogen Acetaminophen
would you expect 2.34 g of nitrogen to combine with to
2.126 Radioactive 100Tc decays to form 100Mo. There are two pos-
yield ammonia? To yield hydrazine?
sible pathways for this decay. Write balanced equations for
2.119 If 3.670 g of nitrogen combines with 0.5275 g of hydrogen both.
to yield compound X, how many grams of nitrogen would 2.127 226Ac can decay by any of three different nuclear processes: a
combine with 1.575 g of hydrogen to make the same com- emission, b emission, or electron capture. Write a balanced
pound? Is X ammonia or hydrazine (Problem 2.118)? nuclear equation for the decay of 226Ac by each process.
2.120 Identify the following atoms: 2.128 Tetrahydrofuran, an organic substance used as a solvent in
(a) A halogen with 53 electrons many pharmaceutical processes, has the formula C4H8O. In
(b) A noble gas with A = 84 tetrahydrofuran, the four C atoms are bonded in a row,
each C atom is bonded to two H atoms, each H atom is
2.121 Hydrogen has three isotopes (1H, 2H, and 3H), and chlorine
bonded to one C atom, and the O atom is bonded to two C
has two isotopes (35Cl and 37Cl). How many isotopic kinds
atoms. Write a structural formula for tetrahydrofuran.
of HCl are there? Write the formula for each, and tell how
many protons, neutrons, and electrons each contains. 2.129 In an alternate universe, the smallest negatively charged
particle, analogous to our electron, is called a blorvek. To
2.122 Prior to 1961, the atomic mass unit was defined as 1/16 the
determine the charge on a single blorvek, an experiment
mass of the atomic mass of oxygen; that is, the atomic mass
like Millikan’s with charged oil droplets was carried out
of oxygen was defined as exactly 16 amu. What was the
and the following results were recorded:
mass of a 12C atom prior to 1961 if the atomic mass of oxy-
gen on today’s scale is 15.9994 amu? Droplet Number Charge (C)
40
2.123 What was the mass in atomic mass units of a Ca atom 1 7.74 * 10-16
prior to 1961 if its mass on today’s scale is 39.9626 amu? 2 4.42 * 10-16
(See Problem 2.122)
3 2.21 * 10-16
2.124 The molecular mass of a compound is the sum of the atomic
4 4.98 * 10-16
masses of all atoms in the molecule. What is the molecular
mass of acetaminophen (C8H9NO2), the active ingredient 5 6.64 * 10-16
in Tylenol?
2.125 The mass percent of an element in a compound is the mass (a) Based on these observations, what is the largest possi-
of the element (total mass of the element’s atoms in the ble value for the charge on a blorvek?
compound) divided by the mass of the compound (total (b) Further experiments found a droplet with a charge of
mass of all atoms in the compound) times 100%. What is 5.81 * 10-16 C. Does this new result change your
the mass percent of each element in acetaminophen? (See answer to part (a)? If so, what is the new largest value
Problem 2.124.) for the blorvek’s charge?
 CHAPTER 3
Mass Relationships
in Chemical Reactions

All chemical reactions, including those responsible for the

spectacular displays of exploding fireworks, require
specific mass relationships between reactants.

CONTENTS

3.1 Balancing Chemical Equations 3.8 Solution Stoichiometry

3.2 Representing Chemistry on Different Levels 3.9 Titration
3.3 Chemical Arithmetic: Stoichiometry 3.10 Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas
3.4 Yields of Chemical Reactions 3.11 Determining Empirical Formulas: Elemental
3.5 Reactions with Limiting Amounts of Reactants Analysis

3.6 Concentrations of Reactants in Solution: 3.12 Determining Molecular Masses: Mass

Molarity Spectrometry

3.7 Diluting Concentrated Solutions INQUIRY Did Ben Franklin Have Avogadro’s Number?

74