EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

ENS6136 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

Lab Report (Group No. 5).

Name Student ID Contribution

Rajesh Subba 10473979 100%
Omer Siddique 10403168 100%
Shankar 100%
Sunny 10491456 100%

Submitted on 12/10/202Experiment No.1: Torsion

 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Introduction:
Purpose of the experiment was to understand the mechanical properties of materials such as strength,
hardness and ductility. From the numerical data we can understand the standards and types of tensions,
compression, hardness, impact, bending, creep and fatigue test. After the analysis of such experiment we can
help a designer with the required information and suitability of materials for particular project. From the
experiment we can also determine quality controls.

Aim/Objective: Our aim is to setup and perform experiment on torsion of circular sections. It clearly
demonstrates practical support the theoretical knowledge.

Apparatus:

Figure below shows apparatus of the torsion experiment. It consists of a blackboard with chucks for gripping
the test of specimen at each end. Right-hand chuck connects to a load cell using a right arm to measure
torque. A protractor scale on the left-hand chuck measures the rotation. Sliding chuck along the blackboard
alters the test of the specimen length.

This experiment was conducted to investigate and find the torque. There is a relationship between torque
and angular deflection in a steel rod with the cross-sectional area. Following is the picture of apparatus.

Figure 1: Torsion of Circular Section experimental set up.

Caution: While commencing the experiment we need to be careful while apply force. Maximum
allowable for in 14N, if we exceed the allowable limit it can damage the equipment.

Force(N) Torque, T (N m) Angular Deflection, Θ (°)

0 0 0
1 0.05 6.3
2 0.10 10.2
3 0.15 11.9 2
4 0.20 13.9
5 0.25 16.0
 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Table 1: Angular deflection of the steel shaft of 3mm diameter at various loads.

Torque Vs Angle Plot

Torque Vs Angle graph

0.3

0.25

0.2
Torque (Nm)

0.15
Torque Vs Angle graph

0.1

0.05

0
0 6.3 10.2 11.9 13.9 16
Angle(Θ)

Figure 2: Torque Vs Angle graph.

The graph is linear. It indicates that the angular deflection increases as the Torque is increased.
Following are some of the situation or application where the Torsional deflection would be
undesirable:
1. Power Transmission Shaft in Mechanical Device.
2. Motor Shaft.
3. Axle shaft of the landing gear of the Aircraft.

Stiffness of steel rod of diameter 3mm and 4 mm

3.142 4
I P= d (1)
32
For d = 3 mm, Ip: 7.95 x 10-12 m4
For d = 4 mm, Ip: 25.13x 10-12m4
The stiffness of the rod would increase if the diameter of the rod is increased from 3 mm to 4 mm.

k t=G I P/L (2)

Where Kt: Stiffness, G: Shear Modulus of Elasticity, I P: Polar Moment of Inertia, L: Length of the shaft
(0.5 m).

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

G for steel: 78 GPa = 78x 109 N/m2

Kt: 78 x 109x 7.95 x 10-12/.5 = 1.2402 Nm (for shaft of diameter 3 mm)
Kt: 78 x 109x 25.13 x 10-12 /.5 = 3.9202 Nm (for shaft of diameter 4 mm)

If the shaft material was brass the graph would be as indicated below given the condition that the Shear
Modulus of elasticity is half of that of steel.
TL
ϴ= (3)
GIp
G: 39 x 109N/m2, L: 0.5 m

Force(N Torque, T (N m) Angular Deflection, Angular Deflection, (rad)- 3mm

) (rad)- 3mm shaft shaft diameter of steel
diameter of brass
0 0 0 0
1 0.05 0.08 0.04
2 0.10 0.16 0.08
3 0.15 0.24 0.12
4 0.20 0.322 0.16
5 0.25 0.40 0.20

Table 2 Angular deflection of the shaft made of brass and steel of diameter 3 mm.

Torque Vs Angle
0.45 0.4
0.4
0.35 0.32
Torque (Nm)

0.3
0.24
0.25 0.2
0.2 0.16 0.16
0.15 0.12
0.1
0.08 0.08
0.04
0.050
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Angle(radian)

shaft diameter 3 mm - Brass shaft diameter (3mm) -Steel

Figure 3: Torque Vs Angle chart for shaft made of brass and steel.

Note: The graph indicates that the angular deflection of the shaft made of brass would be two-fold than
that of Steel when the torque of equal magnitude is applied on it.

Calculation of Ip, TL and J θ

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Contrary to what we were told during the lab session that we were working with a 3mm diameter rod, on
measuring the diameter of the rod, it was found to be 3.2mm. A 0.2mm difference (error). Therefore, a
new Ip was calculated to be 7.95 x 10-12 m4 below table computed based on the true diameter of the rod,

Torque (Nm) Angular deflection (rad) TL J θ ×10-13

0 0 0 0
0.05 0.145 0.026 3.23

0.10 0.178 0.050 6.31

0.15 0.208 0.074 9.29

0.20 0.243 0.098 12.36
0.25 0.280 0.124 15.60

Table 3: Table for TL and J θ

Chart Title
18
16
14
12
10
𝐼𝑝 𝜃

8
6
4
2
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
TL

Figure 4: Plot for Ip and TL

Conclusion
An object is twisted by the application of various intensity of load and angle of twist is found as the
absolute rotation of one end with respect with another end. The torque applied and the angular
deflection have linear relationship as per the plot. Additionally, results of the plot for Ip and TL as
well as the manual calculation of angular deflection shows that higher the modulus of rigidity lower
the angular deflection and vice versa. Hence the derived equation is used for designing members.

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Experiment No 2: Bending Stress in Beams.

Introduction and background:

Strain gauges are most frequently used devices in stress-strain relation. The electrical strain gauges operate
on the direct relationship between the changes in the electrical resistance of a wire as it is stretched and
strain developed within the material. The ability to precisely measure the change in the electrical resistance
gives a direct, precise measure of the strain.

As a wire is stretched, its length increases and cross-sectional area decreases, which increases the resistance
as the load is applied, the corresponding strain can be measured. The experimental value of stress is applied
may be determined form the measured strain by the Hooke’s Law for uni axial stress.

Aim:
For this part of the experiment our aim is to perform the bending stress in a beam experiment. This
experiment clearly demonstrates the principle involved and provided practical support to theoretical
knowledge.

Apparatuses:
Apparatus consists of inverted aluminium T-beam, with gauges fixed on the front panel. Panel assembly and
load cell apply a load to the top of beam on two positions each sides of strain gauges. Loading beam allows
gauge to be placed of the top of beam.

With constant bending moment area, it gives better strain gauge performance and avoids stress concentration
close to the gauge positions. Apparatus is depicted in figure below 2.1

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Figure 5: Experimental setup of bending stress in beams.

Gauge Position Bending Moment (N m)
(mm)
Load (N)
0 17.4 35.1 52.6 70.2
Gaug 0 100 200 300 400 1 0 0 -120 -230 -352 -461
e
1. 0 -120 -230 -352 -461 2,3 8 -1 -85.5 -158 -242 -318
2. -1 -87 -158 -242 -318
3. -1 -84 -158 -242 -318 4,5 23 0 -17 -25.5 -39 -52
4. 0 -18 -25 -39 -52
6,7 31.7 0 21 48 73.5 95
5. 0 -16 -26 -39 -52

6. 0 18 48 72 94 8,9 38.1 0 50 105 161 209

7. 0 24 48 75 96

8. -1 47 105 160 209

9. 1 53 105 162 210

Table 5: Results from bending stress in the beam. Table 4: Bending Moment Vs Strain.

Strain plot vs Bending moment

300
200
100
0
0 17.4 35.1 52.6 70.2
Strain

-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
Bending Moment(Nm)

Gauge 1 Gauge .2&3 Gauge 4&5

Gauge 6&7 Gauge 8&9

Figure 6: Bending Moment Vs Strain of the beam

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

1.1 Shear force and bending moment diagrams of the beam.

w/2 w/2
350 mm 350 mm

835 mm

200 N
150 N

100 N
50 N -50 N
SFD
-100 N
-150 N
-200 N

70.26 Nm

35.1 Nm
17.4 Nm
0Nm
BMD

Neutral Axis:

ý=
∑ ~y A = ( 3.2 )( 38.1 ) ( 6.4 ) +(22.25)( 31.7)(6.4) =11.85 mm
∑A ( 38.1 )( 6.4 ) +(31.7)(6.4 )

Second moment of area of the beam is 58.01× 109 m 4.

Bending Stress

σ =( M × y )/ I
Theoretical

(17.4 Nm ×11.61 ×10−3 m)

σ= −9 4
=3.55 ×106 Nm2
58.01×10 m

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Experimental

(17.4 Nm ×26.25 ×10−3 m)

σ= −9 4
=7.87 ×106 Nm2
58.01× 10 m

Experimental and Theoretical bending stress on the beams:

Load Bending Experimental Bending Stress Theoretical Bending Stress

(N) Moment (MPa) (MPa)
(Nm)
0 0 0 0
100 17.4 7.87 3.55
200 35.1 15.88 7.17
300 52.6 23.80 10.5
400 70.2 31.76 13.9

Table 6: Experimental and Theoretical Bending stresses.

Theoritical and Experimental bending stress Vs Load

50 13.9
45
40
Bending Stress(MPa)

10.5
35 31.76
30
7.17 23.8
25
20 15.88
15 3.55
10 7.87
50
0
0 100 200 300 400
Load (N)

Experimental Bending Stress Theoritical Bending Stress

Figure 7: Theoretical and Experimental Bending stress Vs Load

1.2 From your results, plot a graph of strain against bending moment for all 9 gauges (on the same
graph). Discuss how these graphs would change if the beam material had a modulus of elasticity of
one-third of that of aluminium

Formula for stress on the rod:

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Stress
E=
strain

Where E = modulus of elasticity

Stress = -400N applied on gauge 1 and its negative. Hence it is a compressive force.
For Aluminium,
E= 69GPa, Strain = 461
Stress = E * strain = 31.76GPa

For brass ( since brass has one third of the modulus of elasticity of aluminium)
E = 23GPa/m2, Strain = 453
Stress = E * strain = 10.58 GPa

Thus, it would be a linear relationship, but the values will differ than the ones which were obtained from the
Aluminium rod.

1.3 What is the relationship between the bending moment and the strain at various positions?

From the strain vs bending moment graph we can see that the strain is directly proportional to the
bending moment for all of the different cases. The gauges 1,2,3,4 and 5 has the negative strain values
while the gauges 6,7,8 and 9 have positive strain values. The negative strain value indicates that the
gauges are under compression whereas the positive value indicates that the gauges are under tension.

1.4 What do you notice about the strain gauge readings on opposite sides of the section? Should they
be identical? If the readings are not identical, give two reasons why

From the strain vs bending moment graph it is identified that the strain reading on the opposite sides
of the beam are aproximately similar the slight variation in the value is due to the error in setting up
and sensitivity of strain guage. Hence we can conclude that the strain remains same on opposite sides
of a beam.

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

1.5 Conclusion

 From the experiment we can conclude that the bending moment and strain exhibits a
linear relation, from the plot of strain vs. bending moment we can see that strain is directly
proportional to bending moment.

 From the graph we can see that the strain reading on the opposite end of a beam are
similar, the experimental variation is due to the error in setting up of apparatus and the
sensitivity of the gauge.

 If the material of the beam is changed with a material with one third of the modulus of
elasticity then the strain value is three times this means that the youngs modulus and strain
value is inversely prepositional.

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Experiment No. 3: Buckling of Struts

Introduction
In the field of construction and engineering materials properties are very important, such as strengths. Buckling
can define as sudden deformation of structural components under some load. For example, we can say bowing of
column under compression or a metal plate wrinkles under shear. Sometimes buckling may can occur under
stresses that develop in structure.

Aim/Objectives:
Our aim of this experiment was to investigate this whole phenomenon of buckling on metal steel due to its
elasticity and dimensions. We need to determine the critical for a steel rod with different dimensions fixed
differently. After completion of the experiment we need to compare the theoretical values with the experimental
values.

Apparatus:

Figure 8: Experimental set up for Buckling of strut.

From the figure shown above of the apparatus we can see it consists of a back plate with a load cell at the
one end and device to load struct on the other side. There are five aluminium alloys provided included on

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

the holder in the back plate printed on the equipment as shown in figure 3.1. For the experiment we need to
carefully follow the instructions.

The Euler Buckling load formula used for the experiment for the pinned ends, pin -fixed ends and fixed -
fixed ends are as indicated below:
Euler’s Equation:

C EI π 2
Pc = (1)
L2❑
Where Pe = Euler Buckling load (N);

E= Young’s modulus (Nm-1);

I = Second moment of area (m4);

L= Length of strut (m).

Part -I (Pinned Ends)

CEI π 2
Pc = (2)
L2
C=1 for pinned ends
Given information:
E: 69 x109 N/m2
I= (b d3)/12
b= 20 mm = 0.02 m, d= 2 mm= 0.002 m
I = (0.02x 0.0023) /12 = 0.0134 x 10-9m4
After adding the values in the equation, Pe= 9.127/L2
Here in the experiment the variable factor is the length while the other remains constant.

1.1 Fill all the relevant data in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3.

Strut No Length(mm) Theoretical Experimental 1/L2(m-2)

Buckling Load(N) Buckling Load(N)
1. 320 89.1 -78 9.7
2. 370 66.6 -59 7.3
3. 420 51.7 -43 5.6
4. 470 41.3 -36 4.5
5. 520 33.7 -33 3.6

Table 7: Experimental and Theoretical Value of Buckling of Struts.

From the results, it is understood that the buckling of the strut is inversely proportional to the length of
the struct. The Graph below (Figure) indicates the relationship between the length of the strut and the
buckling load.

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Experimental and theoritical buckling load

100
90
80
70
60
Load(N)

50
40
30
20
10
0
320 370 420 470 520

Length of strut (mm)

Theoritical Value Experimental value

Figure 9: Experimental and Theoretical Buckling value.

The buckling load indeed has a linear relationship with 1/L2of the column. And accordingly, it requires a less
force to bend the long strut and comparatively force of higher magnitude as the length of strut is shorter.

Buckling Load Vs 1/L^2

100
89.1
90
80 f(x) = 13.15 x + 17.49 78
Buckling load(N)

70 66.6
f(x) = 11.3 x + 15.9
60 51.7 59
50 41.3
36
4033 36 43
30
20
10
0
3.6 4.5 5.6 7.3 9.7

1/L^2
Theoritical Value Linear (Theoritical Value)
Experimental Value Linear (Experimental Value)

Figure 10 : Gradient for Theoretical and Experimental value.

1.6 Part -II Pin-fixed strut

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

C EI π 2 2 EI π 2
Pc = =
L2 L2
C= 2 for pinned- fixed
Given information:
E: 69 x109 N/m2
I= (b d3)/12
b= 20 mm = 0.02 m, d= 2 mm= 0.002 m
I = (0.02x 0.0023) /12 = 0.0134 x 10-9 m4
After adding the values in the equation, Pc= 18.127/L2
Here in the experiment the variable factor is the length while the other remains constant.

Strut No Length(mm) Theoretical Experimental 1/L2(m-2)

Buckling Load(N) Buckling Load(N)
1. 300 196 -180 11.11
2. 350 144 -100 8.16
3. 400 110 -74 6.25
4. 450 87.46 -65 4.93
5. 500 70.84 -60 4

Table 8: Experimental and Theoretical Value of Buckling of Struts.

The experimental value and the theoretical value of the Buckling load indicates that the buckling load is
decreasing for the struct as its length increases showing the inverse relationship as indicated in the graph
below.

Experimental Vs Theoritical Buckling Load

250

200
Buckling Load(N)

150

100

50

0
300 350 400 450 500
Length of Strut(mm)
Theoritical Value Experimental value

Figure 11: Experimental and Theoretical Value.

The linear relationship of the buckling load with the 1/L2 of the column is indicated in the graph below. As the
Buckling load increases, 1/L2 also increases.

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Buckling Load Vs 1/L2

250
196
180
Buckling Load(N)

200
144
150 f(x) = 30.76 x + 29.31 110
f(x) = 27.5 x + 87.46
13.3 100
70.48
10060 65 74
50
0
4 4.93 6.25 8.16 11.11
1/L2

Theoritical value Linear (Theoritical value)

Linear (Theoritical value) Experimental Value
Linear (Experimental Value)

Figure 12: Gradient for Experimental and Theoretical Value

1.7 Part -II fixed-fixed strut

1.8 Examine the Euler buckling formulae for each end condition and confirm that the experimental
and theoretical ratios are similar

C EI π 2 4 EI π 2
Pc = =
L2 L2
C= 4 for pinned- fixed
Given information:
E: 69 x109 N/m2
I= (b d3)/12
b= 20 mm = 0.02 m, d= 2 mm= 0.002 m
I = (0.02x 0.0023) /12 = 0.0134 x 10-9 m4
After adding the values in the equation, Pe = 36.5/L2
Here in the experiment the variable factor is the length while the other remains constant.

Strut No Length(mm) Theoretical Experimental 1/L2(m-2)

Buckling Load(N) Buckling Load(N)
1. 280 465 -134 12.7
2. 330 335 -187 9.18
3. 380 252 -250 6.92
4. 430 197 -283 5.40
5. 480 158 -426 4.34

Table 9: Theoretical and Experimental Value.

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ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

Experimental and Theoritical Buckling Load

500
450
400
Buckling Load(N)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
280 330 380 430 480

Length of strut(mm)

Theoritical Value Experimental Value

Figure 13: Experimental and Theoretical value.

Buckling Load vs 1/L2

500 465
450 426
400 f(x) = 75.2 x + 55.8
350 f(x) = 68 x + 52 335
Buckling Load(N)

300 283
250
252
250
197
187
200158
134
150
100
50
0
4.34 5.4 6.92 9.18 12.7
1/L2
Theoritical Value Linear (Theoritical Value)
Experimental Value Linear (Experimental Value)
Linear (Experimental Value)

Figure 14: Gradient for Experimental and Theoretical Value

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 ENS6163 Mechanics of Solids

The experimental and theoretical ratios for the gradient for all three experiments are indicated in table below:

Pin -pin Pin-fixed Fixed -fixed

Theoretical 13.15 30.75 75.2
Experimental 11.15 27.5 68

The theoretical values are greater than experimental values satisfying the experiment and the Euler’s
equation. The plots in the graphs shows that the experimental and theoretical value as are very close and
thus the Euler’s formula can be used to predict the buckling load.

1 Conclusion

 The relationship of load is directly proportional to length and bucking load can be predicted by Euler
formula as illustrated by graphical representation of results from the Euler relationship the equation
seen is asy= -0.275x+177. The line slopes at m=0.275 from 320mm to 520mm
 From the experiment we can conclude that for pined-pinned condtion the euler value is similar for both
the theoritical and experimental setup.
 For fixed end condtions to apply euler equation we have to consider the length between the zero
bending moment known as the effective bending length Le=KL, where K is the constant and vary
according to different boundary condtions
 For saftey concern a factor of saftey 2.5-3 is also considered

 End fixings  Theoretical K value  Practical K value

 Pinned frictionless  K=1  K=1
ends
 Fixed ends  K=0.5  K=0.65
 Fixed – pinned and  K=0.7  K=0.8
guided
 Fixed - free  K=2  K=2.1

2 References

Hibbeler, R. C. (2010). Engineering mechanics: Statics and dynamics. Prentice Hall.

 Hobbler, R.C.(2011).MechanicsofMaterials(8th Edition).Singapore;PrenticeHall,Pearson

EducationSouthAsia.
 MaximumStressdefinitionand meaning. MaximumStressdefinition and meaning.
[ONLINE]Availableat:http://www.larapedia.com/glossary_of_electromechanics_engineering_ter
ms/maximum_stress_meaning_and_definition.html.
 LectureNotes,ENS6136 MechanicsofSolids,2020ECU.

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