AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

FORM THREE SUMMARIES AND NOTES

THEME 1. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS.

1. a) Define Agricultural mechanization;
 Is application of engineering principles and techniques in agricultural practices in order to
enhance production on the field. This involves the use of modern tools and equipments and
fertilizers on all farm practices and operations. Example use of tractors combined harvester and
hired labor.
b) State at least two forms of agricultural mechanization employed in Tanzania.
 Inanimate form of agricultural mechanization/ use of tractor in mechanization. Example use of
tractor.
 Is the form of agricultural mechanization which involves the use of machines on
mechanizing agricultural production
 Animate form of agricultural mechanization/ use of draught animals in mechanization. Example
use of animals (draught animals example oxen)
 Is the form of mechanizing agriculture by using animals such as draught animals
example oxen, donkey, horse, camel, and buffalos.
c) What are draught animals?
 Are strong animals used to draw a load like cart, a plow.
 Any domesticated animal used in drawing heavy loads.
d) State classes of animals used for draught work.
 Oxen
 Donkey
 Horse
 Camel
 Buffalos
e) Enumerate and explain factors to be considered in introducing mechanization by draught animals.
Mixed farming
Flat land/area/ level surface
Light soil
Area which is free from stony
Area which is free from pests and spread of diseases like tsetse fly ticks.
f) Explain the advantages of using draught animals on mechanizing agriculture.
 Cheap than unanimated form.
 Simple to operate
 Needs low science and technology
 Useful in small areas, like in urban
  Used by many people especially poor men.
 They do not cause soil erosion in term of ploughing
g) Explain limitations of using draught animals in agricultural mechanization.
 They have limited time to work, they need time to rest after working for few hours
 They need to be feed on supplementary feeds so as to become stronger.
 They can’t work in swampy area
 They consume time in term of working
 They work only in small areas and not large scale.
 They can sick and fail to work properly.
 They can be attacked by predators and tsetse flies
 They can’t work in hard and tuft soil
 Operated by many labors like two or even sometime four.
h) State well good management of draught animals.
 Should be well fed
 Should be steered
 Should be check every day from injuries
 Should be cured and treated when they sick
 Should be given supplementary feeds as addition foodstuff
 Should be assigned specific / individual name.
 Should be protected from predators like hyena
 Should be kept under shade.
 Grazing on rich pastures
 Proper working timetable

2. a) What is harnessing?
 Is the process of putting a yoke on top neck of draught animals.
 Is the process of hitching implements to the draught animals so as to transmit power to plough
during ploughing or pulling load
b) Mention two main types of harness
 Yoke harness. Is the structure used to control two animals so as to pull a load.
 Collar harness. Is the structure used to control one animal when pulling a cart/ load.
c) Explain four (4) advantages of harnessing.
 To provide the power from harness to ox-plough.
 To control an animal during operations.
 To make an animal docile.
 For training an animal.
d) What is training draught animal?
 Is the practice of teaching the draught animals to perform farm operation. Like ploughing,
weeding, planting and e.c.t.

e) Enumerate and explain factors to be considered to select and harnessing draught animals.
  Should be of age 2 to 3 years
 Should have a good health
 Should be temperament/ docile
 Should be steered/ castrated
 Should be very strong
 Should have blunt and short horns
 Should have a big hump for yoke to rest.
f) Explain steps and procedures of training draught animals.
 First assign name for each training animal

g) List and explain farm operations which can be mechanized by using draught animals.
 Ploughing
 Harrowing. Is the process of breaking up the clods to provide a fine finish and a good tilth of a
soil.
 Sowing. Is the practice of putting seeds into soil in accuracy manner or randomly.
 Ridging. Is the practice of making ridge into field.
 Mowing. Is the practice of cutting down grass by using a mower machine.
 Transportation
 Threshing
 Inter-row cultivation
3. a) Define ‘tractorization’.
 Is the action of using tractor in mechanization.
b) Explain advantages/role of using tractors for mechanization.
 Simplify work.
 Reduce drudgery work.
 Save time.
 Improve soil tillage.
 Increase production.
 Create employment.
 Increase income to farmers.
 It is sufficient
c) State limitations of using tractors for mechanization.
 Work only in large areas
 Is very expensive
 It needs fuel to operate, which is very costively
 Needs skilled man to operate it.
 Spare parts are not reasonably in rural areas.
 Limited to work in mountain area and slope areas.
d) List and explain classes of tractors used in farming operations.
2-wheel tractor. Is the class/ type of tractor which is operated by walking
4-wheel tractor. Refers to vehicle with two axles providing torque to four axle ends.
Chain/Truck laying tractor. Is a vehicle whose wheels run inside a continuous chain or track.
e) List farm operations which can be performed by each class of tractor by using a table.
2-TRACTOR 4-WHEEL TRACTOR TRACK LAYING
i. Ploughing Harrowing Land clearance
ii. Tilth Spraying Land preparation
iii. Mowing Sowing Removing heavy loads
iv. Harrowing Planting Land levelling
v. Transportation Transportation Generating electricity
vi. water pumping Harvesting
vii. root digging Processing

f) Outline and explain factors in selecting a 4-wheeled tractor.

Land holding. Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1 hp for
every 1 hectares of land, in other words, one tractor of 20-25 hp is suitable for 20 hectares farm.
Cropping pattern. Generally less than 1.0 hectare/hp have been recommended where adequate
irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So 30-35 hp tractor is suitable
for 25 hectares farm.
Soil condition. A tractor with less wheel base, higher ground clearance and low overall weight
may work successfully in light soil but it will not be able to give sufficient depth in black soil.
Climatic condition. For hot zone and desert area, air cooled engines are preferred over water-
cooled engines. Similarly for higher altitude, air cooled engines are preferred because water is
liable to be frozen at higher altitude.
Repairing facilities. It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased has a dealer at nearby
place with all the technical skills for repair and maintenance of machine.
Running cost. Tractor with less specific fuel consumption should prefer over others so that
running cost may be less.
Initial cost and resale value. While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost should not
forget.
Size of the tractor.
Make and model of the tractor.
g. Outline common implements and or equipment used in mechanization by tractor.
 Ploughs ( mould boards, chisel, disc and subsoilers)
 Seeders (precision planter, seed drills, broadcaster)
 Ridgers (mould board and disc types)
 Cultivators (rigid tine, spring tine and rotary)
 Harrows (disc and tine harrow)
 Loaders (front and rear mounted)
 Forage harvesters ( flail with a flywheel and flail with a rotor)
 Mowers (horizontal rotary mowers, reciprocating knife mower and flail mower)
 Manure spreaders.
  Artificial fertilizer distributor
 Trailers.

h. What is an engine?
 Is a machine with moving parts that converts power into motion
 Is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy
I. List down types of engine.
 External combustion engine. Is an engine in which combustion of fuel take place outside of the
cylinder. In this type of engine heat, which is generated by burning of fuel is used to convert the
water or other low boiling temperature fluid into steam. In this engine we can use all solid,
liquid and gases fuel. This engine is generally used to drive ship and generation of electricity.
- Cheap fuel are used
- More flexible
- Starting torque is high
 Internal combustion engine. Is an engine in which combustion of fuel take place inside the
engine. When the fuel burns inside the engine cylinder, it generates a high temperature and
pressure. This high pressure force is exerted on the piston. In this engine we can only use gases
and volatile fuel like petrol and diesel.
- It has overall high efficiency over E.C engine.
- Require less space if compared with E.C engine
- Has low initial cost than E.C engine
j. Outline types of internal combustion engine (I.C)
 Two stroke engine. In a two stroke engine a piston moves one time up and down inside the
cylinder and complete one crankshaft revolution during single time of fuel injection. This type of
engine has high torgue compared to four stroke engine. These are generally are used in scooters
and pumping sets e.t.c
 Four stroke engine. In a four stroke engine piston moves two times up and down inside the
cylinder and complete two crankshaft revolutions during single time of fuel burn. This type of
engines has high average compared to two stroke engine. These are generally used in bikes,
cars, truck e.t.c
k. Explain systematically four stroke events occurred in four stroke engine.
Intake / induction. Fuel entering in the cylinder.
Compression. Piston squeezing fuel air mixture in the cylinder
Power/ignition. Emission of power after compression
Exhaust. Removal of burnt fuel out of engine through exhaust pipe.
L. Explain types of engine according to fuel used.
 Diesel engine. These engines use diesel as the fuel. These are used in truck, buses, cars etc.
 Petrol engine. These engine use petrol as the fuel. These are used in bikes, sport cars, luxury
cars ect.
 Gas engine. These engines use CNG and LPG as the fuel. These are used in some light motor
vehicles.
  Electric engine. It is eco-friendly engine. It doesn’t use any fuel to burn. It uses electric energy to
rotate wheel.

M. State methods of engine ignition.

 Compression ignition engine. In these types of engines, there is no extra equipment to ignite
the fuel. In these engines burning of fuel starts due to temperature rise during compression of
air. So it is known as compression ignition engine.
 Spark ignition engine. In these types of engines, ignition of fuel start by a park, generated inside
the cylinder by some extra equipment (spark plug). So it is known as spark ignition engine.
N. Explain types of engine according to number of cylinder.
 Single cylinder engine. In this type of engines have only one cylinder and one piston connected
to the crankshaft.
 Multi-cylinder engine. In this type of engines have more than one cylinder and piston connected
to the crankshaft.
P. Outline main parts of internal combustion engine.
Stationary parts. These parts of the engine do not move any more. Are stationed at one location
only.
- Engine block. It is the main housing of the engine and it supports the other parts.
- Radiator. Used to hold water which used in cooling the tractor when is so heated.
- Oil pan. It is used to hold oil.
- Cylinder. It is a site for fuel air mixture to be compressed. It houses the piston.
- Crankcase.
- Cylinder head. It is used to seal engine/ cool engine.
Rotational parts. These parts make rotary motion in the engine.
- Fly wheel. It is used to absorb power from the crankshaft and drive the tractor.
- Crankshaft. It is used to push up and down piston in the cylinder to compress the fuel air
mixture in the cylinder. It is used to rotate the fly wheel so as to produce power to tractor.
- Rotor.
- Camshaft
Reciprocating parts. These parts perform up and down movement in the engine.
- Piston. It is used to compress fuel air mixture in the cylinder in order to produce
ignition/burning.
- Valves. It allows the fresh charge of fuel air mixture into combustion and allows burnt fuel
to escape via exhaust system.
- Connecting rod. It is used to connect piston to crankshaft. It help piston to move up and
down so as facilitating fuel burning.
Auxilliary parts.
 Transmission system. Is the mechanical system which transmits power produced by
the engine to the traction wheels, it also provides varying speeds according to the
operation being under taken. It consists of the clutch, gear box, differential, and
final drive.
 - Gear box. It is the main box which contains other parts which used to transmit power.
- Clutch. It is used to connect and disconnect power of the appropriate gear.
- Hand brake. It is used for safe parking
- Brake pedal. It is used for stopping a tractor/ vehicles.
- Gear level. It is used for selecting appropriate gears.
- Steeling wheel. It is used to control direction of movement of tractor
- Throttle level. Used to control supply of fuel to the engine.
- Start switch. It used to start the engine.
 Electrical system. Is the system which supplies electricity for starting the engine and
lighting. There are two electrical systems. Spark ignition in petrol engine and battery
supplies low voltage current in the primary circuit.
 Fuel system. This supplies clean fuel in the correct ration to the engine. There are
two types of fuel according to the different machine engine. Diesel and petrol
engine. In a petrol engine, fuel from the tank is pumped into the carburetor through
a filter which removes water and sediment. The function of carburetor is to mix
petrol and air in the proportion of about one part of the fuel to fifteen parts of air
(by weight) this mixture is then sucked into the engine cylinder for combustion. In a
diesel engine, fuel from the tank either flows by gravity or is pumped by means of
pump through filters. From the filters it is passed to an injection pump where it is
compressed to high pressure. This pump then injects the diesel through injectors at
a very high pressure into the cylinders which contain compressed air. When the
diesel comes in contact with the compressed air, it ignites due to high temperature
of compressed air.
- Cooling system. Is the system rationale used to cool the engine when it comes over heated.
There are two types of cooling system according to the engine modality. Water-cooling and
air-cooling. A tractor engines are either water cooled or air cooled. Large engine are
normally cooled by water while small engine are cooled by air. Reasons of cooling the
engine. 1. To cool the engine. 2. To seal the engine. 3. To protect engine from wearing and
tearing.
- Lubricating system. Is supplying of thin film oil on the surfaces of the engine to reduce wear
and help in sealing and cooling and reduce friction in moving joints. There are basically two
types of lubrication systems used in tractor engine. 1. Forced feed lubrication. Is the system
whereby oil is fed under high pressure. 2. Splash feed system. Oil supplied by splash over
them. This is used in single cylinder engine. Reasons of lubrication in tractor engine.
1. To reduce friction. 2. To seal the engine. 3. To cool the engine. 4. To reduce noises from
engine.
Q. Explain pre-service done to the tractor before starting running to work.
 Tire pressure. Check the pressure of each tyre before running a tractor.
 Battery. Check out the battery terminal if they have ignition and check the amount and charges
of electrolytes in the battery.
 Fuel. Check the level/amount of fuel in the tank
 Oil. Look the level of hydraulic if is enough
  Wear parts. Check the wear parts and lubricant them.
 Radiator. Check the amount of water in the radiator if is enough for cooling the engine.

R. Explain the different between diesel and petrol engine.

DIESEL ENGINE PETROL ENGINE

Use diesel fuel. Use petrol fuel.
Fuel ignited by compression. Fuel ignited by spark plug.
Do not have carburetor. It have carburetor.
Use less fuel. Use more fuel than diesel engine.
Relatively heavy. It is relatively light.
Produce a lot of smoke. Produce little smoke.
It is cheap. It is very expensive.
S. Differentiate between animal power and tractor power.
ANIMAL POWER TRACTOR POWER
It is cheap power It is very expensive power
Do not need fuel It need fuel to produce power
Need simple technology Need high technology
Operate in small areas Operates in large areas
Do not need skilled people Need skilled labour
It is less efficient power It efficient power
Produced by draught animals Produced by tractor.

a. What is tillage?
 Is the practice of modifying the state of the soil in order to provide suitable conditions for plant
growth.
b. Describe the main objectives of tillage on the field/ farm.
 To improve soil structure.
 To preserve soil moisture and temperature.
 To improve soil aeration.
 To control weed spread.
 To incorporate organic manure in the soil.
 To control pests found in the soil.
 To increase soil fertility and soil productivity.
c. Outline types of tillage.
 Primary tillage. It is the first tillage which involves the initial major soil working operation
designed to loosen the soil, burry plant materials and rearrange soil aggregates.
 Secondary tillage. It refers to the creation of more refined soil conditions following primary
tillage.
d. List down types of tillage implements.
 Primary tillage implements
- Mould board plough
- Disc plough
- Chisel plough

 Secondary implements
- Disc harrows
- Cultivators
- Ridgers
a. What is surveying?
 Is the process of observing and measuring in order to determine positions, distance, boundaries,
size and elevation of various physical and non physical features on the land.
b. Explain the purposes of farm surveying.
 To determine horizontal distances between two or more points on the land surface
 To determine vertical distances between different points on the surface of the land
 To locate physical and non-physical features on the surface of the land
 To locate direction of various features o the surface of the land
 To determine the area of a given piece of land.
c. Briefly explain the surveying instruments and equipments.
Chains. Is the instrument used to measure distance on the surface of the land on the farm in
length.
Tape. Used to measure the distance of the surface of the land in the farm in length.
Arrow. Used to mark temporary stations when surveying.
Plumb bob. Used to indicate a vertical position of a point.
Odometer/ land wheel. Used to measure distance in the field.
Ranging pole. Used to align survey lines on the ground.
Field note book. Used for recording notes and others information from the surveying process
Compasses. Used to show direction in the field.
Rulers. Used for length measurement.
d. Outline surveying methods.
 Pacing surveying. Is the method of surveying by using arrows or pegs.
 Taping/chaining surveying. Is done by using chain/tape, arrows, ranging poles and plumb bob.
 Odometer surveying. Is the method of surveying by using odometer.
 Compass surveying. Is the surveying done by using compasses.
 Plane table surveying. Done by using plane table, chain/tape, arrows, ranging pole, range
finder, cross staff, umbrella and alidade.
 Leveling surveying. Done by using different types of levels, alidades, ranging poles, cross staff
and plumb bob.
e. Explain source of errors in surveying.
 Systematic errors also called cumulative errors
- Wrong length of tape or chain
- Poor ranging
- Poor straightening of tape or chain
- Slope
- Sag
- Temperature

 Compensating or accidental errors

- Variation in tension of measuring tapes
- Wrong holding of tape or chain length
 Gross errors.
- Displacement of arrows or station mark
- Miscounting the tape or chain
- Wrong booking of field notes
a. What meant by Soil erosion?
 Is the removal of topsoil from the earth surface by the means soil erosion agents.
 Is the process of detaching the upper part of the soil from the soil surface by means of agents of
soil erosion.
 Is the wearing away and removal of soil particles by the action of soil erosion agents.
b. Explain the signs and indicators of soil erosion
 Bare land
 Infertility of land
 Deposition of eroded materials
 Formation of gully and rills figures.
 Mass flow of the land

c. Agents of soil erosion

The following are the agent of soil erosion
 Rainfall /water movement
 Wind
 Animals
Factors influencing soil erosion /causes of soil erosion
 Deforestation
 Wind
 Slope of the land
 Bush burning
 Overstocking
 Agricultural misuse
 Effects of soil erosion/ consequences of soil erosion
o Lower the fertility of the soil
o Make bare land
o Cause floods due to setting river or dam
o Decrease amount of rainfall
o Render areas for agriculture due to formation of gully
Methods of controlling soil erosion
To practice contour farming
Proper stocking rate
Re a forestation
Terracing and ridging farming
Mulching
Crop rotation

Types of soil water erosion

 Splash erosion
 Sheet erosion
 Rill erosion
 Gully erosion
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THEME 02. CROP PRODUCTION.

a. What is the meaning of field crop?
 Is a crop other than fruits and vegetables that is grown for agricultural purposes, examples
cotton, hay, cereals and etc
b. Outline at least six categories of annual field crops.
 Cereal crops, examples maize, paddy, sorghum, wheat and finger millet.
 Legumes crops, example kidney beans, cow peas, soya beans.
 Root crops, example cassava, round potatoes, sweet potatoes.
 Oil crops, example groundnuts and sunflowers.
 Vegetable fibre crops, example cotton.
 Medicinal crops, example tobacco.
c. Briefly describe the economic importance of field crops in Tanzania
 Source of foreign exchange.
 Source of income.
 Provide food.
 Source of employment.
 Source of raw materials for industries.
 Source of feeds.
 Source green manure.
d. Explain factors affecting field crops in Tanzania.
Biological factor. Like occurrence of pests and disease
Climatic condition. Like droughtiness and flooding
Social-economic factor. Like bad believes and low capital
Edaphic factor. Like type of soil in Tanzania
 Shortage of good hybrid seeds.
Low science and technology.
e. Describe the production of the following cereal crops, maize, paddy, sorghum, wheat and finger
millet.
1. MAIZE PRODUCTION. (Zea may)
- Maize is grown for its seed
- The seeds are rich in carbohydrate (energy)
- Maize belongs to grass family.

Good climate condition for growing maize.

- Young maize plants require adequate moisture and air in the soil during the first four to five
weeks after seeds germination.
- Maize plant do not withstand water logging
- After four to five first weeks, maize requires more moisture in the soil.
- Adequate moisture required in the soil when the maize is at silking stage.

Suitable soil for growing maize

- The most suitable soil for maize growing is black soil.
- Loamy soil and clay soil are favorable soil for maize growing.

Propagation of maize
- Maize is propagated by seeds.
- Maize sown 2 seeds per hill
- Maize is sown after preparation of a flat seedbed or ridges

Spacing
- Maize is sown at a space of 90cm x 25cm row to row
- 75cm x 30 cm plant to plant or hill to hill.

Weeding
- Weeding is done after 4 to 5 first weeks after germination.
- Can be done by hand hoe or any mower machine.

Thinning
- It is done when the maize plant reaches a height of 15cm.
- Uproot some of the seedlings. Leave one or two plants per hill.

Manures and fertilizers.

- Apply farm yard manure to the seedbed and mix it to roughly with the soil.
- If farm yard is not available, apply supper phosphate fertilizer to the seedbed when sowing
the seeds.
- After thinning the plants, apply a top dressing of sulphate of ammonia, urea or CAN.

Varieties of maize
- Hybrid varieties. These are varieties take a long time to reach maturity; it can take up to six
months to mature. It is grown in high altitude areas.
 - Open pollinated varieties. These are local seeds or varieties. It is grown in lower altitude;
they take 2 to 3 months to mature

Varieties of maize grown in Tanzania.

- Ilonga
- Ukiriguru
- Staha
- Kito
- Kilima
- Katumaini
- TMV-1

Pests and pest control.

- The most important pests of maize are, maize stalk borers and earth worm, birds, termites,
locust, ect.

Pest control
- Use cultural methods like early farming and planting
- Use mechanical method, like picking and killing the pest
- Use of biological methods, like use of predator pests
- Use of chemical, like endosulfan 4% dust
Maize diseases
- Maize streak disease. Is caused by virus which is spread by leaf hoppers. Diseased plants
develop yellowish streak on the leaves. Maize streak disease can be controlled by planting
resistant varieties and by early planting.
- Maize leaf rust. Is caused by fungi called puccinia spp. Infected plant develop red or brown
pustules on the leaves. Maize leaf disease can be controlled by planting resistant varieties.
Harvesting of maize
- Maize is harvested by it cobs when become mature and dry
- After harvesting, the cobs dried further more
- When the maize is thoroughly dry, thresh and winnow the grains.
- Dust the grain with permethrin or actellic dust before storage in sacks.
- Place the sacks on cool dry place.

PRODUCTION OF LEGUMES CROPS

 Beans (phaseolus vulgaris)
- Beans are leguminous crop which are grown to be eaten as green beans(pods) or dry beans
(seeds)
- They are useful as source of protein in the diet
- The leaves can also be used as a vegetable.

Good climate condition for growing beans.

- Adequate rainfall is essential especially before flowering and during pod setting.
- A dry period is essential for ripening and dying of the pods.
- Beans growth is best in areas lying between 1000 and 2000 meters above the sea level. They
can also be grown in altitudes lower or high than these meters.
 Soil suitable for growing beans
- Beans grow well in well drained loamy soils.
- Beans in a soil with high organic matters.

Propagation of beans
- Beans are propagated by its seeds.
- Seeds should be dressed with copper fungicides.
- Select which is not wrinkled or damaged in anyway

Spacing
- The correct space, plant in rows 45cm to 60cm.
- 10 cm to 15 cm plant to plant.

Weeding
- The weeding should be done 10 to 20 days after planting and then repeated 30 days later if
necessary.
- Avoid weeding during flowering as this can result in flower fall.

Fertilizer application
- Before planting beans, apply triple phosphate (TSP) to the soil at the rate of 200kg/ha.
- When the beans begin to produce flower, apply top dressing of S/A fertilizers.

Pests and pests control

Pests affected beans plants
- Beans fly
- America bollworm
- Spotted borer
- Beans aphids.
Pest control
- Cultural methods, like early farming, early planting, weeding, use of resistant seeds.
- Chemical methods, like use of endosulfan spray esp controlling America bollworm
- Biological control. Use of predator pests to other harmful pests
- Mechanical control. Like picking and killing, eradication of affected plant.
-
Disease control
- Anthracnose. Causes brown or black spots to occur on the lower surfaces of leaves and on
the stems, pods and even petioles. It controlled by crop rotation, destroy the crop residues.
- Beans rust.
- Halo blight. Causes dark spots on the pods or on the leaves. Such spots are irregular in
shape.
- Angular leaf spots. When beans plants are infected by angular leaf spot, brown spots occur
on the upper surfaces of the leaves and spots may appear on the pods. It is controlled by
planting uninfected seeds, destroy crop residues.

Harvesting of beans
- Beans pods are harvested when become dry, but the pods become to open or shatter and
throw out the seeds.
- Pull out the whole plants
- Thresh the beans plants and winnowing to sort out misshapen rotten and damaged seeds.
- Dust the beans seeds if is stored for more than 3 months
- Store in cool dry place.

PRODUCTION OF ROOT CROPS

Cassava (manihot esculenta)
- Cassava is the major edible crop.
- It is grown for its root/ tuber for consumption
- Young leaves are eaten as vegetable.

Good climate condition for cassava growing.

- Cassava is a drought resistant crop
- It grows well even in areas with low rainfall
- Cassava grows well in areas with warm climate.
- It grows well in areas along the coast and other areas with an altitude up to 1500m above
the sea level.

Suitable soil for growing cassava

- Cassava grows well on many types of soils.
- The soil must be well drained
- The soil should be free from stones or gravel

Varieties of cassava
- Bitter varieties. Contain poisons substance in the whole root system. These substances are
called cynogenic glucosides. The later cause’s bitterness of the root. Bitter varieties such as
liongo, kalolo and dihanga.
- Sweet varieties. Such as kibaha, athumani, kiroba, mzungu, kigoma and cheusi.

Propagation of cassava
- Cassava is propagated by its stem. The stem is cut and then planted in the soil.
- Each piece of cut stem should have 30cm to 45cm long.
- Make ridges 90cm apart.
- Plant the cuttings on top of the ridge.
- The distance between cuttings on the ridge should be 120cm.
- Place the cutting at an angle of about45 0.
- Do not plant the cuttings upside down.
Weeding
- It is done at early stage.
- Remove all weeds using a hand hoe.
- You can uproot the weeds by hand.

Manure and fertilizer application

- Cassava normally grown without manure and fertilizers
- Cassava grows well even on poor soil
- Nitrogenous fertilizers are not recommended when cassava grown for the roots. Why?
Because nitrogenous fertilizer encourage the formation of more leaves and fewer tuberous
roots.
 Pest and diseases
- Cassava attacked by few pests
- The most pests are mealybug, scales and white flies.
- Mealy bug and scales are controlled by spraying the plants with suitable insecticides, such as
diazinon, dimethoate, fertrothion.

disease
- The most infectious disease in cassava is cassava mosaic disease.
- Is caused by virus, the virus is transmitted by white flies called Bemisia spp.
- If infected cuttings is planted, the new plants also diseased. Leave the infected plants
become yellowish and distorted, plants will then become stunted.

Control of mosaic
- Plant resistant varieties.
- Cuttings may be soaked in hot water for a few minutes.

Harvesting of cassava
- When the roots are grown enough, uproot individually roots or whole plants. If you use a
hoe or stick to uproot the roots, avoid damaging the roots.
- The harvested roots should then be peeled before they are dried in the sun, consumed flesh
or cooked.

PRODUCTION OF OIL CROPS.

Sunflower (Helianthus annus)
- Sunflower is grown for its seeds.
- The seeds contain 25% to 35% oil.
- Sunflower seedcake is a good for livestock feeds.

Good climate condition for growing sunflower

- It grows well in areas with annual rainfall of 750m or more.
- Sunflower is a drought resistant crop
- The ripen time there must be the dry weather.
- If the weather is wet by that time, the heads may rot.

Suitable soil for sunflower growing

- Sunflower grows well in a rage of soils.

Varieties of sunflower
- Kobe
- Gor 104
- Record
- Jupiter
- PAN7369
- Crn1435

Propagation of sunflower
- Sunflower is propagated by its seeds.
- Make a flat seedbed with a fine tilth

Spacing
- Plant the seeds at the space of 75cm row to row and 40cm plant to plant or
- 75cm row to row and 30cm plant to plant.

Manure and fertilizer application

- Apply farm yard manure or superphosphate fertilizer, should be applied before sowing the
seeds on the seedbeds.
- Sulphate of ammonia maybe applied as a top dressing at a rate of 50kg per hectare after the
first weeding.

Weeding
- Weeding is done during early stages of plants growth, weed by hand hoe.
- Once plants reach a height of 90cm weeding may no longer be necessary because the plant
may become tall and enough to suppress weeds.

Pests and diseases

- Birds and American bollworms sometime damage the seeds.

Control of birds and American bollworm

- To scare the birds and use of suitable insecticide to control American bollworm

Diseases
- Disease which affect sunflower plants are leaf rust, leaf spots, white blister, stem rot and
root rot.

Control of diseases
- Use of crop rotation
- Destroy plant residues
- Early farming and weeding

Harvesting of sunflower
- Cut the heads of plants when the disc turn brown and the backs of the heads turns yellow
- Dry the heads in the sun thoroughly.
- Thresh the seeds by beating the heads using sticks.
- Winnow the seeds and then store them in sacks.

PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE FIBER

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
- Cotton is grown for its fruits which are called boll
- Cotton bolls contain white hair which grows on the seeds.
- The hairs are collectively called LINT.
- Cotton seeds contain edible oil.
- Lint used to make clothing
- Cotton seedcake used as livestock feeds because are rich in protein
 Good climate condition of growing cotton.
- Cotton grows well in areas with a warm climate.
- It is grown in areas which are below 1400m above the sea level
- Cotton plants require about 25mm of rainfall per month during the first two month.
- During the third and fourth months, cotton plants require up to 75mm of rainfall or more
per month.
- After the fourth month, cotton plants require very little rainfall in order to allow the cotton
lint to mature.

Suitable soil for growing cotton

- Cotton grows well on the many types of soils.
- However does not withstand water logging.
- Soil with a Ph which is lower than 5.0 are not suitable for growing cotton.

Varieties of cotton
- UK or UKA. These varieties are suitable for the western zone and are developed from
UKIRIGURU.
- IL85. This variety are suitable for the eastern cotton growing zone and are developed from
ILONGA

PROPAGATION OF COTTON
- Cotton is propagated by seeds.
- Land prepared by hand, ox-plough or tractor.

Spacing
- The spacing of cotton depends on where you are.
- Sow six to ten seeds per hill.
- If you are growing cotton in western zone, sow seeds at a spacing of 90cm by 15cm
- If you prepare a ridge plant two rows on each ridge.
- The rows be 45cm a part by 150cm.

WEEDING
- Weeding start at the time of thinning.
- Weeding done by a hand hoe or by applying herbicides to control or kill weeds Diuron
herbicides.

Manure and fertilizers

- Farm yard manure is the best, apply a large quantity of it to the soil at the time of land
preparation.
- If manure is not available, single super phosphate may be used.
- Apply 125kg per hectare.

Pests
-The most important pests of cotton are Boll worm,Pink bollworm,Red Bollworm,False codling
moth,Stainers,Lygus,Jassids,Aphids,Seedbugs,Calides,Root knot nematodes and mites.

Control of pests
-Pests of cotton are controlled by using a combination of several methods.
-The most method is controlling pests by spraying insecticides.
-Pest insecticides which are used are;
-carbaryl
-endosulfan
-Start spraying insecticides about six weeks after sowing the seeds.

Diseases
- Diseases of plant cotton which occur in Tanzania are Bacterial blight,Fusarium wilt and
Verticullum.
- Bacterial blight affects leaves, steam or bolls.
- Affected parts may develop water soaked patches which later on turn brown and dry up.
- When the bolls are affected they fail to develop.
- If they develop,the cotton hints become stained.
- Control bacterial blight by collecting and destroying cotton crop resistances.

Harvesting of cotton
- Pick cotton by hand.
- Do not break pieces of dry twings or leaves and mix them with the cotton.
- Do not pick the cotton when it is moist or wet.
- Pick it when dry.
- After picking the cotton sort clean cotton from stained cotton.

PRODUCTION OF TO BACCO (Nicotiana tobacum).

- Tobacco is grown for its leaves.
- When tobacco leaves become ripe they are picked.

Types of tobacco
- Fire cures tobacco. Is grown in southern zone of Tanzania mainly in Ruvuma region.
- Flue cured tobacco. Is grown in Tabora, Iringa, and Rukwa regions.

Good climate condition of growing tobacco.

- Tobacco requires about 38mm of well distributed rainfall within a period of about 16weeks
after the seedlings are transplanted.

Suitable soil for growing tobacco

- Flue cured tobacco. These grow well on the light soils especially sandy soils and loamy sandy
soils.
- Fire cured tobacco. Grows well on heavy soils or medium textured soil.

Varieties of tobacco
- Kutsaga 51
- White gold and NC95

Propagation of tobacco
- Tobacco is propagated by means of seeds.
- The seeds are grown in the nursery.
- When the seedlings reach a height of 15 cm, they are transplanted on the well prepared
ridges.
 Nursery
- Select suitable place for a nursery
- Must be near of water source
- It is advised to build wind breaker if a site exposed to wind

Land preparation
- Make ridges 1m apart
- Make the ridges as early as possible in the rainy season

Transplanting
- First water the seedlings in the nursery thoroughly early in the morning or late in the
evening
- Lift the seedlings carefully without breaking their tap roots.
- Make holes on each ridge
- If the soil dry, pour 1 to 2 liters of water into each planting hole
- Plant only one plant into each hole.

Weeding
- Weed the tobacco field as soon as weeds grow on the field
- Repeat weeding once or twice if necessary

Fertilizer application
- Apply a compound fertilizer (NPK) within a week after transplanting.

Topping
- Is the action of cutting flowers to tobacco plant
- After topping, tobacco plants develop suckers which are useless.

Disuckering
- Is the remove of suckers from the tobacco plant

Pests
- The most important pests of tobacco are Nematodes. Other such as white flies, ants,
cutworm, termites, crickets. These may damage tobacco plant in anyway.

Pest control
- Control nematodes by fumigating the nursery and seedbeds with a nematicides
- Control white flies by spraying plants with malathion
Diseases
- Damping off. Causes shoots of seedlings to shrivel just above the surface of the soil. To
control damping off spray copper fungicides
- Frog eye disease
- Brown spots
- Anthracnose
- Leaf curl. Causes the leaf veins to become thickened. The leaves harden and their veins or
margin curl down ward. To control leaf curl, destroy all tobacco crop residues after
harvesting.
- Rosette. Cause the tobacco plant to become stunted. The stunted plants produce a lot of
small leaves. Control rosette by spraying insecticides (malathion)

Harvesting of tobacco
- Tobacco harvested when leaves of fire-cured ripen
- Their tips and edges turn downwards
- The leaf blade becomes yellowish mottled
- When leaves of flue-cured tobacco ripen, they become lighter in colour and their midribs
become white
- Old leaves at the base of the plant normally ripen first
- Ripening of the leaves then continuous upwards
- Pick the tobacco leaves once they become ripen

Priming
- Is the process of picking tobacco leaves.

Curing
- Is the process of drying tobacco by using a barn.

Concept of forest
Forest
- Is an area covered by vegetations mainly trees, shrubs and grasses.
Forestry
- Is the science which deals with carrying, tending, management, establishment, care and
production of timbers.
Silviculture
- Is the branch of forestry which deals with the development and production of forests.
Beating up
- Is the replacement of dead plant by planting live ones. (fillings blanks)
Lifting
- Is the removal of the seedlings from nursery to actual beds.
Types of forests
- Natural forest. Is type of forest which is not raised by man. It is the accent forest.
- Artificial forest. Is the type of forest which is manmade. It is created by man

Economic importance of forest

- Supply timbers
- Source of fire woods
- Source of charcoal
- Source of employment
- Source of income
- Prevent soil erosion
- Preserve soil moisture
- Regulate climate
- Attract rainfall
- Source of medicine
- Source of food like fruits
- Source of tourism
- Preserve water sources

Propagation of forest crop

- Generative propagation. Is use of seeds to raise new plants.
- Vegetative propagation. Is the use of part of an old plant to raise a new plants.

Forest plantation
- Is the process of establishing forest purposely for timbering production

Importance of forest plantation

- Provide employment
- Provides logs for electricity supply
- Provide wood for timber
- Source of wind breaker
- Conserve the environment

Factors to consider in forest plantation establishment

- Climate condition
- Initial capital
- Market availability
- Transportation system
- Plant species
- Soil factors

Good management of forest plantation

- Tendering
- Caring
- Weeding
- Thinning
- Beating up
- Lifting
- Pest and disease control
- Pruning

Lumbering
- Is the process of harvesting forest or logs from forest purposely for timber production

Wood preservation
- Is the technique of protecting wood against destructive agents of wood.

Reasons for wood preservation

- To preserve the quality of the wood to stay long time
- To avoid destruction of wood
- To protect wood against fungus
- To protect wood against termites
- To protect wood against boring insects and pests
- To protect wood against mining pests

Agents of wood destruction

- Fire
- Wear due to friction
- Borer and miners
- Fungus
- Beetles

Preservatives
- These are substances which used to preserve wood from being destructed by agents of
wood destruction

Types of wood preservatives

- Creosote oil/Tar oil. Are category of carbonaceous chemicals formed by the distillation of
various tars and pyrolysis of plant-derived material, such as wood or fossil fuel. They are
used as preserved or antiseptics
- Copper naphthenate (salt of copper). Refers to all of the carboxylic acids naturally occurring
in crude oil. Copper nephthenate is the widely used in wood preservation and for protecting
other cellulosic materials such as textiles from damage by decay fungi and insects.
- Organic solvent (diesel, benzene spirit.

Quality of good wood preservatives

- Should be poisonous to insect and fungus
- Permanent
- Should be cheap and easily available
- Should be safe to handle
- Should be easily to apply
- Should be penetrative to wood

Bee keeping
- Is the process of establishing bees for honey and wax production
Apiary
- Is a site of bee hives
Colony
- Is a group of bees
Swarm
- Is a group of bees who are moving from one place to another to find a new settlement
Swarming
- Is the movement of swarm of bees from one place to another purposely to find a new
settlement

Classification of bees
- Queen bee. Is a mature female bee who its function is to lay eggs in the wax within the hive
- Drone bees. Are male bees who its function is to fertilize queen bee
- Worker bees. These are bees works for the whole colony
- Guard bees. These are bees guard the area around the hive.

Economic importance of bee keeping

- Source of food
- Source of employment
- Source of income
- Source of foreign currency
- Source of medicine
- Source of raw materials
- Source of tourism

Factors to be considered when choosing a site for an apiary

- Choose a cool place
- Select a site with plenty of flowering plant
- Select the site with liable of water
- Select area away from home/ roads
- Choose an area with sheltered with plants

Methods of keeping bees

- Traditional methods. Is the method whereby people use local method to keep bees. They
use home utensils such as tins, posts, log hives and tree barks and bamboo like stem hive.

Modern methods of beekeeping

-Method used to keep bees by which keepers use modern tools example they use box hives
which made by wood.

Bee management
-Guarding from pests and nematodes
-Supply of water to water sources if water not available.
-Protecting bees from honey thefts (people).

Harvesting tools or gears/equipment

-OVERALLS;To protect the other part of the body.
-VEIL;To protect or to cover the head.
-GLOVES;To protect/cover hands.
-BOOTS;To protect/cover legs.
-SMOKER;To keep away bees from honey or to suppress bees
 Product of bees
a/Honey
B/Bee wax

Factors affecting bee keeping

-Shortage of rainfall decrease flowering.
-Lack of initial capital.
-Vermins and thieves.
-Lack of knowledge of bee keeping.
-Fire(burning vegetation).
-Deforestation.
-Lack of modern equipments.
-Lack of transport.
END OF TOPIC 2(CROP PRODUCTION).!!!!!!!!!!!!

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THEME 3. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

1. DAIRY CATTLE FARMING

 Dairying. Is the keeping of livestock in order to produce milk and milk products.
 Dairy cattle. Is the cattle kept for milk production.
Roles of dairy cattle in Tanzania
- To produce milk
- To supply milk products
- To supply manure
- Provide foreign currency
- Create employment
- Provide food like protein
- Provide raw materials like horns and hides
- Boost the income to the owners
- Provide good living standard life to the keepers
Problems/ limitations of farming dairy cattle in Tanzania
- Presence of many livestock diseases like mastitis
- Inadequate food nutrition for the animals
- Presence of pests and parasites like tsetse flies and ticks
- Inadequate veterinary services like drugs
- Low knowledge of keeper of good animal husbandry.
- Shortage of good breeds
- Low production potential of local breeds.
Methods of overcoming problems facing dairy farming in Tanzania
- To provide enough education to the farmers/keepers
- To control diseases and parasites
- To supply nutritional feeds to dairy cattle
- To have/ provide enough veterinary services
- To extend breeding sector in Tanzania
Characteristics of good dairy cattle
- They have wedged shaped body
- They have a good udder
- They have ability to secrete a lot of milk
- They have ability to calve regularly
- They should be quick milk let down
- They should secrete milk with high content of butter and protein
- They have log lactation period
- They are resistance to some diseases and parasites.
- They are docile and temperament

Important products of dairy cattle in Tanzania

- Milk
- Hide
- Meat
- Hooves
- Horns
- Butterfat
- Bi product( manure)

Common dairy cattle breeds

- Friesian
- Jersey
- Guernsey
- Ayrshire
- Brown swiss
Friesian breed
- It originated from Holland
- They have black and white markings on the skin
- The bottom parts of the body, the legs are usually white in colour
- They are big in size than most other breeds of dairy cattle
- They produce a lot of milk, they can produce 3000LT of milk per lactation
- The milk of Friesian has low butter fat content
Jersey breed
- They originate from an Island in the England channel
- The Island is called Jersey
- They have yellowish brown colour
- They are small in body size
- Produce milk slightly about 2300kg per lactation
- Milk of jersey contains a lot of butter fat about 3.5% of butter fat

Guernsey breeds
- Guernsey originated from the Guernsey channel of England
- The cattle are brownish-red in colour
- Their horns normally pointed inwards and forward.
- They produce milk average of 2500kg per lactation
- The milk has a lot of butter fat contents
Ayrshire breed
- Ayrshire cattle originated from Scotland
- They have red and white patches on the skin
- They can withstand drought to some extent
- They produce milk average of 2700kg per lactation
- Their milk has high butter fat contents

Brown swiss
- Brown swiss originated from Switzerland in Europe
- They are brownish in colour
- The cow are good milk producer
Mpwapwa breed
- Mpwapwa cattle originated from Tanzania at Mpwapwa livestock breeding station
- The cattle are brownish in colour
- They have big ear which face downwards
- They can secrete milk at average of 1500 to 2000kg per lactation
- They are well tolerance to semi-arid areas like Tabora and Shinyanga
Sahiwal breed
- Sahiwal originated from the tropical Asia.
- They are able to withstand tropical temperature
- They have reddish-brown colour
- They resistant to some tropical diseases
- Produces 2000kg milk per lactation

Systems of farming dairy cattle

- Mixed farming. Is the system of keeping dairy cattle and growing some crops at the same
time. Farmers keep dairy cattle throughout year. During the rainy season, the farmers
cultivate some crops. Dairy cattle which are kept on mixed farming are grazed either by free
range or rotational
- Small scale dairy farming. Is the system of keeping dairy cattle whereby people keep dairy
cattle only. Farmers may keep 1 or 2 or more dairy cattle. People, who keep dairy cattle in
this way, usually live close to urban areas. So in this reason, dairy cattle are kept inside.
- Ranching farming. Is a system of keeping dairy cattle and raising them. Some dairy cattle are
raised on ranches. Examples of ranches in Tanzania, Defunct dairy farming company
(DAFCO) and National ranching company.

General management practices of dairy cattle

- Milking
- Feeding the dairy cattle with nutritious feed
- Dipping or spraying to control external parasite like ticks
- Drenching the dairy cattle with drugs to kill internal parasite like tapeworm
- Providing water and feeds.
- Vaccinating the dairy cattle is necessary
- Treatment of sick dairy cattle
- Dehorning of calves
- Putting identification to calves
- Castrating male calves
- Proving security to dairy cattle
- Fencing the area they live

Different terminologies used in dairy cattle farming

- Calve. Is a young cattle either male or female
- Heifer. Is young female cattle who has not given to birth
- Cow. Is a matured female cattle who has already given to birth
- Bull. Is a matured male cattle who is able to mate cow
- Steer. Is a castrated male animal like oxen
- Oxen. Is a steered animal used for draught working
- Parturition. Is the action of giving birth to cow
- Lactation period. Is the whole period of secreting milk in cow/ is the whole period of milking
the cow before drying off the cow.
- Gestation period. Is the whole period of rearing pregnancy in cow.
- Dying off period. Is the period of stopping lactation to cow./ is the period of stopping
milking the cow
- Steaming up. Is the action of feeding a pregnant cow with nutritious feeds before 2 months
of parturition.

Advantages of steaming up
a) The incalf animals gets extra food nutrients in order to meet the food requirements of the
growing foetus
b) The udder of the cow develops and become ready to secrete plenty of milk during the
lactation period.
- Colostrums. Is the first milk secreted by calved cow during the 3 or 4 days after calving.
- After birth. Is the membrane of the fetus comes out about 2 to 5 hours after the calve is
born.

Milking systems and rules of milking

- Hand milking. This done by hand. The cows are milked by hand two times per day. The cows
have to be milked at the same times every day.
- Machinery milking. Is the system milking, milk is drown out of the cow`s udder by means of
machine. The machine has clusters of tit cups. The procedures of machine milking are
similar to those of hand milking.

Procedures of hand milking

- Prepare all the materials used for milking, warm water, bucket, clean towel
- Prepare the cow
- Milking
- Clean the milking place utensils
 Factors affecting milk production
- The physiological status of the cow
- The age of the cow
- Breed
- Milking routine
- Effect of climate
- Frequency of milking

Milk composition and yield

- Water
- Minerals
- Milk sugar
- Milk protein
- Milk fats
- Antibody
- Some enzymes
- Some vitamins
- Lactose
- Ash

Factors affecting the composition of milk

- Breed of the animal
- Age of the animal
- Health of the animal
- Lactation stage
- Climate
- Milk yield
- Drugs used for treatment
- Feeds eaten by animals
- Lactation stage.

Methods of preserving milk

- Drying method
- Refrigerator
- Canning
- Heating/ warming to kill bacterial

Signs of heat period in cow

- The cow become restlessness
- The cow tend to mount other animals
- Clear mucus secrete from the vulva
- The vulva of cow become swollen and reddish
- The cow stand still when mounted with the bull
- The cow produce attractive sound to male cattle
- The cow urinate frequently
- Drop in milk yield
- Jelly like fluid from the vulva

Signs of approaching of giving birth to cow

- The cow become isolated from others cattle
- The cow become restless
- The udder of the cow become swollen
- The vulva swell and secrete milk from teat
- Thicker red mucus discharge from vagina
- The cow is reluctant to move
- The cow lay down and get up regularly
- Cow loose appetite

2. GOAT FARMINNG
 Is the practice of keeping goats either for meat or milk or wool production
 Goats are multipurpose animals.
 All types of goats can be slaughtered for meat
 The meat of goat is good and is preferred by many people.
 Goats are able to live and grow well even in areas with semi-arid environment

Importance of goats in Tanzania

- Goats are resistant to diseases
- Goats graze on various pasture like shrubs, trees rather than grass
- Goats are efficient conversion of fees into milk
- Goats prolific. They may give birth more than one kid.
- Goats mature fast. Kids of goats grow fast and mature earlier like 7 to 8 months to mature
- Goats can withstand thirst. Goats are very tolerant to thirst and dry climate.
- Goats provide raw materials like hide
- Goats are the source meat and protein

Problems of keeping goats

- Goats have bad feeding habitat. For example they can cause death of shrubs and trees
- Goats are very active animals. Goats run and jump quickly, so the people who care goats
also have to run now and then
- Goats can easily stolen. Goats are small in size. For this reason, the can be stolen
- Local breeds of goats have low milk yield. Local breed produce small quantity of milk.

Problems facing goats farming

- Inadequate veterinary services
- Inadequate nutrition for goats
- Presence of many livestock diseases
- Shortage of foreign exchange to buy exotic goats
- Low knowledge to the keeper of good husbandry
 Ways of overcoming problems facing goats farming in Tanzania.
- Providing enough veterinary service to the farmer or the owner of livestock
- Providing enough nutrition to owner keep
- To control pests and diseases either by vaccinating goats
- Extending breeding center in tz

Breeds of goats
 Goats of some breeds are suitable for meat production such goats are called chevon goats.
Goats of other breeds are suitable for milk production. Such goats of breeds are called dairy
goats. Some breeds of goats can be kept for both milk and meat production. A few breeds of
goats are kept for the production of goat hair.

Meat breeds of goats

- Small East African. The east African goats are local breeds of goats. They are found almost
throughout East Africa. They have the following characteristics
 They are small in body size about 25 to 30kg weight
 They have a variety of colours. The colour is non descript
 They have sparse hair on their bodies
 The goats are hardy but slow growing
 They are kept mainly for meat production. Some time they are also milked
- West African
- Dwarf

Milk breeds ( dairy breeds)

- Anglo –Nubian. Originated from Sudan. They have the following characteristics.
 They are large and tall
 They have large floppy or pendulous ears
 They may have convex noses so that they look like sheep
 They body have short hair
 Mature goats weight about 70 to 95kg
 The female are good milk producers

- Toggenburg breeds goats. Originated from Switzerland. They have the following characteristics
 They are brown or fawn in body colour
 They are medium in body size 50 to 60kg weight
 They have erected ear with short body
 They may be horned or polled. However they are usually polled
 They have rather long hair. Longest hair grows on the flanks is dished
 Female of toggenburg goats are good milk producers.
- Saanen breeds goats. Originated from Switzerland. They have the following characteristics
 They are docile goats
 The female produce large quantity of milk
 Mature goats weigh about 60 to 90kg
 Most of saanen goats are polled and some of them have horns
  They are white in colour
 They are rather than large
- Alpine breeds goats. There are two types of Alpine goats. Alpine goats from British and Alpine
from French.
 British Alpine goats were developed by crossing Toggenburg and Saanen goats. They are
black in colour with white patches. They have the same characteristics of both of
Toggenburg and Saanen goats.
 French Alpine goats originated from the Alps. They resemble Saanen and Toggenburg
goats.

Hair breeds goats

- Angora breeds goats. Angora goats originated from Asia. They are generally white in colour.
They bear a coat of fine white hair on the skin. Angora goats can survive even in areas of poor
average of rainfall. In such areas pastures tend to be rather poor.

Dual purpose breeds goats.

- Kamorai breeds goats. Originated from Asia. They are dual purpose. They are suitable for both
milk and meat production.
- Jumnapari breeds goats. They have lopped ears. Female jumnapari goats are good milk
producers. Jumnapari goats can be kept for both meat and milk production.

General management practice of goats

 Housing. There are three types of goat housing, kraal/ bomas, slatted floor and concrete floor
houses. Kraal/ bomas for goats can be built by using logs, timber or wooden poles. The kraal
should have a preferable roof. Slatted floor house, the goats sleep on raised platforms. They do
not come in contact with their urine and feaces. Some time goats are housed in houses with
concrete floor. The concrete floor is expensive to build. They are not suitable for keeping meat
goats. They are suitable only for keeping milk goats.
 Feeding. Goats prefer to eat leaves, twigs, or even seeds of shrubs and short trees. The action of
eating leaves and twigs is called browsing.
 Breeding. Goats reach puberty at an early age about 5 months. However they should be allowed
to mate much later after becoming mature. Allow goats to mate for the first time at age of 7 to 8
months.
 Dehorning. Some goats do not have horns. Such goats are said to be polled. Other goats bear
horns. Goats with horns may be dangerous. They may injur other goats and even people attend
them. Goats may also use horns to destroy fences and goats house. For this reason they should
be removed or prevented from growing at an early age. This can be done by using caustic soda
or caustic potash or by using a hot iron.
 Trimming. Goats some time suffer from foot-rot. This condition occurs especially during rainy
season. The bottom tissues of the feet become swollen and necrotic. Ulcers may also develop on
the feet. When this occurs the goats become lame. That is, the limp when walking. When the
goats suffer from foot-rot and necrotic tissues and hooves should be trimmed from the feet. Use
a sharp knife to trim the feet. After trimming the overgrown hooves of goats, each animal
should be made to walk through a shallow concrete trench containing 5% to 10% copper
sulphate solution. This make animal to heal.
 Drenching. Goats should be drenched in order to control intestinal parasites. Intestinal parasite
infests goats during the wet season and in damp areas. A good way of controlling such worms is
to drench the goats at least 3 times per year and practice rotational grazing.
 Identification. Goats should be provided with identification marks. This can be done by
tattooing, ear tagging, ear notching or even by branding.
 Castration. Male kid goats which are not required for breeding should be castrated. Castration is
the practice of destroying/ removing testis/ testicles from male animal. Castration has the
following advantages to animals, 1. It make male goats grow and fatten much more quickly than
uncastrated male goats. 2. It makes male goats with unwanted characteristics unable to mate.
3. Castrated male goat (buck) does not have the offensive smell which the uncastrated buck
have.
 Dipping or spraying. Goats like cows are infected by tickborne diseases. Ticks can be controlled
by dipping or spraying. Goats can be dipped in an acaricide at least twice per week in order to
kill ticks.
The signs of approaching kidding in goats
 The doe become nervous and worried
 The doe breath heavily
 The doe appears hollow in the flank
 Occasionally, a discharge of white mucus comes out of the vagina.
 The vulva becomes enlarged and reddish
 The doe tends to scratch the bedding and make a nest
 The doe tends to isolate itself from others
Terminologies used in goat production
Kidding. Is the action of giving birth of doe
Flushing. Is the practice of feeding well the doe on ration feeds which are rich in protein before
several weeks of mating.
Browsing. Is the practice of feeding the goats at shrubs and twigs.
Buck. Is the male goat which is able to mate
Doe. Is the female goat which is already to give birth
Kid. Is the young goat either male or female given birth by doe
Diseases, parasites and their control
In the tropics local goats are more resistant to some diseases than other ruminant animals. They
are immune to some diseases. However, goats are susceptible to
 Foot and mouth disease
 Anthrax
 Pneumonia
 Foot rot
 Goat pox

Diarrhea disease in goats

 Cause. Scours mostly affect the kids. Scours is caused by improper feeding, overfeeding and
unhygienic conditions.
Symptoms. Yellowish white discharge is seen. Animal gets general weakness, sunken eyes, dry
and cough coat and low temperature.
Treatment. A simple treatment for kids is to provide a dose of mineral oil, olive oil or castor oil.
For mature goats, provide bicarbonate of soda.
Prevention. Keep the place clean and dry. Disinfection should always be done. Proper and
regular feeding is advisable. Prevention of cold to the young will also prevent scours.
Foot rot disease in goats
Cause. This is an infection of hoof. The disease condition is caused by continuous grazing or
standing on wet place and areas of stagnant water. In this case bacteria causing foot rot attack
the hooves.
Symptoms. Affected animals have difficulty in walking. The animal may fail to walk and hence
tend to walk on the knees. The hooves have bad smell.
Prevention. 1. Trimming of feet (hooves) regularly. 2. Make goats walk through of foot bath
containing 10% formalin or 30% copper sulphate solution.
Treatment. 1.The wounds should be thoroughly washed. Then antiseptic or antibiotic drugs
should be applied. 2. The hooves should always be trimmed and goats should not graze on wet
pastures for long time.

3. SHEEP PRODUCTION.
In Tanzania most sheep are kept for meat production. A few sheep are kept for wool production.
Sheep for wool production can be kept in only cool areas like kitulo plateaus in Iringa region.
Generally sheep are harder than cattle. They can live well even in mountain areas where catlle
would face difficulties.
Roles/ importance of farming sheep in Tanzania
 Source of income to the owner/ keepers
 Provide raw materials like hide, hooves ect
 Source of food. Like we get meat from sheep.
 Create employment in the economy of Tanzania
 They provide manures and we use to our farms as organic fertilizer.
 Bring foreign exchange to our country.
Limitations of sheep farming in Tanzania
 Inadequate provision of veterinary service
 Inadequate availability of feeds
 Occurrence of pests and diseases
 Shortage of foreign currency to buy the exotic breeds.
Types and breeds of sheep.
There are three types of sheep kept in Tanzania
 Mutton breed
 Wool breed
 Dual purpose
 Mutton breeds. These are breeds of sheep kept for meat production. Example of mutton
breeds.
 Black head Persia. Is an indigenous breed. It has white body and black head. It is hardy to
any environment.
 Maasai and red maasai. It has a red or brown colour body. They have fat long tail. They
are small in body size. They can withstand foot rot infection.
 Somalia.
 Hampshire down. They have compact bodies. They kept for meat.
 Dopper.
 Cheviot.

Wool breeds. These sheep kept for wool production. Example of wool breeds sheep.
 Merino. They produce wool of good quality. They are fairly hardy. They well even in area
of poor rainfall. Most in Tanzania are kept in kitulo areas.
Dual purpose breeds. These are kept for both meat and wool production. Example of dual
purpose breeds
 Corriedale. They are dual purpose sheep. They are kept for both wool and mutton.
 Romney marsh. They are dual purpose breed. They are heavy. They are resistant to foot
rot. They are kept for both wool and meat production.
Good management of sheep
 Docking. Is the practice of cutting back the of an animal especially in sheep.
Methods of docking lambs
 Docking with a knife. Docking with a knife is suitable for lambs which are 7 to 10 days old.
In this method, the tail of each lamb is cut away using a sharp knife. The cut is made
close to the body of the animal. Lambs which are more than 10 days old should not be
docked by this method. When such lambs are docked by this method, they tend to
bleed severely.
 Docking with a hot iron. In this method, a docking iron with a blunt cutting edge is used.
The iron is heated in a charcoal fire until it becomes hot. It is removed from the fire
while still black. That is just as it starts turning red hot. This hot iron is then used do cut
away the tail. This docking is safer for elder lambs.
 Docking with a rubber band. In this method, elastrator rubber bands are used. This
method is suitable for docking very young lambs. It should preferably be done when the
lambs are one week old.
Advantages of docking lambs.
o Make easily mating in ewes
o Help to fatten the lambs, because when the lamb is docked the fat becomes distributed
evenly in the body of lamb.
 o Facilitate cleanliness in ewe tail. This is because; the ewe which is not docked tends to
deposit dirt to its tail.
o Make easier to shear woolen sheep. The docked woolen sheep they are easier to shear
than those not docked.
o Facility fast growth in sheep. The docked sheep grow fast than undocked one.

Terms used in sheep.

 Dock. Removal of the tail of sheep.
 Lambing. Giving birth to lambs.
 Ram. Uncastrated male sheep
 Ewe. A female sheep usually of breeding age.
 Wether. A castrated male sheep
 Wet ewe. An ewe that is rearing a lamb
 Lamb. Sheep under one year of age or its meat
 Tupping. Is an action of putting together ram and ewe for mating.

4. PIG PRODUCTION
- Pigs are among the farm animals which are kept in Tanzania. Pigs are also called swine.
The role of pig industry in Tanzania
 Provide income to the farmers and nation wide
 Source of manures such as piggery manures.
 Source of food. Example meat.
 Provide raw materials such as fats
 Source of employment to the economy of Tanzania
 Source of foreign currency
 Pigs are prolific so, they multiply fast
 Provide nutritious to our bodies
Factors limiting the pig production in Tanzania
 Presence of parasites and diseases
 Shortage of storage facilities
 Religious believers and social rigidity
 Lack of feed supply
 Poor knowledge of the on keeping pigs
 Pigs compete with man for food.
Important products of the pigs
 Meat
 Fat (oil)
 Hooves
Types and breeds of pigs
Pigs are normally classified according to AGE or LIVEWEIGHT or SLAUGHTER WEIGHT.
The present day, pig is scientifically known as Sus scrofa domesticus
Classification according to liveweight
 Up to 20kg ----------------weaner
 21 to34kg------------------grower
 35 to 60kg----------------developer
 Above 60kg--------------------finisher

Classification according to slaughter weight

 50 to 70kg--------------------porker
 71 to 84kg------------------cutter
 85 to 95kg-------------------baconer
 96 to 135kg or above --------heavy hog

Breeds of pigs which are kept in Tanzania

1) Landrace.
Originated from demark
They have long slim white body
They have short legs
They have ears which hang downward
They are highly prolific
They have high rate growth
They are good feeder
2) Large white.
Originated from Yorkshires England
They have white body
They have erected ears
The sows are good mother
They have smooth long deep body
3) Saddle back.
Originated from Wessex in England
They have a medium sized body
They are black in colour body with white belt around the shoulder
The sows are good mother
They have a well arched back and floppy ears
4) Hampshire.
Originated from United State of America
They have erected ears
They have medium sized body
They have black colour with white belt around the shoulder
Terminologies used in pig production
Oestrous cycle. Is the period between one heat periods to another.
Farrowing. Giving birth in pig
Weaning. Is the action of stopping the young animal from suckling their mothers
Piglet. Is the young born pig
Litter. Is the group of piglets that are born together from the same mother at the same time.
Sow. Is the female matured pig.
Boar. Is the male mature pig.

Signs of heat period of sows

1) The sow become restlessness
2) The sow urinate frequently
3) The sow makes occasional loud
4) White mucous discharge from the vagina
5) Enlargement of the vulva
6) Lower milk production
7) The sow mount other animals
Signs of approaching furrowing/giving birth in sows
 The sow becomes restlessness
 The animal become nervous and uneasy
 Enlargement of the vulva
 Urinating frequently
 Secreting of milk from the teats
 Enlargement of the mammary glands (udder)
 Reddish mucous discharge from the vagina.

Piglet anaemia
Is the lack of blood in the piglet’s body.
Methods to prevent anaemia from piglets.
1) Injection of iron 2-3 days after birth.
2) Smear ferrous sulphate to the mammary glands.
3) Administer iron tablets.
4) Administer iron solution orally.
5) Keep pigs out door.
 6) Make the sow to furrow at concrete floor to reduce anaemia.
Note. The sow rearing the pregnancy for 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days.
Systems of keeping pigs.
1) Outdoor system
2) Indoor system

Livestock health and diseases

Disease. Is the abnormal condition of the animal’s body. Or is a change in the state of the body
affecting either a particular organ, system or entire body.
A disease condition is expressed by changes in appearance and the behaviors of the animals.

Symptoms or signs of disease to livestock.

1. Temperature. A sick animal, temperature tends to rises above normal.
 Feeding. A sick animal loses appetite and does not eat properly. This is the earliest and surest
sign of illness
2. Appearance. A sick animal fail to stand properly. If the animal is suffering in the muscles or
joints it cannot stand properly and it is restless.
3. Urine. The normal urine is pale and straw colour. Any abnormalities such as the presence of
blood, a cloudy or yellow colour in the urine may indicate disease infection.
4. Excreta. Excessively hard or watery feaces are indicators of ill health. In other circumstances the
feaces may contain blood (dysentery)
5. Skin and coat. The skin-coat or feathers are good indicators of a disease. The coat of healthy
animals is clean and shiny in bright light.
6. Behavior. A sick animal usually isolate itself from others and hides itself. A sick animal will
appear gloomy and may sometimes be aggressive when approached.
7. Coughing. Coughing is normally caused by abnormalities of respiratory system
8. Pain. A number of signs can be shown by animal suffering from pain.

Causes of disease.
1. Poor nutrition. Too little or too much food is harmful to the animals. Too little food causes
disease because the animal is not able to function properly. If it does not get food it may die. If
the animal eats too much the stomach may rupture.
2. Poisoning. Accidentally, animal may eat food containing poisonous chemicals. These may be
insecticides and herbicides. The chemicals may cause or affect animal.
3. Physical injury. Physical injuries these include damage to organs example fracture, cuts, joint
sprains, tissues rupture as well as swallowing objects example piece of wire, sisal rope or plastic
materials.
4. Living organisms. A number of living organisms cause diseases in farm animals. Some of the
organisms live in or on the bodies of farm livestock. All organisms which cause disease in
animals are called parasites. These parasites are
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Fungi
 Protozoa
 Insect
 Worms

General methods of controlling livestock diseases.

There are two ways of controlling livestock diseases.
1. Direct methods.(treatment). It involves use of different manufactured drugs that will
disease causing organisms in the body. Many types of antibiotics drugs that kill bacteria
are available and can be used to treat disease like mastitis, tuberculosis, foot rot and
scours in farm animals. Apart from antibiotics other drugs have been made to treat
worm’s infections, protozoan diseases example trypanomiasis.
2. Indirect methods.( prevention of infections).
The following are some of the methods which are used to prevent infection of the
disease among livestock.
 Prophylaxis. This is a control method which involves use of drugs. This is done on
routine basis. For example intestinal worms in farm livestock can be controlled by
drenching livestock with appropriate drugs after every four weeks, six months week
or even three months, example trypanosomiasis.
 Vaccination. This is another method used to control disease by developing
immunity. Immunity is a condition where the animal is not susceptible to a specific
disease. Livestock vaccinated by vaccine. Vaccination is mainly used to the diseases
caused by virus, for example foot and mouth disease, rinder pest, new castle in
poultry.
 Control of vectors. Tsetse flies and ticks are the most serious disease vectors of
livestock. These must be controlled in order to reduce disease infection, either b
spraying with acaricide.
 Slaughter of infected animals. Infected animal must be isolated and slaughter
because some of disease are highly infectious. Foot and mouth disease, brucellosis,
swine fever and coccidiosis in poultry.
  Isolation and quarantine. This is another method of preventing a disease, as soon as
an animal suffers from a certain disease, it must be isolated from the rest of the
herd. Some disease are notifiable diseases such diseases are highly contagious and
infectious. Example anthrax, rinderpest, foot and mouth disease.

Major diseases of livestock

 In this section we are going to learn few common livestock diseases especially which mainly
affects domestic animals, like cattle, goats and sheep and pigs.

A. BACTERIAL DISEASES
1. Mastitis disease.
This is a very common disease of female animals in dairy production. It is inflammation
of the udder of a lactating cow. This disease caused by bacteria known as Streptococci
and Staphylococci.

Causes of mastitis
 Faulty of milking machine
 Dirt of hands of the milker
 Injury of the udder
 Cold and wet housing for female cow
 Diseased teats example black spots
 Dirt in the milking machine.
Symptoms of mastitis disease
 Udder becomes swollen and reddish
 White clots appear in the milk
 When the udder is touched, the animal feels pain
 The udder is hard when is touched
 Udder becomes warmer than normal
 The colour of milk becomes abnormal; it may become reddish in colour.

Prevention of mastitis disease

Milk the cow regularly, every after hour to get allows clotted milk out of the
udder.
Avoid all factors which cause mastitis
Hygiene during milking is essential
During the dry off period infuse penicillin or other suitable drugs into the udder
of the udder.
Treatment of mastitis diseases
 Infuse antibiotics, example penicillin, tetracycline or penstrep into the teat
cistern and then massage the teat to disperse the drugs.
  Mammary glands should be massaged gently with warm water and then cold
water.

2. Brucellosis or contagious abortion

Is a bacteria disease which caused by bacteria known as Brucella abortus.
This disease carried by bull in genital system and also is spreaded to females during
mating.
It is a disease which causes abortion to pregnant cow.
It occur usually suddenly

Animals affected
 Cattle
 Goat
 Man
 Pigs
 Sheep

Symptoms of brucellosis
Suddenly abortion usually occurs. The only sign which will show that there was abortion is blood
stained tail and rump of an animal.

Prevention of brucellosis.
 Regular testing of blood and milk to detect presence of brucella abortus.
 Isolate infected animals from others in the herd.
 Healthy animals should be removed from the site of abortion.
 The aborted materials, example foetus and foetal discharge should be completely be
destroyed or buried deeply.
 Vaccinate the animals regularly against brucellosis.

3. Anthrax disease
Anthrax is contagious disease caused by bacteria known as Bacillus anthracis.

Animas affected
 Cattle
 Goats
 Sheep
 Pigs
 Also man infected as well
Transmission of anthrax
 By direct contact with a diseased or dead animal or the dead animal’s blood, excreta
and other discharge.
 Grazing on contaminated pasture or drinking contaminated water.
 An animal like dogs or hyenas and birds feeds on carcasses and carry away pieces of
infected materials. Flies also may transmit the disease.

Symptoms of anthrax
 Very high fever and a large swollen neck.
 Breathing with difficulty.
 Animal bleeds non clotting bloods from the natural openings, such as the nose, mouth,
ears, the anus and sudden death.

Prevention of anthrax
 Quarantine must be imposed in an area where there is an outbreak of anthrax
 Following an outbreak, all the animals in the surrounding village must be vaccinated
against anthrax.
 The carcasses with all discharges must be buried deeply or burnt.
 Never eat meat from animal that died suddenly.
 Never open a carcass that shows symptoms of anthrax.
 Animals should be vaccinated every year against anthrax.

Treatment of anthrax
 Since deaths occur suddenly, there is no treatment. If the disease is recognized in the
very early stage, antibiotics may be given to animal. For example penicillin and
oxytetracyline.

4. Blackquarter (blackleg)
A black quarter is a contagious disease caused by bacteria known as Clostridium chauvoei.
Bacteria affect animals found in pastures, they enter through wounds and bruises on the body
of animal.

Animals affected
 Cattle
 Sheep

Transmission of blackquarter
 Clostridium chauvoei are present on affected pastures, therefore enter through wound
and bruises of the body of animal.
 By direct contact with dead animal’s blood, excreta and other discharges.
Symptoms of blackquarter
  The animal is noted to have high body temperature.
 Loose of appetite and lies down most of the time.
 Swellings appear in areas with heavy muscles, example buttocks, shoulder and the loin.
The swellings are hot and painful at the first and later they become cold and painless.
When the swellings pressed give out a peculiar cracking or rustling sound, if the swelling
is cut open, a frothy dark red or colourless fluid comes out.
Prevention of blackquarter
 Animal must be vaccinated every year against black quarter
 In case of an outbreak, animals can be removed to another place which is free from a
disease.
 The carcass should be buried deeply or burnt.
 The carcass of an animal died with blackquarter should not be opened.
 Antibiotics can be used for a treatment if the disease is recognized very early stages.

B. VIRAL DISEASES
1. Foot and mouth disease
This is a highly contagious and infectious disease.
It affects feet and mouth of the animals.

Animal affected
 Cattle
 Goats
 Pigs
 Sheep
This disease caused by viruses which attack especially the mucous membranes of the mouth
and the coronets on the feet.
Transmission of foot and mouth disease (FMD)
 The disease is spreaded by the contents of blisters, milk, urine and nasal discharge of an
infected animal.
Symptoms of foot and mouth disease
 There blisters on the muzzle, tongue, interior of the mouth udder and the coronets.
 The animal gives out excessive saliva and has difficulty in feeding.
 The animal has no appetite.
 In lactating animals, there is fall in milk production.
 The animal develops fever and becomes dull.
 The animal is unable to walk properly due to wounds in the coronets on the legs.

Prevention of foot and mouth disease

 Regular vaccination every six months.
 Quarantine must be imposing in that area where there is outbreak.
 All affected animals must be slaughtered.
Treatment of foot and mouth disease
There is no treatment for an animal which is suffering from foot and mouth disease.

Reference book; Sibuga k.k et all (2014), principle and practice of livestock production new
addition, educational books publishers Ltd Dar es salam.

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THEME (TOPIC 4). FARMING BUSINESS ECONOMICS AND AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Farm records and accounts

Farm records. Are systematic facts and figures of the farm.

Functions of farm record/ importance of farm record

i. Enable the farmers to calculate profit and loss of the farm.
ii. Enable the farmer to get loan from a bank or any other institute.
iii. Enable the farmer to get fair estimates of income taxes.
iv. Enable the farmer to find out whether he is making progress in his business.
v. Facts and figures used to plan future production.
vi. Enable the farmer to known the progress of each enterprise.

Types of farm records

1. Physical farm records.
Is the type of farm record which shows the quantity of inputs used and output obtained
in each project or enterprise on the farm.
Input. Are objects used during productions. Example of input on the farm, fertilizer,
seeds, labour, land and other expenses.
Output. Are produce/ products obtained from the farm. Examples harvests.

Examples of physical records on the farm are;

 Farm map
 Farm dairy, example milk production per cow
 Livestock record, example total number of animals
 Crop production records, amount of sacks.

2. Financial farm records.

Is the type of farm record which shows the quantity and values of what the farmers sells
or buy on their farms.
Example of financial farm record
 Receipts. Some amount you received
  Payments. Some amount you paid
 Loans. Some amount you get from the bank

Farm book keeping

 Is the art of recording in boos all the financial transaction (transfer of value)
Advantages of farm book keeping
 Enable the farmer at any time to know what transaction have taken place
 Enable the farmer to calculate profit and loss in the farm business
 Help to assess the financial position of the farm business
 Help to show the future plan to the farmer.

Methods of farm records

i. Assets. Are all goods in the farm that have got values.
ii. Inventory. Is a list of all assets or goods that are present on the farm. Eg, building,
machines, implements, livestock, farm structures, crops e.t.c
iii. Valuation. Is the process of determining the value of an asset at the particular time.
iv. Salvage value. Is the lost value of an implement or any asset in the farm. Or is the value of
the scraper of an implement.
v. Depreciation. Is the act of loosing value of an asset or goods present on the farm.

Methods of calculating depreciation

i. Straight line method
ii. Diminishing method
iii. Sum of digit method

Calculation of depreciation by using straight line method

Formula D = C-S
N
D= Depreciation
C= Original cost of the asset
S= Salvage value of an asset or lost value of an asset
N= Number of years the asset expected to last or to live

Example o1.
A farmer buys a tractor for shs 350,000/= which it was expected to last for 15 years before
writing it off when its values will be shs 50,000/=, using straight line method, calculate the
annual depreciation of a tractor.

Solution
Data given: D= require ?
 C= 350,000/=, original cost of a tractor
S= 50,000/=, salvage values of a tractor
N= 15 Years

D= 350,000-50,000
15
D= 20,000/= per annual.
Therefore, the annual depreciation of the tractor is shs 20,000/=.

Example 02.
A poultry house which has depreciating at shs 2,000/= per annual was demolished in 1982 after
being in use for 13 years. Its remains were sold for shs 3,000/=. What was the original cost of
the house?
Solution
Data given: D= 2,000/=
S= 3,000/=
N= 13 yrs
C= require ?
2,000= C- 3,000
13
C= 2,000 X13 + 3,00/=…. Therefore original cost is C= 29,000/=.

Example 03.
(b) Bwna shamba wanted to do valuation on his farm, he bought a tractor with shs 30,000/= a tractor
had 10 years old now and it was expected to written off with 30 years, a tractor of Bwana shamba was
sold for shs 15,000/=. By using straight line method, calculate the depreciation per anniual of a tractor.

Balance sheet
 Is the statement showing the financial position of the farm business on a given date.

Parts of balance sheet

Balance sheet has two sides. These are
 Assets: it appears at the right hand side of the sheet. Assets are all goods which have value
found on the farm. Example of assets on the farm; livestock, implements, cash in bank
and cash in hand.
 Liabilities. It appears at the left side of the sheet. It include all that farmer has to pay other
individuals or businesses. Example debt or buying and paying worker
If assets exceed liabilities, a farm is said to be solvent; and the different entered as Net
capital on the liability side.
If the liabilities exceed assets, a farm is said to be insolvent, and the different is entered Net
loss on the side of assets.
 Example of balance sheet table
Liabilities Assets
Cash in hand………
Creditor… Cash in bank…………
Bank ………..shs…………….. Livestock;
Net capital…………………… Cattle………………….
Goats………………….
Implements……....
Building……………..
Purchased feeds……..
Purchased seeds………..
Debtor
Mr. mabula……...

Example 01.
When the valuation was done at Mr. Muhe’s farm on 30 thmarch 2007. The situation was as
follows; cash in hand shs 200/=, cash in bank shs 4,000/=, 20 cattle each worth shs 20,000/=,
130 sheep each shs 25/=, seeds and manure worth shs 450/=, implements worth shs 500/=,
buildings worth shs 2,500/= and purchased animal feeds worth shs 405/=. Mr. Muhe had not yet
paid a loan of shs 500/= which he obtained from CRDB and MR. Doitha had not yet paid Mr.
Muhe shs 500/= for two bottle of drinking water which he bought on credit.
Prepare a balance sheet to show the financial position of Mr. Muhe’s farm as at 30 thmarch 2007.
Solution
Mr. Muhe’s farm showing the financial position at 30thmarch 2007.
Liabilities Assets
Creditor Cash in hand ……….. 200.00
CRDB……………………………… 500. 00 Cash in bank………… 4,000.00
Net capital……………………. 51305.00 Cattle 20@ 20,000….. 400,000.00
Sheep [email protected],250.00
Implement …………………….500.00
Building ………………………2,500.00
Purchased feeds……………..405.00
Purchased seeds…………….450.00
Debtor
Mr. Doitha …………………...500.00
Total ……………………………..51805.00

51,805.00 51,805.00

Example 02.
When the valuation was done at a school farm on 30 thDecember 2018. The situation was as
follows; there were several items in the store which had bought on credit. 20 bags of broiller’s
marsh each 20,000/= bought from kijiju millers. 30 bags of fungicides worth 12,000/=, obtained
from TFA. 20 bags of CAN fertilizers worth 200,000/= bought from kilimo traders, payments for
all of the above items had not been paid. In additional , there were implements worth 40,000/=
and maize bags worth 150,000/=, the farm had shs 200,000/= at CRDB bank and shs 100,000/=
on hand. Prepare a balance sheet of the school farm on 30 thDecember 2018.
 Solution
The school farm valuation on 30 thDecember 2018
Liabilities Sale
Creditors Cash in bank ..200,000.00
Kijiju miller: 20bags of broiler@ 20,000/=……………. 400,000.00 Cash in hand…100,000.00
TFA: 30bags of fungicides worth ………………………….. 12,000.00 Implements worth…. 40,000.00
Kilimo traders: 20 bags of CAN of fertilizers worth……200,000.00 Maize bags worth…. 150,000.00
Total amount………. 490,000.00
Total amount……………………………………………………… 612,000.00 Net loss………………. 122,000.00

612,000.00 612,000.00

Inventory and valuation

Is the table/sheet of lists of all assets with its values on a given date.
This sheet/ table has two sides; Assets and vauation.
Asset, consists a list of all items that present on the farm, Aligned at left side and valuation, consists the
value of each item on the farm at a particular time at right side of the sheet.
Inventory. Is the list of all assets that present on the farm
Valuation. Is the determination of the value of an asset which is present on the farm at a particular
period of time.

Example 01.
6 . On 31st December 1980 a farmer had 5 bags of feedstuffs each worth shs 250/=, 4 bags of fertilizers
each worth shs 120/=, a harrow that is 10 years was bought for shs 5000/= with an expectation that it
would be used for 15 years when it would be written off with a salvage value of shs 200/=. In addition,
there were, 3 milk cows @ shs 5000/=, 210 broilers @ 150/= and 250 layers @ 200/=, write down an
inventory and valuation as at 31st December 1980 for this farmer.
 Solution
First step, start to find the depreciation of a harrow per annual, as a new value of the harrow by that
time.
Data given; D= Required, Original cost of a harrow= shs 5000/=, expected number of year of a harrow
15yrs, the number of year that a harrow lived 10 yrs since it was bought, salvage value of a harrow shs
200/=

D= C-S
N
D= 5000-200
15
D= 320/= per annual. But a harrow has 10 yers.
Therefore, Deprecation of a harrow for 10 years is 320x10yrs = 3200/=
Therefore remained new value of a harrow after 10 yrs is 5000-3200 = 1800/=
Inventory and valuation as at 31 stDecember 1980.
Assets valuation
Machine
A Shs……………………………….. 1800.00
harrow……………………………………………………………….
Livestock Shs………………………………15000.00
i. 3 milk cows@ shs 5000/=…………………….. Shs……………………………..31500.00
ii. 210 broilers@ 150/=……………………………. Shs………………………………50000.00
iii. 250 layers@200/=...................................
Animal feed. Shs……………………………....1250.00
5 bags of livestock feedstuff @250/=………………… Shs………………………………...480.00
4 bags of fertilizers@120/=.............................. Total ……………………….100030.00

Example 02.

Qn 3.On 31st December,2003 a farmer had 10 bags of concentrates each worth 200/=,was bought at
minjingu, 40 bags of fertilizers worth 20,000/-, planter that is 10 years old and was bought for shs
50,000/- with an expectation that it would be used for 20 years and be written of with a values of shs
3,000/-. In addition there were the following livestock, 1 bull cattle worth 20,000/-, 200 pigs each worth
shs 20/- and 20 dairy cattle each worth shs 500/-. Write down the inventory and valuation on as
31stDecember, 2003.
Solution
Depreciation of a planter
D = Required, C = 50,000/=, S = 3,000/=, N= 20 yrs
D= 50,000-3,000
20
D= 2350/= Per annual
Therefore, depreciation of a planter for 10 years is 2350x10= 23500/=
The remained new value of a planter after 10yrs is 50,000-23500= 26500/=
Inventory and valuation done on farm as at 31 stDecember 2003
Assets Valuation
Machine.
A planter……………………………………………… Shs………………………………………… 26500.00
Livestock
i. 1 bull cattle worth………………… Shs …………………………………………..20,000.00
ii. 200 pigs@ worth20/=……….... Shs …………………………………………. 4,000.00
iii. 20 dairy cattle@ worth 500/=.... Shs …………………………………………. 10,000.00
Animal feeds and fertilizers
i. 10 bags of concentrates@ 200/=…… Shs …………………………………………..2,000.00
ii. 40 bags of fertilizers worth shs
20,000/= Shs…………………………………………..20,000.00
Total ……………………………………... 82500.00

GROSS MARGIN
Gross margin-Is the difference between output and variable costs.
Output- Is the total values (shs) obtained from selling harvests or produce obtained from the
enterprise or project
Variable costs. Is total values (shs) which were used to run the enterprises/ project
How profit can be raised by using gross margin
 By reducing the level of fixed costs
 By expanding the enterprises
 By substituting enterprises
 By improving gross margin

Procedures of computing or calculating gross margin or methods of calculating gross margin

 Calculate the total amount of output
 Calculate the total amount of of variable costs
 Subtracting the total variable costs from the total output
Gross margin- is normally expressed per production unit or per unit area or per animal, example
GM/ bird or GM/animal or GM/ hectare e.t.c
 Example o1.
A farmer was keeping 200 layers. In the month of January he sold 120 trays of eggs per day. Each tray for
shs 110/=, he culled 10 layers and sold them for shs 120/= each. During the same month he spent shs
600/= on layer’s marsh and shs 1200/= on veterinary services. Calculate the Gross margin of the poultry
enterprise in January; express your answer on the basis of GM/bird.

Solution
Data given
(i) total output= 120 trays x 110/= x 31 days of month of January
= 120 x 110 x31 = 409200/=
Culled 10 layers @ 120/= 10 x 120 = 1200/=
Total output = 409200 + 1200 = 410400/=
(ii) total variable cost = layer’s marsh shs 600/= + veterinary service 1200/=
Total variable costs = 600 + 1200 = 1800/=
Formula of gross margin

GM = OUTPUT – VARIABLE COST

NUMBER OF BIRDS
(ii) total output – variable cost = 410400 – 1800 = 408600
200 200
Gross margin is shs 2034/= per bird.

Example 02
A farmer planted two hectares of maize. In raising the maize, the farmer bought seeds for shs 200/=,
fertilizers for shs 600/= ,didmac for shs 30/=, weeding costs him shs 400/=. Yield was 20 bags at 100kg
each. The maize was bought by local cooperative society at shs 3/50 per kilo. Calculate the gross margin
per hectare.
Solution
Data given
(i) total output = 20 bags x 100kg x 3/50 = 2000 kg x 3.50 = 7000/=
(ii) total variable costs
 Seeds…………………….. shs 200/=
 Fertilizer………………….shs 600/=
 Didmic …………………..shs 30/=
 Weeding ………………..shs 400/=
Total variable costs (TVC) = 200 + 600+ 30+ 400 = 1230/=

Gross margin = 7000 – 1230 = 5770

 2 2
Gross margin is shs 2885/= per hectare

PARTIAL BUDGETING
Partial budgeting: is the method of estimating the effect of the change in the farm business.

Application of partial budgeting

 Replacement of one enterprise by another enterprise
 Expansion or introduction of a supplementary enterprise
Procedures of computing partial budgeting
 Calculate the amount of revenue will be lost by getting rid of one enterprise( revenue lost)
 Calculate extra cost will be incurred by a new enterprise ( extra cost)
 Calculate extra revenue will be obtained from the new enterprise (extra revenue)
 Calculate the amount of the saved cost by making the change ( saved cost)
Partial budgeting table, has two sides, these are losses located at left side of the table and Gains which
is located at right side of the table.
Partial budgeting table
Losses Gains
(a) extra cost (c) saved cost

(b) revenue lost

Profit if any……………………….. (d) extra revenue
Losses if any………………………

Example 01.
A farmer wanted to change his farm from growing his normal 20 hectares of maize to grow haricot
beans ( 20 hectares of haricot). Both crops are grown in the same season in that particular area. Using
the data below to find out whether the change would be worthwhile. Set your answer in the form of a
partial budget table.
Yield Selling price
Maize 4000kg per ha 25 ct per kg
Haricot beans 1800kg per ha 40 ct per kg
Variable costs of growing maize per ha (saved cost)
 10kg seed at 50 ct each kg
 4 tons of fertilizer at shs 30/= per ton
 Harvesting and picking costs are shs 63/= per ha.
 5 tractor –hours at shs 10/= per hour
Variable costs of growing haricot beans per ha.
 4 kg of seeds at shs 1/= per kilo
 3 tons of fertilizer at shs 20/= per ton
 Harvesting costs at shs 56/= per ha
  4 tractor hours at shs 10/= per hour

Solution
Partial budget
Losses shs ct Gains shs ct
Extra costs Saved costs
Haricot beans costs 4kg x 20ha x 80 00 Maize seeds 10kg x 20ha x 50 100 00
sh1 ct =
Fertilizer tons 3 x 20ha x shs20 = 1200 00 Fertilizer 40kg x20ha x shs 3 = 2400 00
Harvesting costs shs 56 x20 ha = 1120 00 Harvesting and picking costs
4hrs x 20ha x shs 10 = 800 00 shs 63 x 20ha = 1260 00
Revenue lost 5hrs x20ha x shs 10 =
4000kg x 20ha x 25 ct = 20,000 00 Extra revenue 1000 00
1800kg x 20ha x 40 ct 14400 00
23,200 00
Total…………………………………..
19,160 00
Net loss………………………………
4,040 00

The change is not worthwhile because there is loss of shs 4,040.00

Example 02.
A farmer changed his poultry enterprise to pig husbandry enterprise. The yield of pigs
husbandry enterprise was shs 110/=, cost saved of poultry was shs 60/=, yield of poultry
enterprise was shs 80/= and the extra cost was shs 100/=. Find whether the change was
worthwhile.
Solution
Losses shs ct Gain shs ct
Extra costs……………. 100 00 Cost saved……………… 60 00
Revenue lost………… 80 00 Extra revenue………… 110 00
Total…………………… 180 00 Total ……………………… 170 00
Net loss…………………… 10 00

RISKS AND UNCERTANTY

RISKS - Is the situation whereby there is sufficient knowledge or information of the future
outcome and the future outcome is exactly known.
Uncertainty – Is the situation whereby there is imperfect knowledge or information on the
future outcome and the outcome is not exactly known.

Types of risks facing farmers.

 Theft
 Pest and diseases
 Fire outbreak
 Weather conditions
 Hazards
 Health of the farmers

Types of uncertainty
 Change in government policy
 Change in technology
 Change in price of the commodity
 Change in demand
 Change in supply
METHODS OF REDUCING RISKS AND UNCERTAINTY IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
 Insurance
 Diversification
 Flexibility in production
 Maintaining liquidity
 Production on contract basis
 Provision of market information