DAKOTAS WIND TRANSMISSION STUDY

TASK 2

Transmission Technologies to Increase

Power Transfers

FINAL REPORT

Prepared for:

REPORT NO. 2005-10977-3 R2

August 23, 2005
(Revised October 19, 2005)

Submitted by:

ABB Inc., Electric Systems Consulting

940 Main Campus Drive, Suite 300
Raleigh, NC 27606
 Dakotas Wind Transmission Study 2005-10977-3 R2

ABB Inc., Electric Systems Consulting Technical Report

Dakotas Wind Transmission Study No. 2005-10977-3 R2

Date
Title: DWTS Task 2, Potential Transmission Dept.
August 23, 2005
Pages
Technologies to Increase Power Transfers ESC (Rev 10-19-05)
22

Authors: Ravi kanth Varanasi

Reviewer: Don Martin

Summary:
This report documents the status of results for Task 2 of the Dakotas Wind Transmission Study.
Task 2 provides an overview of some of the transmission technologies to mitigate overloads and
stability problems without adding new transmission lines to the system. The results of the Task
3 and 4 studies indicated some steady-state and dynamic stability problems when wind
generation was added. For two of the sites there were some possible transmission line
overloads following a contingency. Overloads at these two sites could potentially be resolved
by using dynamic rating of the lines.

Under some system export conditions there were some system instability and low dynamic
voltage problems. Simulations of series capacitor compensation and SVCs demonstrated how
these technologies could improve the system performance for these dynamic problems.

The report reviews various methodologies available to mitigate some of the system problems
identified in the Task 3 and 4 studies. The technologies considered in these study includes the
following:

• Re-conductor transmission lines

• Dynamic transmission line ratings
• Add conventional series capacitors
• Add controllable series capacitors
• Add SVCs or STATCOMs
• Add phase shifting transformers

For the steady-state overloading problems, the dynamic transmission line rating and
reconductoring the transmission lines can mitigate the problems. For the dynamic
instability and low voltage problems, series capacitors and SVCs or STATCOMs can
improve the system performance.
Rev. # Revision Date Author Reviewed Approved
1 Updated with Comments 9-30-05 RKV DM DM
Rev. # Revision Date Author Reviewed Approved
2 Updated with Comments 10-19-05 RKV DM DM

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LEGAL NOTICE

This document, prepared by ABB Inc., is an account of work subcontracted by HDR Engineering
Inc. HDR Engineering Inc. is Western Area Power Administration’s (WAPA) contractor for
Dakotas Wind Transmission Project of Western. Neither ABB Inc., nor any person or persons
acting on behalf of either party: (i) makes any warranty or representation, expressed or implied,
with respect to the use of any information contained in this report, or that the use of any
information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report may not infringe privately
owned rights, or (ii) assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of or for damages resulting
from the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this document.

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Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 5
2 DYNAMIC LINE RATING OF TRANSMISSION LINES ............................................................... 5
2.1 GENERAL DYNAMIC RATING CONSIDERATIONS .........................................................................5
2.2 IEEE AND CIGRE STANDARDS......................................................................................................6
2.3 STATIC AND DYNAMIC RATINGS ......................................................................................................7
2.4 HEAT BALANCE EQUATION FOR CALCULATING ALLOWABLE CONDUCTOR LOADING ....8
3. RE-CONDUCTOR OF TRANSMISSION LINES: .......................................................................... 12
3.1 ACSS (ALUMINUM CONDUCTOR STEEL SUPPORTED) ..........................................................12
3.2 ACSS/TW (ALUMINUM CONDUCTOR STEEL SUPPORTED / TRAPEZOIDAL WIRE) .......12
3.3 ACCR (ALUMINUM CONDUCTOR COMPOSITE REINFORCED) .............................................13
3.4 AAAC (ALL ALUMINUM ALLOY CONDUCTORS) ........................................................................13
3.5 CONDUCTORS COMPARISON ..........................................................................................................15
4. TRANSMISSION ENHANCEMENT BY SERIES CAPACITORS ............................................. 16
5. TRANSMISSION ENHANCEMENT BY SVCS AND STATCOMS ........................................... 21
6. ADDITION OF PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS .............................................................. 22
7. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 23

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Line Rating (vs) Line Length

Figure 2.2 Line Rating (Vs.) Wind Speed And Angle Of Incidence
Figure 4.1 Transmission Line Reactive Power Losses with Series Capacitors
Figure 4.2 Example of Series Capacitors
Figure 4.3 Voltage Profile with Series Capacitors for Normal System
Figure 4.4 Voltage Profile with Series Capacitors for Outage Condition
Figure 4.5 Stability of the Figure 4.3 System with and without Series Capacitors
Figure 4.6 Subsynchronous Resonance of Series Capacitors and Generators
Figure 4.7 Example of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors

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1 INTRODUCTION
There are several transmission alternatives besides building new transmission lines to
accommodate more power transfers when new generation is connected to the power
system. For steady state transmission improvements this study investigated the benefits of
dynamic transmission line ratings, re-conductor of the transmission lines, phase shifting
transformers for power control, and series capacitors for rerouting power flows. Dynamic
rating of the transmission lines, also known as the real-time rating is the process of
determining the design capacity of a transmission line and is calculated by making
deterministic assumptions about the ambient temperature, wind speed and other weather
related conditions. There are several ways of increasing the transmission capacity in real
time. Re-conductoring a transmission line with larger conductor or a high temperature
conductor can increase the transmission line capability. Some issues with re-conductoring
are the cost effectiveness and the possible breaching of the statutory clearances with
higher temperature conductors. Phase shifting transformers and series capacitors are
methods to reroute power from lines that are overloaded to lines with spare capacity. They
require some unused transmission capacity available on part of the system where they can
reroute the power to use that capacity.

Stability limitations in the Dakotas also limit power transfers. Technologies that may
increase the stability limits include series capacitors, both conventional or thyristor
controlled, SVCs and STATCOMs, and phase shifting transformers.

2 DYNAMIC LINE RATING OF TRANSMISSION LINES

2.1 General Dynamic Rating Considerations

As a minimum up to a 15% or 20% increase in the thermal rating of a transmission can be

obtained with dynamic ratings. Even more can be expected when the transmission lines
are loaded due to wind generation since wind will be blowing when the lines are loaded. If
an increase in the thermal rating of a transmission is needed, dynamic rating of the lines
may be an option. In the absence of a dynamic rating capability, transmission owners are
restricted to operating the lines at a pre-determined limit computed with a fixed set of
weather conditions including ambient temperature, sunshine, wind velocity and direction,
etc which affect the current carrying capability of the transmission line. The steady state
thermal rating is the loading that corresponds to the maximum allowable conductor
temperature under the assumption of thermal equilibrium. The dynamic security rating of
the line is a function of the line admittance. Figure 1. shows the relationship between the
line length, thermal ratings and security or stability constraints. The curved labeled
dynamic line rating refers to the dynamic stability rating and not the dynamic thermal rating.
A line that has dynamic thermal rating capability will results in the thermal line rating curve
being raised higher based on weather and ambient conditions.

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Dakotas Wind Transmission Study 2005-10977-3 R2

Figure 2.1 Line Rating (vs) Line Length

Interconnection of the wind generation is interesting in its correlation to the weather factors
that affect the dynamic line ratings. Wind generators output increases with wind velocities.
Normally as the wind increases, the generation increases and results in higher loadings on
the transmission lines. The interconnecting transmission lines have a nominal rating
calculated at much lower wind speeds. At higher wind velocities, the cooling of the
transmission line reduces the sag there by making the transmission line available for more
power transfers at the time the wind generation is adding to the power transfers.

Dynamic rating of the line allows the transmission owner to monitor the weather conditions,
sag / tension on the line in real time and to permit loadings that exceed the nominal rating.
All lines in Unites States are governed by the National Electric Safety code (NESC). The
most common practice is to calculate line nominal ratings based on coincident high
ambient temperature, full solar radiation and effective wind speed of 0.61 m/s. Some
utilities even assume an effective wind speed of 0.91 m/s, or higher.

2.2 IEEE and CIGRE Standards

IEEE (IEEE standard 738, 1993) and CIGRE (CIGRE, 1992, 1997, 1999) offer standard
methods for the calculation of the transmission line ampacity in the steady state and
dynamic states. The CIGRE report presents a three-dimensional thermal model of
conductors for unsteady state calculation. A similar model was presented to IEEE for the
calculation of the thermal gradient of conductor from surface to the core.

Common utility practice of rating the transmission lines is based on the conservative
assumptions of ambient temperature, wind speed, solar radiation and maximum conductor
temperature:
Ambient temperature: 40 deg C
Wind speed: 0.61 m/s (2 ft/sec)
Solar Radiation: 1000 W/m2
Maximum conductor temperature: 80 deg C

The solution of the differential equations for the heating of a conductor by current in the
steady state and dynamic states requires the knowledge of the following metrological data
as follows:

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Dakotas Wind Transmission Study 2005-10977-3 R2

• Ambient Temperature
• Wind Speed
• Wind Direction
• Solar radiation

An example to consider is the wind generation interconnection, which takes into account
the autocorrelations between the wind speed, wind direction, ambient temperature, solar
radiation and other weather patterns to forecast the transmission line ampacity.

The approach to increase the thermal line ratings encompasses several active tasks:

• Develop thermal ratings standards,

• Identify sources and magnitudes of errors in as-built sags at every temperature,
• Accurate calculation of high temperature sags,
• Probabilistic aspects of the line ratings
• Real-time rating methodologies, etc

2.3 Static and Dynamic Ratings

The static ratings of the lines are determined based on the historical weather data in the
region for different conductor types used in the region. Generally, static line ratings are
fixed for a particular season of the year.

Dynamic line ratings are computed by online or offline methods based on recorded data.
Methods to increase the maximum conductor temperature involve physical modifications
for the line structures to increase ground clearance in certain spans. This method allows
the use of higher allowable maximum conductor temperature and yields a corresponding
increase in the calculated thermal rating. The uncertainties of the sag at higher
temperature can be resolved by monitoring the sag and tension at higher current carrying
conditions. Without actual measurements, the line may not adequately ensure proper
minimum ground and under build clearance.

Online rating methods include monitoring conductor temperature, weather conditions or

tension along the transmission line route. Installing temperature sensors at certain
sections of the transmission line monitors conductor temperature. Tension monitors that
are attached to insulators on the tension towers oversee conductor tension. In both
monitoring systems, sensor data is communicated to a base station computer by a radio
communication device installed on the sensor and the ampacity is calculated at the base
station computer using the recorded data.

In the offline system, line ratings are obtained uniquely by monitoring weather conditions
along the transmission line. The offline system may also include monitoring conductor sag
by pointing a laser beam at the lowest point of the conductor in a span. The ampacity is
calculated from the conductor sag and weather data by taking a series of measurements of
conductor sag at a different transmission line spans along the length of the line.

Transmission lines are now being equipped with fiber optic network cables embedded in
the core are used to carry useful information regarding the sag and temperature and

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Dakotas Wind Transmission Study 2005-10977-3 R2

eliminate the need for separate communication to supply data to the central processing
station in order to determine the dynamic rating of the power lines. The latest advances in
computation models involve probabilistic modeling of the conductor temperature to predict
the loss of the tensile strength and permanent elongation of the conductor in the lifetime.

2.4 Heat Balance Equation For Calculating Allowable Conductor Loading

The following paragraphs describe briefly the mathematical formulation to evaluate the
ampacity of a conductor.

Online temperature monitoring system:

There are many methods for calculation line loading. Most commonly used method uses
the conductor temperature to solve the heat balance equation to evaluate the ampacity.

All the quantities are a function of the conductor temperature. Line ampacity is accurately
computed by numerical solution of the following conductor temperature differential
equation:

dTav
M .c p . = Pj + Ps + Pm − Pr − Pc
dt

M = γ.A, conductor mass, kg/m

A = conductor are, m2
Pj = joule heating, W/m
PS = solar heating, W/m
Pm = magnetic heating, W/m
Pr = radiation heat loss, W/m
PC = convection heat loss, W/m
Tav = is the average of surface temperature and the core temperature of the conductor.

The ampacity is then calculated by using the formula:

(Pr + Pc − Ps)
I= Rac
Where;

Pr: Heat loss by radiation,

PC: Heat loss by convection,
PS: Heat gained by solar radiation,
Rac: AC resistance of the conductor

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Effect of wind speed and direction on the Ampacity of the conductor:

The wind speed at any instant effects the calculation of the dynamic rating of the line due
to its effect on the Heat loss due to convection. It is given by the term PC in the equation
below.

PC = h. p. D (Tc – Ta)

h = coefficient of heat transfer from the conductor surface to the ambient air.

h = l. Nu . Kwd / D

l = Thermal conductivity of ambient air

Nu = Nusselt number

Nu = 0.64 Re 0.2 + 0.2 Re 0.61

Re = Reynolds number

Re = D. (ws/vf)

ws = wind speed (m/sec)

vf = kinematic viscocity of the air ( m2/sec)
kwd = wind direction correction factor

Kwd = 1.194 – sin(w) – 0.194 cos(2w) +0.364 sin(2w)

w = Wind direction with respect to conductor normal in degrees

Summary of methodology for calculating steady-state thermal rating (Offline Method) :

Receive Input Heat Gain By Radiation Convection Ps − Pr − Pc

From Steady – Radiation, Ps Heat Loss, Heat Loss, Pc I=
Rac
State Session Pr
Window

Example Calculation:

The Plot in figure 2.1 indicates the ampacity of the transmission line calculated based on
the following assumptions:

Conductor Type: ACSR Cardinal conductor

Ambient temperature: 80 deg C
Solar Radiation: 1000 W/m2
Emissivity = 0.5
Absorptivity = 0.5

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Based on the above-mentioned values, the solar heat gain is computed to be 15.19 W/m
and the Heat loss by radiation is calculated to be 22.08 W/m.

Using the formulation from the section 2, the Heat loss by convection is computed for
various values of wind speed and direction.

The Figure 2.2 indicates the increase in the current rating of the line considered with the
increase in the wind speed and variation in the direction of incidence of the wind on the
conductor.

Conductor loading vs Wind speed and Direction

3000

2500

90 deg wrt conductor

2000
75 deg wrt conductor
Ampacity

60 deg wrt conductor

1500
45 deg wrt conductor

1000 30 deg wrt conductor

0 deg wrt conductor
500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Wind Speed (m/sec)

Figure 2.2 Line Rating (Vs.) Wind Speed And Angle Of Incidence

The above curves indicate the rating of the conductor based on the wind speed and the
angle of incidence of the wind on the conductor. Clearly, the line can be rated at the
maximum, for high wind velocities and also when the wind direction is perpendicular to
the conductor.

The above curves are for an ACSR cardinal conductor with a mean diameter of
0.0304m. The conductor initial temperature is assumed to be 80 deg C.

Considering the wind velocities for the same angle of incidence (eg., 45 deg) the rating
of the conductor can be increased from approximately 1038 amperes to 2341 amperes
when the wind speeds are 0.61 m/s and 12 m/s respectively. Most of the utilities rate the
transmission based on the base wind speed of 0.61 m/s. Using the dynamic rating
methodology, the rating of the conductor can be increased as this will accommodate the
new wind generation during the high wind speed condition.

Base on the assumed values, the heat loss by conduction based on the wind speed and
angle of incidence is calculated and the total ampacity of the conductor is determined
using the formulae explained in the previous section.

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An example of how dynamic line ratings might work on the system are calculated below.

> Wind Generation starts at about 3.5 m/s

> Max Wind Generation from 12 m/s to 25 m/s
> With Max generation at 12 m/s, assume nearby lines have 33% or 4 m/s wind
> Wind angle to line is 15 degrees (75 degrees to normal) then wind correction factor is
0.53
> Effective wind cooling speed m/s x 0.53 = 2.12 m/s
> Convention cooling increases 187% over 0.61 m/s in conductor tables
> Convection cooling is > 85% of total cooling so conductor dynamic rating will increase
to 170% of table rating

This example shows how consideration of the wind can substantially increase the
conductor rating of the lines. Dynamic line rating of the 230-kV lines at Pickert for 500
MW or the 115-kV lines at Mission for 250 MW could allow the existing lines to carry all
of the power during a contingency.

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3. Re-conductor of Transmission lines:

The technical studies and analysis for the Dakotas Wind Transmission Study found only a
few overloaded transmission lines during contingency conditions and the level of overload
indicated that dynamic rating was a better solution than rebuilding or re-conductoring
transmission lines. Some of the options to re-conductor a transmission line are discussed
below.

The thermal rating of existing power line can be often increased though a process of re-
conductor, particularly with high temperature low sag conductors such as ACSS and other
composite conductors. Re-conductor usually results in an increase in the rating of a line up
to 50% without any modifications for structural reinforcements of the existing towers. Using
these types of conductors, increase in the current carrying capacity of the transmission line
for the same diameter does not increase the sag in the line with the increase in the current
(temperature) flowing through it.

Other proven method for increasing the transmission line capacity is to re-tension the
conductor. This can increase the clearances of the critical spans and therefore increase the
line rating. Changing the type of conductor to ACSS (Aluminum Conductor Steel
Supported) can increase the rating up to 25% while maintaining the same mechanical load
in the towers. Also, using a trapezoidal type of conductor limits the conductor diameter and
therefore limit the ice/wind loads on the existing towers while increasing the cross sectional
area of the aluminum.

For re-conductoring, several new conductors can be considered for this purpose. Some
commonly used are:

3.1 ACSS (Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported)

ACSS uses a fully annealed aluminum conductor around a steel core. The steel core
provides the entire conductor support. The aluminum strands are “dead soft”, thus the
conductor can be operated in excess of 2000C without loss of strength. The maximum
operating temperature of the conductor is limited by the coating used on the steel core
(conventional galvanized coating can sustain 245oC). Since the fully annealed aluminum
cannot support significant stress, the conductor has a thermal expansion similar to that of
steel. Tension in the aluminum strands is normally low. This helps to improve the
conductor's self-damping characteristics and helps to reduce the need for dampers.

3.2 ACSS/TW (Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported / Trapezoidal Wire)

For ACSS/TW, the aluminum strands are trapezoidal in shape. The wedge shaped
aluminum strands enable a more compact alignment of the aluminum wires. Conductor
designs that maintain the same circular mil cross sectional area of aluminum as a
conventional round conductor results in a TW conductor that is 10 to 15 percent smaller in
overall diameter. Conductor designs that maintain the same overall diameter as a
conventional round conductor result in a TW conductor that has 20 to 25 percent more
aluminum cross-sectional area packed.

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3.3 ACCR (Aluminum Conductor Composite Reinforced)

The Aluminum Conductor Composite Reinforced (ACCR) is a new type of bare overhead
conductor containing a multi-strand core of heat-resistant aluminum composite wires,
retains its strength at high temperatures and is not adversely affected by the environmental
conditions, such as moisture and UV exposure. It’s lightweight and reduced thermal
expansion properties allow the conductors to be installed on existing towers and requires
no additional changes.

The Composite Conductor is a non-homogeneous conductor consisting of high-

temperature material strands (like aluminum-zirconium) covering a stranded core of fiber-
reinforced composite wires. Both the composite core and the outer strands contribute to the
overall conductor strength.

The composite core contains metal composite wires with diameters ranging from 0.073”
(1.9 mm) to 0.114” (2.9 mm). The core wires have the strength and stiffness of steel, but
with much lower weight and higher conductivity. Each core wire contains many thousand,
ultra-high-strength, micrometer-sized fibers. The fibers are continuous, oriented in the
direction of the wire, and fully embedded within high-purity aluminum. Visually, the
composite wires appear as traditional aluminum wires, but exhibit mechanical and physical
properties far superior to those of aluminum and steel. For example, the composite wire
provides nearly 8 times the strength of aluminum and about 3 times the stiffness. It weighs
less than half of an equivalent segment of steel, with greater conductivity and less than half
the thermal expansion of steel. The outer strands are composed of a temperature-resistant
material (like aluminum-zirconium alloy), which permits operation at high temperatures
(210ºC continuous, 240ºC emergency). The Al-Zr alloy is a hard aluminum alloy with
properties and hardness similar to those of standard 1350-H19 aluminum but a
microstructure designed to maintain strength after operating at high temperatures; that is, it
resists annealing. In contrast, 1350-H19 wires rapidly anneal and lose strength with
excursions above 120-150ºC. The temperature-resistant Al-Zr alloy wire has equivalent
tensile strengths and stress-strain behavior to standard 1350-H19 aluminum wires.

3.4 AAAC (All Aluminum Alloy Conductors)

AAAC is a high strength aluminum alloy, concentric-lay-stranded conductor and is similar in

current carrying capacity as the equivalent size of ACSR. AAAC is similar in construction
and appearance to ACSR.

Aluminum Alloy Conductors have a number of advantages over the ACSR

• Lower power losses than for equivalent single aluminum layer ACSR conductors (the
inductive effect of the steel core in ACSR is eliminated).
• Simpler fittings than those required for ACSR
• Excellent corrosion resistance in environments conducive to galvanic corrosion in
ACSR.
• Strength and sags are approximately same as for equivalent 6/1 and 26/7 ACSR
conductors.

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• Outside diameters are same as for the standard ACSR conductors permitting
interchangeability of fittings.
• Greater resistance to the abrasion than that for 1350 wires in all aluminum or ACSR
conductors.

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3.5 Conductors Comparison

Table 1 below compares three of the conductors. The

Table 1: Comparison of properties for different Transmission Conductors (DRAKE SIZE )1

ACSR ACSS/TW ACCR

795 795 kcmil 1020
Aluminum Area:
kcmil kcmil
Size Same Same Same
Slightly Same
Weight Same
higher
Rated Ampacity 1615 1902
905
(amperes):
Max Operating temp: 75oC 200oC 200oC
High Temp Sag: High Low Very Low
Inductive Heating: Standard Low Very Low
Line Loss: Standard Low Less
Al Conductivity (%IACS): 52% 68% 63%
31,000 15,600lbs 41,000
Tensile Strength
lbs lbs

1
The characteristics of the Transmission line conductors represented in the table are just for comparison purpose.
The details of each characteristic should change with the manufacturer and the different materials used for the
conductors.

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4. TRANSMISSION ENHANCEMENT BY SERIES CAPACITORS

Reactive compensation in power transmission systems has been a common practice in the
power industry. The surge impedance loading (SIL) of a power transmission line is often
used to indicate the nominal capacity of the line, especially for longer lines. At loadings
greater than the SIL, it is necessary to supply Vars to the line in order to hold the voltage
within normal limits. The SIL of a line can be increased by using series capacitor
compensation, which results in a change in the inductive reactance of the line thereby
increasing the steady state power transfer capability of the line. Figure 4.1 below shows
how adding series compensation reduces the reactive power absorbed by the transmission
line under heavy loading conditions.

Figure 4.1 Transmission Line Reactive Power Losses with Series Capacitors

Series compensation also increases the voltage profile across the transmission systems
under various loading conditions and also provides better control for load sharing and
optimizing the losses in the transmission system.

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Figure 4.2 Example of Series Capacitors

Loss optimization as per the setup in the Figure above can be calculated using the formula:

(X1-XC) / X2 = R1 / R2

Series compensation can have a significant effect on the stability of the system and its
ability to survive major disturbances. The transient stability of the system is improved by
series compensation due to the reduction in the overall series reactance and provides
greater power transfer capability for a given angular difference between the nodes in the
network. The power transferred is inversely proportional to the line reactance and 50%
compensation reduces the reactance of the line by one-half, which provides twice the
power transfer capability for a given angular difference. This is particularly true for the
systems with long transmission lines, with great distances between the generation and
loads. The figure below indicates the flows and voltages on two transmission lines with
series compensation.

V=1.064 V=1.057 V=1.026

Colbun P+Q=282 - j71 Maipo

P+Q=282 - j71

Figure 4.3 Voltage Profile with Series Capacitors for Normal System

Loosing one of the lines in this scenario with additional series compensation at the
receiving end results in a good voltage profile across the transmission network as indicated
in the figure below.

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Dakotas Wind Transmission Study 2005-10977-3 R2

V=1.048 V=1.212 /-31.6 V=1.00 /-10.7

Colbun P+Q=531.6 - j413.7 Maipo

531.6 - j162.2

Figure 4.4 Voltage Profile with Series Capacitors for Outage Condition

The speed of the units in the nearby location can be plotted to compare the effect of the
new compensation to the scenario without any compensation. Clearly, the figure below
indicates the system to restore stability following the loss of a line.

LOSS OF ONE LINE

1.08

1.06

1.04
UNIT SPEED

WITH SC
1.02
WITHOUT SC
1

0.98

0.96
0 2 4 6 8 10
SECONDS

Figure 4.5 Stability of the Figure 4.3 System with and without Series Capacitors

The results from the regional stability analysis of the MAPP system discussed in the Task 4
report clearly indicate the stability improvements when the simulations were performed with
35% and 50% series compensation on some of the lines. The addition of series capacitors
helped to both keep the power system in synchronism following a critical disturbance and
reduce the voltage dip on the system. The results from the Task 4 study can be
summarized as follows:

IMPACT OF ADDING CONVENTIONAL SERIES CAPACITORS

35% Series Compensation Increased transfers 100-250 MW for 7 Scenarios (About $4.5 M per
installation):
„Antelope Valley-Huron
„Leland Olds-Groton
„Leland Olds-Ft. Thompson

50% Series Compensation Increased transfers 200-250 MW for 2 Scenarios (About $5 M per
installation):
„Antelope Valley-Huron
„Leland Olds-Groton
„Leland Olds-Ft. Thompson

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Series capacitors can be a very cost effective way to increase transmission capacity.
There is one adverse impact that has been identified with series capacitors and that is the
phenomena of subsynchronous resonance (SSR). Figure 4.6 below, the example of the
generator shafts shows their characteristic resonance frequencies. If the series capacitor
and the transmission system inductive reactance have a resonance that is the complement
of the shaft resonance, oscillations below 60 Hz (therefore referred to as subsynchronous)
can be amplified between the electrical system and the generator shaft. At one station in
the early 1970’s this was known to have damaged the shaft.

INFINITE
GEN BUS

H IP LPA LPB GE EXC

P N

15.7 Hz, 20.2 Hz, 25.6 Hz, 32.3 Hz, 47. Hz

Figure 4.6 Subsynchronous Resonance of Series Capacitors and Generators

Some general rules about when SSR can be a problem are:

• The generators are large thermal steam generator units

• The series compensation is generally over 50%
• The generation can be isolated on the lines with series capacitors

In recent years, controllable series capacitors using thyristor valves have been designed.
With the thyristor controlled series capacitors, SSR problems can be eliminated in those
systems that would have a potential for SSR.

Thyristor controlled series compensators (TCSCs) are an extension of conventional series

capacitors through adding a thyristor-controlled reactor. Placing a controlled reactor in
parallel with a series capacitor enables a continuous and rapidly variable series
compensation system. The main benefits of TCSCs are increased energy transfer,
damping of power oscillations, damping of sub synchronous resonances found with
conventional series capacitors and generators, and control of line power flow.

The addition of the thyristor valve does add significantly to the costs of a series capacitor
installation. In most instances, only part of the total series capacitor needs to be

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controllable. Figure 4.7 shows how the total series compensation is split between
conventional series capacitors and thyristor controlled series capacitors.

Figure 4.7 Example of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors

Thyristor controlled series capacitors should be considered if SSR is a problem or if system

damping is required to reduce oscillations.

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5. TRANSMISSION ENHANCEMENT BY SVCs AND STATCOMs

The use of Static Var Compensators (SVC’s) or STATCOM’s also provides the similar
benefits to the series compensation. They provide reactive power support and can
increase stability was well as help support the system voltage. An SVC can be used to
improve transmission line economics by resolving dynamic voltage problems thereby
increasing power transfers. The accuracy, availability and fast response enable SVC’s to
provide high performance steady state and transient voltage control compared with
classical shunt capacitor compensation. SVC’s are also used to damp power swings,
improve transient stability, and reduce system losses by optimized reactive power control.

STATCOMs are power electronics based on voltage source converters. Compared with
conventional SVC’s (see above) they don’t require large inductive and capacitive
components to provide inductive or capacitive reactive power to high voltage transmission
systems. This results in smaller land requirements. An additional advantage is the higher
reactive output at low system voltages where a STATCOM can be considered as a current
source independent from the system voltage. In general, for transmission applications
there is little difference between the performance of an SVC or a STATCOM. The most
economical solution should generally drive the technology used. Below are SVC and
STATCOM applications.

a. DYNAMIC VOLTAGE SUPPORT

b. INCREASE POWER TRANSFERS
c. INCREASE TRANSIENT STABILITY
d. DAMP POWER OSCILLATIONS
e. BALANCE PHASE VOLTAGES
f. FLICKER AND VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS CONTROL
g. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

In Task 4 the main requirement for the SVCs were for dynamic voltage support that
resulted in increased wind power transfers. Simulations indicated some cases had low
voltage dip problems in Groton area and in the northern Minnesota area. As a solution
SVCs were modeled as described below:

1. For the Garrison Site: three 200 MVAr SVCs in northern Minnesota eliminated
the low voltages
2. For the Ellendale Site: one 200 MVAr SVC at Groton eliminated the low voltages
3. 200 MVAr SVC about $11M
4. 200 MVAr STATCOM generally 30% higher

The SVCs and STATCOMs can be one solution to eliminating dynamic low voltage
problems that limit power transfers from the wind sites.

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Dakotas Wind Transmission Study 2005-10977-3 R2

6. ADDITION OF PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS

Phase shifting transformers can control the power through the transformer and this allows it
to reduce loop flow thus increasing power transfers. Examples of this application are the
phase shifting transformer at Boundary Dam in Saskatchewan that controls power on the
Tioga line to North Dakota and the phase shifting transformer at Whiteshell that controls
power between Ontario and Manitoba.

Phase shifting transformers add impedance to the system and in general reduce the
system stability, although in the Northern MAPP system they may be useful in redirecting
flows away from critical interfaces (e.g., the Manitoba Hydro Export –MHEX- Interface),
and thus can be helpful in increasing transfer capability.

Main benefits of phase-shifting transformers are the protection of lines and transformers
from thermal overload and sometimes an improvement of transmission system stability.
They allow controlling the power flow between different networks, for parallel long distance
overhead-lines or for parallel cables. Varying the voltage angle across the phase shifting
transformer can control both the magnitude and the direction of the power flow. The series
voltage can be varied by the tap changer in steps determined by the taps on the regulating
winding. A phase-shifting transformer is very often the most economic approach to power
flow management.

There were two sites with that resulted in overloaded lines. The first was the Pickert site
with loss of one of the two 230-kV lines under summer rating conditions overloading the
remaining line. The second was the Mission site for 250 MW on the 115-kV system and
loss of one line. In both cases, there was not spare or unused capacity available in a
parallel tie that could benefit from the use of a phase shifting transformer to reroute power.

A phase shifter might improve stability by shifting power going south and east to the north
through Manitoba Hydro, but the transfers from Manitoba Hydro into Minnesota were
already stability limited and therefore the phase shifting transformer in this case can only
improve one stability limit by impacting another stability limit. In this system there was
limited opportunity to shift power between NDEX and Manitoba Hydro export to increase
stability.

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Dakotas Wind Transmission Study 2005-10977-3 R2

7. REFERENCES
CIGRE, 1999. The use of weather predictions for transmission line thermal ratings. Electra
No. 186, October 1999.

CIGRE, 1999. The thermal behavior of overhead conductors. Section 4. Mathematical

model for evaluation of conductor temperature in the adiabatic state. Working group 22.12

Foss, Stephen D., Maraio, Robert, 1989. Dynamic line rating in the operating environment.
IEEE Transmission and Distribution conference paper #89 TD 431-8 PWRD

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