Chapter 3 Curriculum Planning

Module 1: What is Curriculum Planning?

I. Learning Outcomes
a. define what curriculum planning is;
b. discuss the levels of curriculum planning;
c. identify the issues pertaining to curriculum planning;
d. explain about various curriculum planning approaches; and
e. list the curriculum planning models and distinguish between 'technical'
and 'non-technical' models.
II. Introduction

This chapter considers what the curriculum is and how it should be derived from the
school’s educational vision. It highlights the fact that qualifications form only part of the
curriculum. Every school is unique and school leaders must consider how to support its
implementation, which may necessitate changes to a school’s structure and operations.
We introduce some fundamental principles that need to be considered in the curriculum
design process.

Having studied the essentials, it is but natural that we should be acquainted with the
selection procedures and the sequential organizational pattern of these procedures in
the curriculum-making process. Though we have had a glimpse of the dominant
paradigm in curriculum planning in these chapter, it is necessary that we should
acquaint you with the various models/approaches being practiced in the domain of
curriculum.

This chapter is designed to present a few models of curriculum planning. However, we

would like to caution you that these are not the only models available in the field under
consideration. Nevertheless, we have taken up only those that serve our immediate
purposes and that are not complete in that they have incorporated all the aspects of the
activities involved in curriculum planning.

III. Body

CURRICULUM PLANING: A DEFINITION

It is essential that we should acquaint ourselves with a few terms in the field of
curriculum. A working knowledge of these terms is not only part of studying
curriculum, but also essential for effective participation in curriculum planning
activities. As our immediate concern is curriculum planning, at the outset we shall
attempt to evolve a definition of this term.

What does curriculum planning involve?

Curriculum planning is a complex activity involving the interplay of ideas from the
curriculum field and other related disciplines. However, the ultimate purpose of
curriculum planning is to describe the learning opportunities available to students.

Thus, curriculum planning is ultimately concerned with the experiences of learners.

In any teaching-learning situation, however, the concern is not only with what
students ought to learn, but also with how they are going to learn it. Curriculum
 plans that define concepts or ideas without considering action, are incomplete since
learning must eventually involve the application of what has been learned.

This relationship of content and process accentuates the need to consider curriculum
and instruction not as distinct entities, but rather as interdependent concepts in the
planning process.

Therefore, curriculum planning involves decisions about both content and process.

It should be noted that curriculum planning typically involves decisions about some
combinations of areas and issues since it is difficult to consider any one of these in
isolation.

Therefore, curriculum planning involves decisions about a variety of issues/topics.

Popular thinking in the early 1900* was that curriculum planning was the prerogative of
a few scholars and the teacher's role was to implement what has been planned. Due to
of advances in thinking, it is now considered that curriculum planning is not the sole
responsibility or privilege of any one group. It is, in essence: a product of teamwork.

Curriculum planning thus involves many groups of people and levels of operation
and is a continuous process.

Now, if we put together what is presented in the above boxes, we shall arrive at a
working definition of the term 'curriculum planning: _ We can define the term
'curriculum planning' as a continuous process in which participants contribute at various
levels towards making decisions about:

 the purposes of learning

 how that purpose might be carried out through teaching learning situations
 whether the purpose identified, and the means selected are both appropriate
and effective.

KEY TO LEADERSHIP

Curriculum Planning is a continuous process which involves activities characterized

by interrelationships among individuals and groups as they work together in
studying, planning, developing, and improving the curriculum which is total
environment planned by the school. Effective process is key to the success of
educational programs.

Now, let us quickly touch upon a few other terms associated with curriculum
planning. The terms 'curriculum planning' and 'curriculum development' are often
used interchangeably. Some, however, believe that they represent two different
stages of an educational activity.

According to this new, curriculum planning is a blanket concept that may describe
activity ranging from the identification of broad goals to the description of
experiences for specific teaching/learning situations. Curriculum development is an
activity concerned mainly with the design of actual teaching/learning situations.
Based upon the broad goals, at the development stage 'we identify ways to translate
those goals into a coordinate and coherent program of learning experiences.

Thus, curriculum planning is a generic concept that includes both curriculum

development and instructional design, and instructional design denotes a highly
specific activity focused on methods of teaching and learning.

Participants of Curriculum Planning get involved in variety of activities such as:

  Discussing common problems
 Making decisions
 Developing a functional philosophy
 Studying learners and the environment
 Keeping up to date with the knowledge
 Studying ways to improve instructions
 Carrying research and evaluation

Why Plan in the first place?

 Decide how and where to set priorities in the use of limited human and
economic resources.
 Decide how to accomplish not only your short-range goals but also your
medium and long-range goals.
 Build on the strong and successful parts of the program. As well as to identify
and improve the weak parts.
 Reach argument in the school community about what to do and how to do it.

KEY TO LEADERSHIP

Curriculum Planning is the specification and

sequencing of major decisions to be made in the
future about the curriculum.

What a Good Planning Process is?

 It is organized thinking that helps in deciding what needs to be done, how it

will happen, and who will do it.
 It is the setting of priorities in the use of resources: people, money, time,
and materials.
 It is trying to anticipate the future.
 It is adapting and modifying steps or processes until they work for you.
 It is using leadership to motivate people and to coordinate their activities.
 It is reflecting on what has been planned already and how it is working.
 It includes the periodic recording of planning decision for future reference.

What a Good Planning Process should do:

 It should stimulate change and improvement.
 It should help you figure out what will happen and how it should happen.
 It should raise awareness about what is being done and why.
 It should build a trail of activities over time so you can look at what has
worked well and what has not.
 It should produce a blueprint, road map, or recipe to be used.
 It should decrease fear about the process of change and its result.

The Bases of Curriculum Planning

 History
 Philosophy
 Social forces
 Psychology
 Religion
 Contemporary issues

Lack of Curriculum Planning and Framework will result to:

 Sari-sari (hodgepodge)
  Pira-piraso (piemal)
 Tagpi-tagpi (patchwork)
 Sabog (lack of focus)
 Malabo (vague)
 Lakas ng kutob (gutfeel)
 Hula-hula (hunches)
 Gaya-gaya (patterned from an existing model)
 Bahala na (by chance)
 Patama-tama (non-deliberate)

Two Major Issues as to who plans the Curriculum

1. National or State and Local Curriculum control

 The existing uniformity and the national influences in the curriculum are
frequently cited as an argument for stronger national curriculum control.
 However, many curriculum leaders have observed that the real progress
in curriculum development is on a broken front.
 Schools do not achieve minimum or other standards at the same time.
Neither do they develop with equal interest and success new ventures in
the curriculum. Due to recognition to the role of local and regional
experimentation in curriculum development must be granted.
2. Relationship of laymen, academic scholars, and elementary school and
secondary school and collegiate educators in curriculum planning, parents, etc.

Curriculum Planning: Levels

The planning of learning experiences is one of the most important professional activities in
education. It is an important activity since it largely determines the day-to-day life of learners.
There are seven situations that are involved in the planning of learning experiences. They
represent curriculum planning activities at:

National level
- Involves scholars of some discipline from various institutions across the country. They
discuss and decide to develop and disseminate a program, the existing one being
either obsolete or inadequate to meet the demands.
- The stages involved in the planning process are:
o identifying important subject matter, facts, principles, concepts, etc.
o deciding on a sequence in which the subject’s matter may be taught—from
specific to general or from easy to difficult, etc.
o recommending activities through which students might best learn the subject
matter, including experiments, discussions etc.
o listing supplementary materials for fill-their studies in the subject
o suggesting tests that learners might take to check their progress.

 the state level

 the institution-system-wide level

 the building level

 the teacher team level

 the individual teacher level

 the classroom level with cooperative planning between students and teachers.
State level
In this scene, a group of educators (teachers, principles: curriculum
coordinators, etc.) form a committee under the State Education Department The task of
the Committee is to recommend what ought to constitute the overall program across the
 State. It however depends upon the characteristics of the learners, and the broad goals
of education. A series of meetings of the group over a course of several months
culminates in the production of a model to be sent to all the Institutions for
implementation.

Building level
- This scene deals with a group of parents, teachers, administrators, counsellors and
students from a particular institution. They are supposed to work together to evolve a
new discipline policy for that institution.
- The group works on the basis that a student's encounter with personal and social
experiences is as important as with those experiences gathered from the academic
activities. Therefore, these personal and social experiences form part of the
curriculum.
Teacher-team level

- This scene deals with a group of teachers representing different subject areas who
come together to develop a unit This type of activity is known as inter-disciplinary
curriculum planning since it involves contributions from various subjects or disciplines of
knowledge.

Cooperative curriculum planning level

- This scene deals with a teacher and a group of learners. After discussions, the group
draws up a formal set of the plans, summarizing all of its discussions about what
might be done.
Here the teacher is guiding a group in formulating plans as to how they might
study a particular topic. The teacher and learners work together to decide any
combination of the 'what, how, who where, and when' questions regarding the unit
they are working on.

Curriculum Planning: Issues

When a group of people comes together for evolving a curriculum: naturally there will be
diverse views and opinions. For our purpose, we have categorized these issues as follows:

i) Subject-centered versus Learner-centered curriculum

- In designing curriculum plans curricularists are often confronted on the subject and
the learner centered curriculum as questioning whether subject matter should be
mastered or discarded. The fact is that subject matter always forms a part of the
teaching/learning experience. John Dewey attempted to resolve the issue by arguing
that the issue of subject versus subjects, i.e., learners is not an 'either or' question
The task, according to him, was to work with subject matter that was of use to the
learner both in the immediate sense and in gradually expanding horizons of new
realizations.

ii. Who plans the curriculum?

- It is decidedly logical that teachers ought to be involved. Yet some people believe that
teachers ought to play the role of the implementers of plans while scholars and/or
administrators ought to do the actual planning. Others believe that curriculum
planning ought to involve professionals and exclude citizens and so on. In short,
positions on this question range from including only one group to including all the
groups in different degrees.
- This issue has been compounded by the emergence of politics in curriculum planning.
Various groups have sought power in that process: ranging from those representing
national and religious movements to local groups interested in specific materials which
they want to be used in teaching and learning. Within the profession, a new job-title,
i.e., curriculum developer: has emerged.
 ii. The basics that constitute the curriculum
- The study of curriculum history seems to show that these issues arise almost every
decade, and one or another view has gained the most favored status at various times.
It has become a cliché in education that, 'the pendulum is always swing from one
position to another. For many educators, it is a question of maintaining a sense of
balance between specific skills and broad concepts and between traditional subjects,
emerging social issues, and the personal needs of learners.

Before we proceed any further, let us work on the exercise given here.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes:
a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this chapter.

List curriculum planning levels and issues, identify which one of the curriculum
planning levels is, by and large, adopted for distance education purposes.
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CURRICULUM APPROACHES

Let us start this section with a definition of the term 'curriculum approach: We may define
curriculum approaches as a pattern of organization used in taking decisions about the various
aspects of a teaching/learning situation.

There is a wide range of approaches that are used. However, these generally fall into the
following four major categories:

i) Subject area approach

- One way to organize curriculum plans is around separate subject areas or disciplines
of knowledge. For example: the program of studies might be divided into areas like
English languages, alts, social studies: sciences, mathematics and so on. When this is
done, learning objectives involve mastering subject matter and skills within a given
subject. The subject areas approach is the most popular method of curriculum
organization. As this approach defines important learning in terms of subject matter
from existing disciplines of knowledge, it is particularly favored by proponents of the
philosophy of realism.

ii) Broad fields approach

- In this approach, organization of curriculum involves combining two or more subject
areas into a broader field. For example, a unit may be developed in art and history
and music may be combined to form a humanities program; a unit on metrics may
involve the simultaneous study of metric mathematics and its use in science etc.
 - The broad fields approach recognizes and uses individual subject areas, but it also
attempts to show learners the correlations between various areas of knowledge
Advocates of this approach cite the knowledge of such correlations as providing an
advantage over the separate subject approach. The emphasis on broad ideas and
concepts from subject fields makes this approach popular with those who favor the
philosophy of idealism.

iii) Social problems approach

- Major problems in society dictate the organization of curriculum plans. For example,
units may be developed regarding environmental problems, technology, the future,
racism, global interdependence and so on. In this approach, learning objectives
involve analyzing the problem or issue, and the subject matter is drawn from any
source pertinent to the problem. If the unit topic, for example, were to be future
learners might turn to social studies for information about government or population
growth: to science for trends in technology, or to language arts for ideas regarding
communications.
- The major purpose of using this approach is to help learners develop awareness of
crucial social issues and the skills that they might need and use in the future to help
solve them. For this reason, it is particularly popular among proponents of the re-
constructionist philosophy of education.

iv) Emerging needs approach

- Learner needs is the focal point of this approach. Topics such as getting along with
others, understanding physical changes associated with puberty, developing personal
values, understanding peer status etc., will enter curriculum. Thus: the issues will
relate to the stages of the learners' development
- The major purpose of this approach to curriculum is to help learners come to grips
with issues in their present lives to be prepared for the present rather than the future.
While some topics or issues for study may be pre-planned by teachers, others may
emerge spontaneously from discussions among teachers and students about pressing
problems in learners' lives. It has the support of those who adhere to the pragmatic
and existential philosophies of education.

Issues relating to various approaches

We shall categories the issues into the following three items:

1. Curricular approach and various instructional methods

- Many educators tend to stereotype various ideas and roles in curriculum. The most
common stereotype is the distinction between traditional and progressive approaches.
- Educational stereotypes tend to be largely destructive and, in this case, erroneous.
- For example: we can easily imagine an English teacher developing a unit on short
stories. During the session, it is possible for a resource person to visit the classroom to
conduct a small-group discussion on the characters or personalities of a story. It is
also possible in a different situation that a teacher studying peer pressure with a group
of learners might present a lecture on the reasons as to why status is assigned to
various individuals.
- The other unfortunate result of stereotyping the approaches is the idea that the
subject area and broad fields approaches involve hard work and 'rear learning while
the social problems and needs approaches are simply fun and games or the "soft side"
of the curriculum.

2. Curricular approaches and various instructional organizations

 - Two popular ideas gaining currency in the field of curriculum are general education
and inter-disciplinary teaching. The latter has gained attention through the formation
of teaching teams involving various subject areas such as language, mathematics,
social studies, science and so on.
- The definition of 'general education' excludes the idea that all learners might also
develop knowledge and skills related to social problems and emerging needs. On the
other hand, many interdisciplinary team efforts have failed because teachers have
been led to believe mistakenly that such teams must always fuse the various subject
areas into a social problems approach. Such narrow-minded positions exclude the idea
that interdisciplinary teams can use all the curriculum plans.

3. Choice of curricular approaches

- While it is certainly probable that individuals would favor or emphasize a particular
approach, it is equally clear that all four have an appropriate place in any educational
program. Each serves a different and important purpose. Thus, the real issue in
considering curriculum approaches is not which one is better, but how can it be used
optimally. By addressing the issue in this way, educators would confront the question
of how to provide balance in the curriculum, which is in fact the real challenge.

Check Your Progress 2

Note :Check your answer with the one given at the end of this chapter.

Match the approaches to curriculum planning listed under ‘A’ with the school
of thought listed under ‘B’
A B
1. Subject area approach Existentialism
2. Broad fields approach Reconstructionism
3. Social problems approach Realism
4. Emerging needs approach Idealism

MODELS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING: AN OVERVIEW

All through our discussion so far, we have been emphasizing the need for careful curriculum
planning for successful education. Prior to creating or implementing a program, we should
therefore require a master plan. Furthermore, our awareness of and sensitivity to curricular
issues, both present and anticipated, influence our plan. We have been reiterating that, we
cannot construct a curriculum without giving some serious though to goals, content, learning
activities and evaluation. Obviously, the need for planning in curriculum is very crucial.

Ideally, all those who are/or will have to be affected by a curriculum should be involved in the
process of development. But, as with most aspects of education, there is some debate about
what formula to follow in order to achieve particular educational goals. Although there are
numerous models, from which to choose, most of them can be classified as either a 'technical
model' or 'non-technical model’.

A word of caution!

Before we proceed any further in discussing these two models, we should clarify here that we
do not imply any prerogative sense when we use the terms 'technical' and 'non-technical'. We
use them to mean two contrastive postures. For instance, persons who believe in some subject
matter curriculum design usually advocate the technical approach to curriculum planning. Those
who favor a learner-centered design prefer the non-technical approach. Problem-centered
designs can fall within either approach.

Technical Models

- Those who advocate the technical models look at curriculum planning as a plan for
structuring the environment to coordinate in an orderly manner the elements of time,
space, material, equipment and personnel. The implications are that they do not
regard the technical models as vehicles for dehumanizing education but rather a
means of planning curricula to optimize students learning and to allow them to
increase their output, including their humanness.
- Thus, technical models enable us to comprehend curriculum from a macro viewpoint,
i.e., a complex unity of pans organized to serve a common function—the education of
individuals.

To elaborate on this theme we shall talk about the following models:

i. The Tyler Model
- Tyler (1949) argues that those who are involved in curriculum inquiry should try to
define the
 purposes of education
 educational experiences related to the purposes
 organization of experiences
 evaluation of the purposes

Figure 3.1 gives us an idea of Tyler’s curriculum development models

A look at Fig. 3.1 should tell us that to identify the purposes we need to gather data from
three sources: namely society: students and subject matter As the purposes will be general in
nature, we need to translate them into precise instructional objectives.

The selection of learning experiences depends to a great extent on the previous experience
and the perceptions that the learner brings to a situation. Tyler's last principle deals with
evaluating the effectiveness of planning and actions. It gives us feedback as to whether we
have achieved the intended goals. As the figure suggests all the four basic principles are
interdependent.

ii. The Taba Model

 - Hilda Taba’s grassroots model (1962) is a reaction to how Tyler's model was used.
Taba feels that curriculum should be designed by its users. Teachers, for instance,
should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students.
- Accordingly, she has noted the following seven steps to her grassroots model in which
teachers would have major inputs to make.

1. Diagnosis of needs: The teacher (the curriculum designer, in this context)

start the process by identifying the needs of the students for whom the
curriculum is to be planned
2. Formulation of objects: After the identification of the needs that require
attention, the teacher specifies objectives to be accomplished.
3. Selection of content: The objectives selected should suggest the subject
matter to unit-lesson.
4. Taba points out that not only should objectives and content match but the
validity and significance of the content identified need to be determined as
well.
5. Organization of content: Having selected the content, we need to organize it
in some sequential pattern. Organization of content depends on the cognitive
maturity of the learners, their academic achievement and interest areas.
6. Selection of learner-activities: Depending on the content selected and its
sequence we should introduce appropriate instructional methodologies that
will help the students involve themselves with the content.
7. Evaluation: The purpose of evaluation is to determine how much of the
objectives could be achieved. The evaluation procedures need to be
considered by the students and teachers.

You might have noticed here that the elements in the grassroots model of Taba are
identical with those of Tyler's. The emphasis however in the former is that curriculum
framing should adopt participatory management rather than a top-down one.

Though Taba’s model has much merit: some maintain that its primary weakness is that

 it applies the concept of participatory democracy to a highly technical and

specialized process; and
 it assumes expertise such extensive curricular activity on the part of the
teachers in.

However, we do need to recognize that the grassroots approach has made it abundantly clear
that a broad base of involvement is essential for curriculum decision making.

iii. The Saylor and Alexander Model

Fig 3.2 The Saylor and Alexander Model

 Though the figure by itself is suggestive of the stages involved in curriculum planning,
a word about each of the stages is in place here.

Goal setting: There are four major curriculum domains that should receive
attention: personal development: human relations, continued learning skills and
specialization. Each of the goals identified should depict a curriculum domain.
Curriculum design: Here we must take a decision on the content, its organization
and appropriate learning opportunities for the content selected. Moreover, at this
stage we decide whether the curriculum be designed to emphasize the academic
disciplines, the learner needs or the needs of the society.
Curriculum Implementation: Once we design the curriculum and develop it for
implementation, the teachers.
Curriculum evaluation: This is the final stage in the model. At this stage, the
curriculum planners and teachers choose from the available evaluation techniques:
those that will furnish an accurate picture of the value and success of the curriculum
and its delivery

iv. The Goodland Model

- In this model, all educational aims are drawn from the analysis of the values of the
existing culture. According to this model: curriculum planners deduce specific
educational objectives from the general educational objectives identified and the
learning opportunities suggested. Specific objectives help the planner in selecting
organizing centers, i.e., specific learning opportunities set up for identifiable students
or for a student.

v. The Hunkins Model

It has the following seven major stages:
 Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization
 Diagnosis
 Content selection
 Experience selection
 Implementation
 Evaluation
 Maintenance

Fig. 3.3: The Hunkins Model

In Hunkins model, it allows those working with the model to continually adjust
their decision making about curricular action, depending on the situation. For
instance: supposing the designers are at the stage of content selection and find
that there is a lack of resources, they can return to the curriculum diagnosis stage
to modify the objectives selected. Or they can even go back to the beginning
stage and rethink the curriculum in the light of the new information. It allows the
process of curriculum decision-making to be 'spiral' rather than 'linear'.
 vi. The Miller and Seller model

It introduces the notion that the various models of curriculum development exhibit at
least the following (three orientations towards the purpose of curriculum:

 Orientation of transmission position: The curriculum can emphasize that the

education should transmit facts, skills and values to students. The stress is on
mastery of competencies and carrying on the culture
 Orientation of transaction position: An individual should be perceived as a
rational being and thought to be capable of intelligent action. We can
therefore, view education as a dialogic process between the student and the
curriculum.
 Orientation of transformation position: It centers on personal and social
change. Here, as you may recall, there are those who have an inclination
towards humanistic approach in curriculum planning, those who approve of
personal attitudes, etc., and social changes influencing curriculum. We shall
present this model in a diagrammatic form as shown in Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.4. The Miller and Seller Model

The figure clearly shows that it has all the features of the 'technical model' of curriculum
planning, in spite of the fact that it advocates orientation to transformation.

Note: It is not as though there are only these models are available under the technical
models. There are in fact a few more but all of them are incomplete by themselves. We
should also understand that it is not possible for every model to show every detail and
every nuance of the curriculum planning process.

Non-Technical Models

In this subsection, we shall be talking about the following three models in the given
order:

i) Open Classroom Model

- It is based on an activity-based curriculum in which the activities are treated as ends
in themselves. To a certain degree, those who favor the activity curriculum are averse
to making in advance any plan that might stifle the development and learning of the
students. It, thus, suggests that students learn by participating in tasks and by actively
moving around the room and not by passively listening to the teachers.
- This model places great faith in students and encourages learner autonomy.

ii) Weinstein and Fantini Model

 - Through this model, teachers can generate new content and techniques to assess the
relevance of the existing curriculum, content, and techniques. Weinstein and Fantini
note that it is a way of linking sociological factors with cognition so that the learners
can cope with their concerns.
- According to this model the first step in the curriculum planning activity is to identify
the learner-group. By implication, this model gives importance to learner-concerns,
that determine the:
 content and its organization; and
 teaching procedures to be employed
 content gained from experiences one has as a growmg person
here the content addresses student identity, power, belonging and
connection,
 content relating to the learners' feelings about his or her
experiences for instance, one's feelings about one's friends, about
sports and social activities need to find a place in the curriculum,
 content that the student gets/obtains from the social environment
in which he or she lives.

The message of this model: therefore, seems to be to foster self-control of one's educational
experience.

iii) Interpersonal Relations Model

- Cart Rogers is not a curriculum specialist, but he has developed a model for changing
human behavior which can be used for curriculum development. His emphasis is on
human experiences and not on content or learning activities.
- Rogers model is used for exploring group experiences, whereby people examine
themselves and others through peer group discussion etc. With the aid of a trained
facilitator each participant in the group is encouraged to put aside his/her own
defenses, to communicate honestly and to explore his/her own feelings and those of
others. So, the model is called 'interpersonal' relations model.

As we have mentioned earlier, the danger in noting that one set of approaches is
systematic or rational is the implication that the other is systematic or non-rational.
However, we do not intend any such nonimplication here.

Before we complete our discussion on curriculum planning, we shall go through the

exercise presented below.

Check Your Progress 3

Notes: a) Space is given below for your answer.

b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.

Say in about 10 lines, what the terms ‘technical’ and ‘non-technical’ mean in
our context.
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In this section we have looked into two contrasting approaches to curriculum planning without
making value judgements about either of them. It may not be possible to follow any one
approach strictly in the curriculum planning process. Learners are as important as the selection
of content or teaching activities, etc., and vice versa. The point of departure however is as to
what should be given more or less importance. Ideally, to evolve and effective and purposeful
curriculum, we need to opt for an eclectic model.

LET US SUM UP!

We shall now recapitulate what we have studied in this chapter.

We started with a definition of what we mean by curriculum planning. We said that it is a

process in which participants at many levels make decisions about:

 what the purposes of learning ought to be;

 how those purposes might be carried out through teaching/learning situations
and ;
 whether or not the purposes and means are both appropriate and effective.

Having defined the term 'curriculum planning we looked into the issues in planning a
curriculum. In the process we also identified the levels of curriculum planning. Later, we took
up the two major components of the chapter: i.e., approaches to and models of curriculum
planning. Under approaches we have touched upon:

 Subject area approach

 Broadfields approach
 Social problems approach and
 Emerging needs approach

Under models, we have in detail looked into the technical and non-technical models.

In doing so, we have emphasized that we are not favoring any one model. In fact, we have
suggested that an eclectic approach to curriculum planning might be more effective than
focusing on any one model.

CURRICULUM PLANNING AT EVERY LAYER OF THE SCHOOL

Responsibility for the different layers of curriculum planning will vary across schools. Part of the
role of school leaders is to establish the systems and processes for effective planning
throughout the school. For example, in some schools:

 whole-school curriculum planning may be led by School

Improvement Teams
 planning for curriculum areas or year levels may be undertaken by
teams of teachers including an instructional leader, working in
professional learning communities.
 planning for units and lessons may also be undertaken in teams, or
by individual teachers.
Every school is unique, and schools are invited to tailor the application of the Guide depending
on the context of their schools, students, and communities.

Documented curriculum plan, assessment, and shared pedagogical approaches.

The school’s documented curriculum plan is informed by strategic and annual implementation
planning. It is regularly reviewed and updated by teams of teachers. The school allocates time
and resources for teachers to share pedagogical content knowledge about the curriculum, the
implementation and monitoring of effective learning programs, and the planning of content-
specific instruction. The assessment plan includes formative and summative assessment.

“What you teach is as important as how you teach it, and the better your
teaching craft, the greater the benefits resulting from a choice of rigorous
content (Lemov 2015).”
Each learning area and capability includes:

 an introduction – setting out the rationale and aims; structure; scope and sequence;
glossary; and learning in that curriculum area.
 content descriptions – which identify what teachers are expected to teach and what
students are expected to learn.
 achievement standards – which describe what students are typically able to understand
and do and are the basis for assessment and reporting of student achievement and progress.
 level/band descriptions – an overview of the content descriptions and achievement
standard within a given level or band.
Layers of Key considerations
curriculum
planning
 Enables planning of the teaching and learning program for all year levels or bands and
across curriculum areas, including the learning areas and capabilities.
 Essential to ensuring that all students receive the benefit of a guaranteed and viable
The whole curriculum.
school  Establishes the foundations for the other layers of curriculum planning.
 Enables planning of a sequential and cumulative progression of student learning across
the years of schooling.
 Encourages teachers to plan and document the big ideas that a curriculum area will
Curriculum areas contribute to a student’s overall education over the course of their schooling.
 Minimises the risk of repetition or serious gaps occurring when the units or sequences of
lessons are developed.
 Enables sequencing of student learning and assessment for a cohort of students.
 Supports teachers to make connections between topics and units in different curriculum
areas, including the capabilities. This can highlight opportunities for integrated or
Year levels interdisciplinary learning, or to make links with co-curricular activities.
 Identifies potential areas of duplication or overlap in the teaching and learning program,
which should be removed.
 Involves the development of rich and engaging teaching and learning activities and
associated assessment tasks that address content descriptions and achievement
standards from the curriculum.
Units and  Supports delivery of differentiated and scaffolded learning activities to address the needs
lessons of all students.
 Reflects the context of the whole-school curriculum plan, and decisions made at the
curriculum area and year level layers.

EVALUATE AND DIAGNOSE

Assess student learning needs

Planning for the Planning for a Planning for

whole school curriculum units
area or year level and lessons
  Who are our students? What do  What are the skills, knowledge,  What do our students know
Guiding questions

we know about them? attitudes and understandings and understand? What can
 What are the skills, knowledge, that we would like our students they do? What are their skills
attitudes, understandings and to attain? and capabilities?
behaviours that we want our  What are the current learning  What are our students’
students to develop – as outcomes for our students? Are learning dispositions? What
articulated in the Victorian some students progressing well are their interests, passions
Curriculum? while others are not? and wonderings?
 What are the aspirations of our  How effectively are students  What content from the
students and their families? progressing across different Victorian Curriculum is
 What are the current learning aspects of the Victorian important for our students to
outcomes for our students? What Curriculum? learn next? How will we
are the patterns and trends?  How well are students know?
progressing at different year  Do we have all the data we
levels and cohorts? need to inform our planning
and teaching? What is our
evidence for this?
Planning for a Planning for
Planning for the
curriculum units
whole school
area or year level and lessons

Determine which data, evidence Identify the data you will use to assess Determine which student-
actions
Key

and artefacts will inform your student learning, considering all level data you will use to
work (e.g. Student Attitudes to diagnostic, formative, and inform planning and
School, Panorama, English and summative assessments (e.g. practice.
Maths Online, student work Relative Growth and Item
School performance information Formative assessment resources Insight Assessment Platform
Resource

Student mapping tool Assess the capabilities and skills of Teacher Tip: How to use
s

your students formative assessment

Attitudes to school survey
effectively

PRIORITISE AND SET GOALS

Set goals for student learning growth

Planning for the Planning for a Planning for units

whole school and lessons
curriculum
area or year
level
Guiding questions  What are the learning  What are some areas of  How will we support
priorities in our school and strength, and areas of students in our classrooms
why? development for our students? to achieve individualised
 How do the aspirations of  Are there areas of growth that learning goals?
our learners align with our we need to prioritise for our  How will we support
goals for student learning, students? students to identify their
as articulated in our SSP?  How will we know we have been strengths and areas for
 Does the school vision, successful in the short, medium improvement?
values and context and longer term?  How will we collaborate
statement articulated in  What opportunities are there to with students to identify
our SSP need to be provide student voice and appropriate goals to
updated? agency in setting goals for progress their learning?
learning?
 Collaboratively review the  Identify specific learning goals  Communicate high
Key actions

goals, targets and Key for your cohort of students, expectations of learning,
Improvement Strategies consistent with the school’s goals effort and engagement for
(KIS) for student learning and targets. all students.
growth in the SSP, and  Establish processes to provide  Work with students to co-
identify priorities for focus students voice and agency in design challenging learning
in the AIP. their learning. goals that are both
 Implement processes to differentiated and aligned
communicate the SSP and to the curriculum.
AIP to staff, students and
the school community.

 Strategic Planning Online  Student voice practice guide  Teaching practice:

Resources

Tool (Amplify) Individual learning goals

 Framework for Improving  Video: ABLES assessment and and targets
Student Outcomes curriculum  HITS – Setting goals and
 Leading literacy and learning from them
numeracy improvement

DEVELOP AND PLAN

Undertake Curriculum Planning across the School

Planning for the Planning for a Planning for

whole school curriculum units
area or year and lessons
level
Guiding questions  What principles and pedagogy  How effectively are we  What worthy
guide our curriculum design collaborating to design curriculum questions, big ideas,
work (e.g. Inquiry, backwards plans that provide coherence and concepts can
design)? Which big ideas, across all curriculum areas, and students actively
questions and concepts are continuity across all stages of engage with?
driving the learning across our learning?  Have the students’
whole school curriculum?  How will we address the backgrounds,
 Do we have a consistent capabilities across the learning interests and needs
shared understanding of key areas and year levels? been considered
terms and concepts from the  How effectively are we designing when creating
Victorian Curriculum? and implementing learning authentic and
 How effectively is our planning programs that are developmentally meaningful learning
across curriculum areas scaffolded to meet students’ opportunities?
ensuring that each student needs?  How will you enable
has access to a coherent,  What diagnostic, formative and students to have
guaranteed and viable summative tools will be used to authentic agency in
curriculum? Is our planning assess knowledge, skills and their own learning?
across year levels supporting understandings? How will these  Which High Impact
the continuity of student assessments inform planning? Teaching Strategies
learning?  What pedagogical approaches will (HITS) will be most
 To what extent have we built most effectively suit our learning effective to meet
the commitment, skills, and context? the needs of our
capability of staff, to lead  How are we planning for students learners?
curriculum planning that to have voice and agency in their  How will we assess
reflects our school priorities? learning? depth of
 How are we sharing exemplars understanding over
of planning and practice time, using multiple
across the school and system forms of evidence?
(e.g. FISO Groups,  What do we need to
Communities of Practice)? be mindful of when
teaching this
learning sequence,
unit or lesson?
 Provide teachers with time  Establish shared norms and  Plan teaching and
Key actions

to work collaboratively to processes for curriculum learning sequences,

develop curriculum plans. planning and development. unit plans and/or
 Ensure all staff understand  Map the scope and sequence of lesson plans that are
the structure and content teaching and learning in each differentiated and
of the Victorian Curriculum, curriculum area to ensure scaffolded to
including the Rationale for consistency with the Victorian address the needs of
each curriculum area. Curriculum and the school’s all students.
goals and priorities.  Design learning
programs to build
deep levels of
thinking, utilising
the Victorian
Teaching and
Learning Model.
 Curriculum planning hints and  Numeracy portal  Victorian teaching and
Resources

tips (VCAA)  Literacy portal learning model

 Middle Years Literacy and  New Student
Numeracy Support initiative: Excellence Program:
Getting started (DET intranet) Supporting high-ability
students to excel

Planning at Different Levels

Among the key stakeholders, teachers are the major participants in

curriculum planning in individual schools and school districts. Even in situations
in which the curriculum to be taught is specified, each classroom teacher can still
make important planning decisions. The teacher is the filter through which the
mandated curriculum passes (McCutcheon, 1988).

In addition, as they go about their planning, individual teachers must be

mindful of various forms. Little (1993) and Galton, et.al., (1999) state that
elementary teachers must take note of major changes in content and method
associated with the entire spectrum of the elementary curriculum. Secondary
teachers, usually more directly, must consider reforms such as new curriculum
frameworks, standardized test protocols, national standards, and initiatives
intended to improve basic skills.

However, despite the ultimate importance of teachers, curriculum

planning may take place on several different levels, ranging from the macro to
micro, and these levels should be clearly differentiated.

Policies and Programs: The Macro and Intermediate Levels

The macro level of curriculum planning is concerned with general policy.

At this level, official documents produced by the government, by state
department of education, or by school districts may contain policy statements
about the curriculum that either limit the ability of schools to make their own
policies or encourage them to do so. In general, the intent of planners who
create policy statements is to set directions of specific programs.

The planning of programs is the intermediate level of curriculum

planning; and while programs may be created at the level of individual schools,
usually they arise from planning done by the national, regional, division or the
school districts. Plans by departments and school districts that are highly
prescriptive usually include details about the following:

 The range of subjects and electives to be taught

 The amount of time to be given to each subject
 The syllabi to be used, specifying objectives, content of courses,
and forms of assessments for individual subjects
 The procedures (such as testing programs) to be followed for
monitoring standards in schools and methods of teaching

In some instances, departments are providing only general statements of

goals for particular subjects. Under these circumstances, individual schools may
establish their own general policies about curriculum matters such as the of time
and testing.

In many school districts, curriculum guides for subjects are produced by

committees of teachers and distributed to other schools. These guides may
reflect the packages prescribed or simply made available by the department.
Curriculum guides (and corresponding textbooks, which themselves may contain
additional guidelines and recommended activities for teachers) can be
comprehensive documents of 100 or more pages and contain the following:

 Detailed lists of goals and objectives

 A complete structure and sequence for the content to be taught
 Specific, highly detailed teaching units, including examples of
contents, questions, tests, and quizzes
 Background information for teachers about the subjects to be
taught, including follow-up references

Lessons: The Micro Level

Whenever policies and programs have originated from above, teachers
must plan their activities around them for periods of time, ranging from a full-
year course to a daily lesson. Teachers typically consult the program guides
provided and then draw up their own specific curricular plans in the form of
lesson plans.

A lesson plan may be a document summarizing things such as objectives,

contents of the curriculum, activities for students, methods of instruction, and
 forms of evaluating students; and it may be drawn to cover not only daily
lessons but the entire flow of classroom activities for a week, a month, or even
an entire year.

However, whatever the time frame a lesson plan encompasses, it

represents curriculum planning at the micro level. It is here that the general
macro-level policies adopted by the state or district and the intermediate-level
programs agreed upon collectively by the district or the school are transformed
into the specific practices of individual teachers (King & Newmann, 2000).

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

a) Curriculum planning levels

• National level
• State level
• Building level
• Teacher team level
• Individual teacher level
• Cooperative curriculum level

b) Curriculum planning issues

• Subject centered vs learner centered

• The question: who is to plan the curriculum?
• Basis that constitutes learning

For distance education purposes, more often than not, we adopt national level
curriculum planning.

Check Your Progress 2

A B
1. Subject area approach Realism
2. Broadfields approach
3. Social problems approach Idealism
4. Emerging needs approach Reconstructionism
Existentialism

Check Your Progress 3

• In our context, the term 'technical' implies the idea that aims of education and
the curriculum that emerges out of them can be objectively stated. The term
'non-technical', however, stresses that an individual's needs dictate the aims of
education and thus influence curriculum planning.

IV. Activity

A. Essay Type:
Direction: Answer the following questions.

1. Differentiate among three levels at which Curriculum Planning occurs

in schools: policy, programs, and lessons.
 ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

2. “All curriculum making is essentially a political process”. Do you agree

or disagree with this statement? Why?

________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Module 2: Elements and Importance of Curriculum Planning

I. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Identify elements of curriculum planning.
2. Discuss the importance of curriculum planning.
3. Apply the skills in making the curriculum.
4. Identify the roles of the stakeholders: teachers, principal, parents, students and
other external facilitators in curriculum planning.

II. Introduction

Curriculum is an important component of education. Aim of education are reflected in

the curriculum. In other words, the curriculum is determined by the aims of life and society,
this is a pathway towards a goal.

Curriculum Planning is a compound process where faculty define intended learning

outcomes, assessments, content, and pedagogic requirements necessary for student
success through an entire curriculum.

Curriculum is a tool in which teachers are using to achieve a specific learning goals and
objectives. This module will discuss the process on how the curriculum is made, as well as
the elements and importance of curriculum planning.

Four steps to achievement: Plan purposefully, prepare prayerfully, proceed

positively, pursue persistently.
-William A. Ward
III. Body

Importance of Curriculum Planning

“Unplanned teaching and learning is a recipe of wasting time.”
  Curriculum planning develop well-coordinated, quality teaching, learning and
assessment programs, which build students’ knowledge, skills, and behaviors
in the disciplines, as well as their interdisciplinary and/or physical, personal,
and social capacities.
 Curriculum Planning ensure:
o A shared vision
o Shared understandings and a common language in the school
community.
o Optimum coverage of all domains across year levels.
o The full range of learning needs of students are addressed.
o Students are given opportunities to develop deep understanding.
o Cohesiveness in teaching, learning and assessment practices.
o Elimination of repetition of learning activities without depth or breadth
across levels.
o Improved student learning outcomes.

Roles of Stakeholders in Curriculum Planning

Good curriculum plays an important role in forging life – long learning

competencies social attitudes and skills such as tolerance and respect, peaceful
conflict management, promotion and respect of human rights gender equality
and social justice.  A well curriculum planning includes and stakeholders are:
teachers, principals, students, parents and the community.

1. Teachers – writes a curriculum daily through lesson plan, unit plan or a

yearly plan.  Teachers are empowered to develop their own curricula taking
into consideration their own expertise, the context of the school and the
abilities of the learners.  By doing this, teacher become architects of school
curriculum.        

2. Principals - School principals one of their functions is being a curriculum

manager. They supervise curriculum implementation, select and recruit new
teachers, admit students, procure equipment and materials needed for
effective learning.

3. Students - Learners or students are the very reason why schools exist.  It
is the school’s responsibility to further develop the learners – knowledge,
skills, talents, and attitude to face the different situations in life.

 The learner is the center of curriculum.

 The learners are the very reason a curriculum is developed.
 They are the ones who are directly influenced by it.
 Learners in all levels make or unmake the curriculum by their active
and direct involvement.

4. Parents - as supporters to the curriculum. Parents voices are very loud and
clear. In our country, it is general fact that even in college the parents are
responsible for tier children education.  The success of a curricula would
somehow depend on their support. Effective parental involvement in school
affairs may be linked to parent educational programs which is central to
high quality educational experiences of the children. The parents’
involvement extends from the confine of the school to the homes. In most
schools the Parent’s Association is organized.
 5. External Facilitators/Community - The community members and
materials in the existing local community can be very well substitute for
what are needed to implement the curriculum.

Reflective Break

Think of a time you entered a class with a hastily written lesson plan or no plan
at all.

• How did you feel?

• How would the lesson have been improved with more thorough
planning?

The Curriculum is likely to be good one if there is good curriculum planning, and conversely,
the curriculum is likely to be mediocre one if there is a mediocre curriculum planning.

IV. Activity

A. Identification
Direction: Identify the stakeholder responsible in the Curriculum Planning concerning
about their roles and responsibilities.

1. The community members and materials in the existing local community can be
very well substitute for what are needed to implement the curriculum.

2. Writes a curriculum daily through lesson plan, unit plan or a yearly plan.

3. They supervise curriculum implementation, select and recruit new teachers,

admit students, procure equipment and materials needed for effective learning.

4. They are the very reason why schools exist.  It is the school’s responsibility to
further develop the learners – knowledge, skills, talents, and attitude to face the
different situations in life.

5. They are supporters to the curriculum. Their voices are very loud and clear. The
success of a curricula would somehow depend on their support.

B. Why is it important to consider the factors when selecting and formulating the
learning objectives? Discuss your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

C. Make your own lesson plan using the elements of curriculum as your guide, following
the template below. You can choose your desired subject area.

Lesson Plan in ____________

I. Learning Objectives
1.
2.
3.

II. Subject Matter

III. Procedure

IV. Evaluation

D. Reference

Colin J. M. & George W. (2003). Curriculum Planning: Levels and Participants.

Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, On-Going Issues. 3rd Edition, pg. 196-
225

International Bureau of Education (2020). Curriculum Planning.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-terminology/c/curriculum-
planning

Iris Center. Curriculum Planning Guidelines.

https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/cnm/cresource/q4/p14/

R.Satyanarayana (2018) egyankosh.ac.n>bitstream>unit-2-pdf.

Webliography

www.slideshare.com_Curriculum_Planning_LomerOanilacam_

https://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=what+are+the+elements+of+curriculum+planning&hl=en&sxsrf=ALeK
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=X&ved=0ahUKEwih8eyXwcjtAhXZE4gKHaOYC8QQ_AUICigA

http://www.sdpi.ie/guidelines/PDF/Unit09.pdf