Sex Roles, VoL 19, Nos.

3/4, 1988

Behavioral and Psychological Implications of Body

Dissatisfaction: Do Men and Women Differ?
Lisa R. Silberstein,' Ruth H. Striegel-Moore,
Christine Timko, and Judith Rodin
Yale University

The relationships o f body satisfaction, self-esteem, dieting, and exercise were

studied in 92 men and women. Men and women did not differ in degree o f
body dissatisfaction as assessed by three different measures. However, on
the direction o f body dissatisfaction, men were as likely to want to be heavi-
er as thinner, whereas virtually no women wished to be heavier. Although
overall body esteem was correlated with self-esteem for both men and wom-
en, measures o f weight dissatisfaction were not associated with self-esteem
for women. The normative nature o f weight dissatisfaction for women to-
day may serve to buffer its effects on self-esteem. Women reported exercis-
ing for weight control more than men, and exercising for weight control was
associated with disregulated eating.

The degree to which people are satisfied with their bodies may have pro-
found implications for their self-perceptions and behaviors. A relationship
between body satisfaction and self-esteem has been documented for both men
and women (Lerner, Karabenick, & Stuart, 1973; Lerner, Orlos, & Knapp,
1976; Rosen & Ross, 1968). Importantly, however, recent research suggests
that men and women may differ in two key aspects of body image satisfac-
tion: (1) the dimensions that underlie body image satisfaction and (2) the
direction of body image dissatisfaction.
First, the dimensions underlying body image satisfaction may differ for
men and women. Franzoi and Shields (1984) factor analyzed the Body Es-
teem Scale (BES), a measure derived from the Body Cathexis Scale of Secord
and Jourard (1953). The BES assesses satisfaction with a wide range of aspects

1To whom correspondence should be addressed at Department of Psychology, Yale University,

Box 11A, Yale Station, New Haven, Connecticut 06520.
219
0360-0025/88/0800-0219506.00/0 © 1988PlenumPublishingCorporation
220 Silberstein et al.

of the body. The factor analysis revealed different dimensions of body satis-
faction for men and women. The three factors of body esteem that emerged
for men were as follows: "physical attractiveness," which assesses satisfac-
tion with the face and physique that determine how "good-looking" a man
is; "upper body strength," which measures satisfaction with body parts and
functions that can be changed through exercise and that contribute to the
ideal, V-shaped male figure; and "physical condition," which taps satisfac-
tion with the body's functional aspects related to how "well the body works."
For women, the three factors comprising body esteem were as follows: "sex-
ual attractiveness," which assesses satisfaction with physical attractiveness
and sexuality; "weight concern," which taps satisfaction with body parts that
pertain to body size; and "physical condition, ''2 which measures evaluation
of physical qualities such as stamina and strength. This line of work sug-
gests that research on the relationship of body dissatisfaction to other varia-
bles should incorporate a multidimensional perspective on body esteem.
A second gender difference emerges from research that has examined
the direction of dissatisfaction with body size. Underweight appears to have
a different meaning for the two sexes. Underweight men seem unhappy with
their body weight, whereas underweight women appear satisfied (Cash, Win-
stead, & Janda, 1986). Studies comparing weight dissatisfaction of men and
women are needed that take into account the direction of the weight dis-
satisfaction. An interesting but unresearched question is whether the impli-
cations for self-esteem are comparable for someone who wants to be heavier
and someone who wants to be thinner.
At the core of the phenomenology of body image dissatisfaction are
two images: the perceived self and the ideal self (Silberstein, Striegel-Moore,
& Rodin, 1987). A failure to match the internalized ideal is likely to prompt
self-criticism and to damage self-esteem. Research on the relationship be-
tween body satisfaction and self-esteem in the two genders has produced con-
flicting results. Some studies have reported that women's body image
satisfaction is more highly correlated with self-esteem than is men's (Lerner
et al., 1973; Secord & Jourard, 1953), whereas other studies have found the
reverse to be true (Franzoi & Shields, 1984; Mahoney, 1974). A more differen-
tiated examination of body image may help illuminate this issue. From their
review of the literature on body image, Cash and Brown (1987) conclude
that investigators should include multiple body image measures in their
research and should recognize that body image is a multidimensional con-
struct.
It has been argued that, in contemporary society, weight is a domain
of central importance to women (Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1985).

2Althoughthe third factorhas been named"PhysicalCondition"for both malesand females,

the compositionof the scalesdiffersfor men and women.In particular, severalitemsloading
on the "WeightConcern"factor for women(e.g., waist, stomach,appetite) are includedin
the "PhysicalCondition"factor for men.
Implications of Body Dissatisfaction 221

Self-concept theorists have proposed that dissatisfaction with a domain of

great importance to one's self will prove more damaging to self-worth than
inadequacy in a domain of less importance (Harter, 1985). It would be predict-
ed, then, that satisfaction with weight would relate in particular to self-esteem
in females. Research on the relationship between self-esteem and the Weight
Concern factor of the BES in women has produced inconsistent results (Fran-
zoi & Herzog, 1986; Franzoi & Shields, 1984). Other measures of weight dis-
satisfaction, including desired vs. perceived body size (Fallon & Rozin, 1985)
and desired vs. actual weights, have not yet been correlated with self-esteem.
Whereas the BES implicitly taps the discrepancy between perceived and ideal
body image, these other measures explicitly examine the perceived-ideal gap.
The current study sought to examine the relationships among these different
measures of weight dissatisfaction and to investigate the relationship between
weight dissatisfaction and self-esteem for women and men.
When perceived-ideal discrepancies exist on bodily aspects that are per-
ceived as malleable (e.g., weight), dissatisfaction often provokes efforts to
close the perceived-ideal gap. In current society, dieting and exercise are the
primary strategies for altering one's body. Although the relationship between
body esteem and dieting has been studied extensively in women, little research
on this issue has included male subjects.
Exercising comprises an additional strategy for closing the perceived-
ideal gap. However, there may be multiple reasons that motivate exercise
behavior. It has been assumed that women, in contrast to men, exercise
primarily in order to lose weight (Garner, Rockert, Olmsted, Johnson, &
Coscina, 1985). However, no empirical investigation has yet validated this
assertion.
This study, then, attempted to explore the relationship of body esteem,
self-esteem, dieting, and exercise in men and women. It was hypothesized
that the dimension of weight and body size would be particularly important
in the relationship of body esteem to dieting and exercise. Three different
measures were included to assess body esteem: the BES (Franzoi & Shields,
1984), the Body Size Drawings (Fallon & Rozin, 1985), and the discrepancy
between actual and desired body weight. This provided an opportunity to
examine the interrelationships among these measures, which have not yet
been administered simultaneously.

METHOD

Subjects

Forty-five female and 47 male Yale undergraduate students participat-

ed in this study for course credit. The mean age of subjects was 18.6 years
( S D = .84) for females and 19.0 years ( S D = .86) for males. The mean body
222 Silberstein et al.

weight of males was 167.06 pounds (SD = 25.4) and of females was 127.90
pounds (SD = 15.7). Compared to weight norms for their age and height
(Metropolitan Life Foundation, 1983), males were +6.4% (SD = 11.57)
and females were - . 7 7 % (SD = 9.92).

Procedure

All subjects completed a questionnaire packet containing the measures

described below.
Body Dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction was assessed using three
different measures. The Body Size Drawings (BSD) consisted of nine draw-
ings of a female figure (for female subjects) or a male figure (for male sub-
jects), with each drawing gradually increasing in size from extremely thin
to very obese (Fallon & Rozin, 1985). Subjects were asked to select the num-
ber of the drawing that they thought represented their current appearance
(perceived figure) and to indicate the number of the drawing that represent-
ed what they ideally wanted to look like (ideal figure).
The second body dissatisfaction measure was the BES (Franzoi & Her-
zog, 1986; Franzoi & Shields, 1984). The BES lists 35 aspects of physical
appearance (e.g., body build) and bodily functioning (e.g., physical coordi-
nation). 3 Subjects rated their satisfaction with each bodily aspect on a 5-point
scale. An overall body esteem score was calculated by summing across all
items, with higher scores indicating more body image satisfaction. For men
and women separately, three subscale scores were obtained by summing
responses to all items comprising each subscale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984).
Weight dissatisfaction comprised a third measure of body dissatisfac-
tion. Subjects were asked their current weight and their desired weight. Both
weight scores were converted into percent overweight scores based on norms
adjusted for height, age, and gender (Metropolitan Life Foundation, 1983),
and the difference between the two converted scores yielded the weight dis-
satisfaction score.
Self-Esteem. Self-esteem was assessed by a 10-item Self-Esteem Scale
developed by Rosenberg (1965), which is a widely used measure with strong
reliability and validity. Subjects rated each item on a 5-point scale, and higher
scores indicated a more positive sense of self.
The Eating Attitudes Test. The 26-item Eating Attitudes Test (EAT)
is a self-report measure of attitudinal and behavioral characteristics com-
monly found among anorexic and bulimic individuals (Garner, Olmsted,
Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982). Subjects rated each item on a 6-point scale rang-
3In this study, one item was omitted ("my sex organs") because it was considered inappropriate
for this sample.
Implications of Body Dissatisfaction 223

ing from never to always.4 An overall score was obtained by summing over
all 26 items, with higher scores suggesting more disturbed attitudes toward
food, weight, and eating.
Reasons for Exercise. A Reasons for Exercise Inventory was developed
for this study. Items were chosen to represent seven general domains: exer-
cising for weight control, for fitness, for health, for improving body tone,
for improving overall physical attractiveness, for improving one's mood, and
for enjoyment. O f an initial 28 items, 4 items were dropped because o f in-
sufficient item-total correlations. The 24-item Reasons for Exercise Inven-
tory is provided in the appendix.

RESULTS

Statistical analyses were conducted to address two general questions.

First, what gender differences can be identified? Second, what are the inter-
relationships among the variables under investigation, and do these relation-
ships differ for men and women?

Examination of Gender Differences

First we examined whether men and women differed on the measures

related to body image dissatisfaction, self-esteem, and dieting and exercise.
The results are summarized in Table I.
Body Esteem Scale. No gender differences were found on the overall
BES score. Men and women cannot be compared on the BES subscales, be-
cause these scales differ for the two sexes (Franzoi & Shields, 1984). Interest-
ingly, when we examined individual items, the items on which men were more
satisfied than women (p < .05) related to the body: thighs, buttocks, legs,
and weight. In contrast, items on which women were more satisfied than
men (p < .05) were associated with the face: lips, eyes, neck, cheekbones,
and head hair. In addition, men scored higher than women (p < .05) in satis-
faction on two items related to physical functioning: physical stamina and
appetite. 5
Body Size Drawings (BSD). We examined the figures that subject chose
as their perceived figure and their ideal figure on the continuum o f BSD.
A perceived-ideal discrepancy score was constructed for each subject by sub-

4The response indicating the most severe disturbance is scored 3, the adjacent response a 2,
the next response a 1, and the remaining responses are scored 0 (Garner et al., 1982).
5t Values of the gender comparisonson the individualBES items are availablefrom the authors
upon request.
224 Silberstein et al.

Table I. Gender Differences

Males (n = 47) Females (n = 45)
Variable M SD M SD t(9o) °
BES: Total score 116.67 (18.31) 111.58 (14.32) 1.47
Factor I b 33.20 (4.76) 42.60 (4.67)
Factor 2 31.81 (6.85) 28.76 (7.56)
Factor 3 45.85 (9.48) 30.40 (6.18)
BSD discrepancyc .91 (.59) 1.20 (1.05) - 1.64
Weight dissatisfactionc 5.10 (3.67) 6.89 (5.89) - 1.69
Self-esteem scale 41.81 (7.36) 40.22 (6.21) 1.06
EAT 3.87 (3.38) 8.24 (7.44) 3.60 a
Reasons for exercise
Weight 3.29 (1.60) 4.77 (1.59) 4.37 a
Body fitness 5.16 (1.09) 4.86 (1.22) - 1.23
Mood 4.01 (1.34) 4.27 (1.52) .88
Health 5.06 (1.12) 4.82 (1.19) - . 95
Attractiveness 5.32 (1.30) 5.03 (1.29) - 1.06
Enjoyment 3.69 (1.19) 3.59 (1.42) -.37
Body tone 4.39 (1.58) 4.47 (1.53) 1.65
aThe Bonferroni correlation for multiple t tests was used.
bFor men, Factor I is Physical Attractiveness, Factor 2 is Upper Body Strength,
and Factor 3 is Physical Condition. For women, Factor 1 is Sexual Attrac-
tiveness, Factor 2 is Weight Concern, and Factor 3 is Physical Condition.
CNumbers reported in this table represent absolute values.
"p < .OOl.

tracting the ideal figure from the perceived figure. Unless otherwise indicat-
ed, the absolute value of the discrepancy was used in further analyses in order
to ensure that dissatisfactions in one direction (e.g., wanting to be heavier)
did not cancel out dissatisfactions in the other direction (e.g., wanting to
be thinner). As Table I shows, men and women did not differ on the abso-
lute values of their perceived-ideal discrepancy scores.
The percentages of men and women choosing each figure as their per-
ceived and ideal are presented in Fig. 1. Virtually identical percentages of
women (22.7070) and men (21.7%) indicated that their perceived figure
matched their ideal. The majority of both male (78.2070) and female (77.3070)
subjects selected an ideal figure different from their perceived figure. Whereas
twice as many women (26.7°70) as men (12.8070) selected an ideal that was
two or more figures apart from their perceived figure on the BSD continu-
um, this gender difference in the degree of perceived-ideal discrepancy was
not statistically significant [x2o) = 2.01, p = .16].
When the direction of the perceived-ideal discrepancy was examined,
a strong gender difference emerged. Men were as likely to express a desire
to be heavier (43.4070) as to be thinner (34.8070). In contrast, only 1 female
subject (2.307o) wanted to be heavier, whereas 75070 of the females chose an
ideal figure that was thinner than their perceived figure [X2(l) = 23.06, p <
.OOll.
Implications of Body Dissatisfaction 225

1 2 3 4 5 0 7 8 9

Pel:ceSved 4•3 10.5 23.4 27.7 12.8 17.0 2 1 2.1 0

Z4eml 0 2.2 21.7 50*0 26.1 0 0 0 0

pe]:oeive~ 2.2 0.7 20.7 37.8 17.8 2.2 4.4 2.2 0

Z~loal ,5 35.o 50~ ,5 0.° o o o o

Fig. 1. Percentage of subjects choosing each drawing on BSD measure as representing

their perceived and ideal figures.

Weight Dissatisfaction. As Table I indicates, men and women did not

differ on the absolute values of their weight dissatisfaction scores, which
represent the discrepancy between actual and desired weight. On the other
hand, striking gender differences were revealed in the direction of weight
dissatisfaction, which is consistent with the BSD results. Twice as many fe-
males (87°7o) as males (4007o) desired to be thinner, whereas only 2 females
(4.4070) compared to half of the males (46.807o) wanted to be heavier [X2o)
= 21.27, p < .001].
Self-Esteem. Scores on the Self-Esteem Scale did not differ for males
and females, as indicated by the means in Table I.
Eating Attitudes Test. As Table I shows, females obtained significant-
ly higher EAT scores than males. The scores of our female subjects are com-
parable to the female norms published by Garner et al. (1982), who did not
report normative data for males. Three females and no males scored above
the clinical cutoff score of 20. The narrow range of EAT scores obtained
by men (e.g., 5007o of the males scored 2 or less) does not permit further
analyses of this measure in the male sample.
Reason for Exercise. As evident in Table I, only one gender difference
emerged on the Reasons for Exercise Inventory: Women reported signifi-
cantly more than men that they exercised for weight control.
226 S f l b e r s l e i n et al.

Interrelationships Among the Variables

T h e next set o f a n a l y s e s f o c u s e d o n the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g the

v a r i a b l e s o f interest: t h e t h r e e BES subscales, the B S D scores, weight dis-
s a t i s f a c t i o n , self-esteem, the E A T , a n d R e a s o n s f o r Exercise.
Correlations Among Body Satisfaction Measures. O n e intent o f the
study was to examine the interrelationships a m o n g the measures o f b o d y satis-
f a c t i o n . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f the BES, t h e B S D , a n d weight d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
a r e d i s p l a y e d in T a b l e II.
T h e B S D a n d the weight d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n index m e a s u r e b o t h degree a n d
d i r e c t i o n o f b o d y dissatisfaction. W h e n assessing the degree o f b o d y dissatis-
faction, it is a p p r o p r i a t e t o utilize the absolute values o f these measures. F o r
m e n , all t h r e e subscales o f t h e BES were c o r r e l a t e d with the B S D , a n d n o n e
were correlated with weight dissatisfaction. F o r w o m e n , only the Weight C o n -
cern f a c t o r o f the BES c o r r e l a t e d significantly with b o t h the B S D a n d weight
dissatisfaction.
I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the B S D a n d the weight dis-
s a t i s f a c t i o n m e a s u r e , the actual values o f the scores were u s e d in o r d e r to
a c c o u n t for direction as well as degree o f b o d y dissatisfaction. F o r b o t h m e n
a n d w o m e n , these two m e a s u r e s were h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d . These findings sug-
gest t h a t t h e discrepancies b e t w e e n perceived a n d ideal figure a n d b e t w e e n
actual a n d desired weight are closely relatod. In subsequent analyses, we there-
f o r e i n c l u d e d o n l y the B S D scores.
Body Satisfaction Measures and Self-Esteem. C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the
b o d y s a t i s f a c t i o n m e a s u r e s a n d self-esteem are p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e II. T w o
s e p a r a t e regressions (one f o r each gender) were c a l c u l a t e d to d e t e r m i n e the

Table II. Correlations of Body Dissatisfaction Measures and Self-Esteema

Males
BES BES 1 B E S 2 B E S 3 BSD WD* SE"
Females
BES - .71d .87d .924 -.67 ~ -.26 .45c
BESI .57a - .48c .48~ -.42 c -.11 .22
BES2 .82d .24 - .754 -.54 d -.20 .37~
BES3 .74d -.27 b .37~ -- -.63 d -.25 .43~
BSD -.45 c -.06 -.63 d -.17 - .63 d -.30 b
WD -.47 c -.12 -.624 -.18 .83 d - -.17
SE .28 .43c -.08 .39b .06 .16 -
°Males' scores are above the diagonal, females' scores are below. Correlations
between BSD and WD are based on actual (not absolute) scores.
bp < .05.
~p < .ol.
~p < .001.
"WD, weight dissatisfaction; SE, self-esteem.
Implications of Body Dissatisfaction 227

relationship between body esteem and self-esteem. The three BES subscales
and the BSD were entered simultaneously as independent variables. The over-
all regression coefficient was significant for females (R ~ = .37, F = 5.10,
p < .01). The Sexual Attractiveness factor (b = .37, p < .05) and Physical
Condition factor (b = .43, p < .01) were significantly related to self-esteem
for women, whereas the Weight Concern factor (b = - . 3 6 , n.s.) and BSD
(b = - . 0 3 , n.s.) did not emerge as significant predictors of self-esteem.
For men, the regression coefficient was not significant. However, the
failure to find a significant regression coefficient for the relationship between
the various body satisfaction measures and self-esteem may be due to the
high intercorrelation among the body satisfaction measures for men revealed
in Table II. The zero-order correlations of self-esteem with the BSD, the BES
total score, and the BES subscales were all significant except for Physical
Attractiveness.
M a t c h i n g One's B o d y Ideal vs. Experiencing a Discrepancy. After hav-
ing explored the relationship between the degree of body dissatisfaction and
self-esteem, we next examined the relationship between the direction of body
dissatisfaction and self-esteem. In order to examine the hypothesis that for
men the effects on self-esteem are comparable for body dissatisfaction in
either direction, men were divided into three groups: those whose ideal BSD
figure was larger than their perceived (n = 16), those whose ideal BSD figure
was smaller than their perceived (n = 16), and those whose perceived figure
matched their ideal (n = 10). An analysis of variance was performed on the
self-esteem scores of the three groups IF(2, 39) = 4.52, p < .05]. Student
Newman-Keuls post hoc comparisons showed that the self-esteem scores of
the men whose ideal and perceived figures matched (M = 46.80, S D = 4.13)
were significantly higher than the self-esteem scores of men who desired to
be thinner (M = 41.93, S D = 7.04) and those who wished to be heavier
(M = 38.56, S D = 7.77). The self-esteem scores of men who wanted to be
heavier did not differ from those who wished to be thinner.
A comparable division into groups was done for women. However, only
one woman had a perceived figure that was smaller than her ideal, and there-
fore was not included in this analysis. Self-esteem scores of women who want-
ed to be thinner (n = 34, M = 40.66, S D = 6.17) were compared to those
of women whose ideal body matched their perceived figure (n = 10, M =
38.67, S D = 6.48). The scores of the two groups did not differ significantly
[t(42) = - . 8 5 ] .
B o d y E s t e e m a n d t h e E A T . The study was designed in part to examine
how body esteem related to disordered eating. We were forced to limit our
analyses to the female subjects only, because of the highly skewed distribut-
ed of EAT scores for male subjects, as discussed above. Significant correla-
tions were obtained between the EAT and the BES total score (r = - . 3 4 ,
228 Silberstein et al.

p < .05), Sexual Attractiveness (r = -.28, p < .05), Weight Concern (r

= - .33, p < .05), and the BSD (r = - . 3 7 , p < .01). Hence, women who
reported lower body esteem or experienced a greater perceived-ideal discrepan-
cy reported more symptoms of disordered eating than women who were satis-
fied with their bodily appearance.
Relationship Between the E A T and Reasons for Exercise. We hypothe-
sized that exercising for weight control would be associated with disregulat-
ed eating for women. We correlated the Reasons for Exercise and the EAT.
Significant relationships were found between the EAT and exercising for
weight control (r = .36, p < .05) and for improvement of mood (r = .29,
p < .05). Hence, our hypothesis of a link between exercise for weight-related
reasons and attitudes and behaviors associated with disordered eating received
initial confirmation for females.

DISCUSSION

This study sought to examine the relationships among body esteem,

self-esteem, dieting, and exercise in women and men. First, we will discuss
gender differences along these dimensions, and then turn to the interrela-
tionships among the variables in each gender.
It was striking to find that men exhibited no less body dissatisfaction
than women. The lack of gender differences in degree of body dissatisfac-
tion obtained across three different measures: the BES, the BSD, and weight
dissatisfaction. At first glance, our results on the BSD appear to differ from
those reported by Fallon and Rozin (1985), who found that men, on aver-
age, reported little perceived-ideal discrepancy. However, in their analyses,
they did not use absolute value scores, and hence, on the calculations of
perceived-ideal discrepancy, positive scores would cancel out negative scores.
Given our findings that approximately equal numbers of men wanted to be
heavier as thinner, the importance of using absolute value scores to deter-
mine body size dissatisfaction is evident. Men and women exhibited com-
parable degrees of body dissatisfaction but in different directions. Whereas
virtually no women wanted to be heavier than they were, men were as likely
to want to be heavier as thinner. Drewnowski and Yee (1987) found a highly
comparable pattern of body dissatisfaction in their sample of undergradu-
ate men and women.
Although the different subscales of the BES for men and women
preclude gender comparisons, the pattern of differences on individual items
suggests that the sources of body dissatisfaction may differ for the two
genders. On those items on which gender differences emerged, men showed
greater satisfaction than women with aspects of their bodies and women dis-
played more satisfaction than men with facial components. Interestingly,
Implications of Body Dissatisfaction 229

when people are portrayed in the media, in art work, or in research subjects'
drawings, males tend to be presented in head-and-shoulders views, whereas
females tend to he displayed in full figure (Archer, Iritani, Kimes, & Bar-
rios, 1983). The ways in which men and women are portrayed in our society
may contribute to the differential sources of body dissatisfaction for each
gender: face for men, body for women.
As expected, women scored higher than men on a measure assessing
behaviors and attitudes associated with disordered eating. Furthermore, wom-
en more than men reported that they exercised for weight control, and for
women, exercising for weight control was significantly related to scores on
the EAT. The pervasive incidence of dieting and weight concerns among fe-
males can be considered a "normative discontent" for women today (Rodin
et al., 1985). The current data confirm a view that, for many women, exer-
cising may be part of the complex of attitudes and behaviors that comprise
normative discontent.
Upon examining the interrelationships among the body satisfaction
measures, we found that the BSD and the weight dissatisfaction index were
highly correlated with each other for both men and women. Whereas for
men all three subscales of the BES were highly correlated with the BSD, for
women only the Weight Concern factor of the BES was related to the BSD.
Thus, it appears body size dissatisfaction is related to the multiple dimen-
sions of body esteem for men, but only to weight dissatisfaction for women.
These results suggest that it is not necessary for future research to include
both the BSD and the weight dissatisfaction measure. However, for women
in particular, the BES does add information not tapped by the BSD or weight
dissatisfaction measure.
A central question of the current study was the relationship of self-
esteem to the dimensions under investigation. For men, the regression of BES
subscales and BSD onto self-esteem did not reach statistical significance,
which may reflect the high intercorrelations of the independent variables.
The BES total score was significantly correlated with self-esteem for men.
The high intercorrelations of the BES subscales raises the question of the
usefulness of the subscale scores, particularly for males, suggesting that the
total score may be sufficient in future research. When examining the rela-
tionship of body size dissatisfaction to self-esteem for men, we found that
a man's self-esteem was affected by the degree of his dissatisfaction and was
equally influenced by his being heavier or thinner than his body ideal. The
impact on men's self-esteem of deviating from their ideal body size suggests
that weight may be a variable that is central to men's sense of self.
For women, the BES factors Sexual Attractiveness and Physical Con-
dition, but not Weight Concern, related to self-esteem. This counterhypothe-
sized finding replicates results reported by Franzoi and Shields (1984), who
utilized the same self-esteem measure as we did, and is consistent with find-
230 Silberstein et al.

ings of Mahoney and Finch (1976). It is further corroborated in our data

by the lack of a relationship found between women's self-esteem and per-
ceived ideal discrepancies on the BSD. This lack of relationship does not ap-
pear attributable to insufficient variance in the measures.
Why would weight dissatisfaction have less of an impact on women's
self-esteem than other aspects of body esteem, and less of an impact than
it does on men's self-esteem? In a culture that promotes the extremely thin
female beauty ideal and thus creates a normative discontent with weight
(Rodin et al., 1985), the woman who experiences herself as dissatisfied with
her weight resembles rather than deviates from her peers. In this sense, weight
dissatisfaction may not be felt as unique and distinctive for a woman, and
therefore does not play a central role in her sense of self (McGuire & McGuire,
1982). If our current cultural emphasis on thinness has created a feeling for
women that their weight dissatisfaction is normative, then ironically this may
prevent a negative influence of weight dissatisfaction on self-esteem.

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APPENDIX

R e a s o n s f o r Exercise I n v e n t o r y 6

People exercise for a variety o f reasons. When people are asked why
they exercise, their answers are sometimes based on the reasons they believe
they s h o u l d have for exercising. What we want to know are the reasons peo-
ple actually have for exercising. Please respond to the items below as honestly
as possible. To what extent is each o f the following an important reason that
you have for exercising? Use the scale below, ranging from 1 to 7, in giving
your answers. (If you never exercise, please skip this section.)

1 2 3 4 5 7

not at all moderately extremely

important important important
Weight Control (~ = .81)
1. To be slim
2. To lose weight
3. To maintain my current weight
Fitness (c~ = .71)
4. To improve my muscle tone
5. To improve my strength
6. To improve my endurance, stamina
7. To improve my flexibility, coordination
6Items were presented in random order in the questionnaire.
232 Silberstein et al.

M o o d (~t = .79)
8. To cope with sadness, depression
9. To cope with stress, anxiety
10. To increase my energy level
I1. To improve my mood
Health (ct = .73)
12. To improve my cardiovascular fitness
13. To improve my overall health
14. To increase my resistance to illness and disease
15. To maintain my physical well-being
Attractiveness (~ = .78)
16. To improve my appearance
17. To be attractive to members of the opposite sex
18. To be sexually desirable
E n j o y m e n t (t~ = .67)
19. To meet new people
20. To socialize with friends
21. To have fun
Tone (t~ = .74)
22. To redistribute my weight
23. To improve my overall body shape
24. To alter a specific area of my body