Dr. T. Rajesh, Asst.

Professor
Mr. P. Venubabu, Asst. Professor,
EEE Dept., JBIET

1
 UNIT - I
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL
SYSTEMS

2
Introduction

System – An interconnection of elements and devices for a desired purpose.

Control System – An interconnection of components forming a system configuration

that will provide a desired response.

Process – The device, plant, or system

under control. The input and output
relationship represents the cause-and-
effect relationship of the process.

3
Chapter 1: Introduction to Control Systems
Objectives
In this chapter we describe a general process for designing a control system.

A control system consisting of interconnected components is designed to achieve a

desired purpose. To understand the purpose of a control system, it is useful to
examine examples of control systems through the course of history. These early
systems incorporated many of the same ideas of feedback that are in use today.

Modern control engineering practice includes the use of control design strategies for
improving manufacturing processes, the efficiency of energy use, advanced
automobile control, including rapid transit, among others.

We also discuss the notion of a design gap. The gap exists between the complex
physical system under investigation and the model used in the control system
synthesis.

The iterative nature of design allows us to handle the design gap effectively while
accomplishing necessary tradeoffs in complexity, performance, and cost in order to
meet the design specifications. 4
Introduction
Open-Loop Control Systems
utilize a controller or control
actuator to obtain the desired
response.

Closed-Loop Control Systems

utilizes feedback to compare
the actual output to the
desired output response.

Multivariable Control System

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History

Greece (BC) – Float regulator mechanism

Holland (16th Century)– Temperature regulator

Watt’s Flyball Governor

(18th century)

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History

Water-level float regulator

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History

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History
18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor for the speed control of a steam
engine.
1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships.
1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing the stability of controlled systems
1940s Frequency response methods made it possible to design linear closed-loop
control systems
1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully developed
1960s State space methods, optimal control, adaptive control and
1980s Learning controls are begun to investigated and developed.
Present and on-going research fields. Recent application of modern control theory
includes such non-engineering systems such as biological, biomedical, economic and
socio-economic systems

9
Examples of Modern Control Systems

(a)Automobile
steering control
system.
(b)The driver uses
the difference
between the actual
and the desired
direction of travel
to generate a
controlled adjustment
of the steering wheel.
(c) Typical direction-
of-travel response.

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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Examples of Modern Control Systems

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The Future of Control Systems

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The Future of Control Systems

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Control System Design

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22
Design Example

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Design Example
ELECTRIC SHIP CONCEPT

Vision
Electrically
Reconfigurable
All
Integrated Ship
Electric
Power Ship
System  Technology
Insertion Increasing Affordability and Military Capability
 Reduced manning
 Electric Drive  Warfighting
 Reduce # of Prime  Automation
Capabilities
Movers  Eliminate auxiliary
 Fuel savings systems (steam,
hydraulics, compressed Main Power
 Reduced maintenance air) Distribution
Propulsion Motor Prime
Generator
Motor Drive Mover

Power Ship
Conversion Service
Module Power

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Design Example

CVN(X) FUTURE AIRCRAFT CARRIER

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Design Example

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Design Example

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Design Example

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Design Example

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30
31
Design Example

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Design Example

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Sequential Design Example

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35
Sequential Design Example

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 UNIT -II

BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

OF MULTIPLE SYSTEMS

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 Figure 5.2

Components of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant system

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 Figure 5.3
a. Cascaded subsystems;
b. equivalent transfer function

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 Figure 5.5
a. Parallel subsystems;
b. equivalent transfer function

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 Figure 5.6
a. Feedback control system;
b. simplified model;
c. equivalent transfer function

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Figure 5.7: Block diagram algebra for summing junctions

equivalent forms for moving a block

a. to the left past a summing junction;
b. to the right past a summing junction

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Figure 5.8: Block diagram algebra for pickoff points
equivalent forms for moving a block
a. to the left past a pickoff point;
b. to the right past a pickoff point

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Block diagram reduction via familiar forms for Example5.1

Problem: Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single transfer

function

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Block diagram reduction via familiar forms for Example5.1 Cont.

Steps in solving Example 5.1:

a. collapse summing junctions;
b. form equivalent cascaded system
in the forward path
c. form equivalent parallel system in the
feedback path;
d. form equivalent feedback system and
multiply by cascadedG1(s)

45
Block diagram reduction by moving blocks Example 5.2

Problem: Reduce the block diagram shown in figure to a single transfer function

46
 Steps in the block diagram reduction for Example 5.2

a)Move G2(s) to the left past of

pickoff point to create parallel
subsystems, and reduce the
feedback system of G3(s) and H3(s)
b)Reduce parallel pair of 1/G2(s)
and unity, and push G1(s) to the
right past summing junction
c)Collapse the summing junctions,
add the 2 feedback elements, and
combine the last 2 cascade blocks
d)Reduce the feedback system to
the left
e)finally, Multiple the 2 cascade
blocks and obtain final result.

47
 Second-order feedback control system

K
The closed loop transfer function is T (s )  2
s  as K
Note K is the amplifier gain, As K varies, the poles move through
the three ranges of operations OD, CD, and UD
0<K<a2/4 system is over damped
K = a2/4 system is critically damped
K > a2/4 system is under damped
48
 Finding transient response Example 5.3

Problem: For the system shown, find peak time, percent overshot, and settling time.
25
Solution: The closed loop transfer function is T (s )  2
s  5s  25
And n  25  5
2  n  5 s o  = 0 . 5
using values for  and n and equation in chapter 4 wefind

Tp   0.726 sec
n 12
% O S  e   / 1  X 1 0 0  1 6 . 3 0 3
2

4
Ts   1.6 sec
 n 49
 Gain design for transient response Example 5.4

Problem: Design the value of gain K, so that the system will respond with a 10%
overshot. K
Solution: The closed loop transfer function is T (s ) 
s 2  5s  K
5
 n  K a n d 2  n  5 t h u s  =
2 K
For 10% OS we find  =0.591
We substitute this value in previous equation to find K = 17.9

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 Signal-flow graph components:
a. system;
b. signal;
c. interconnection of systems and signals

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Building signal-flow graphs

a. cascaded system nodes

b. cascaded system signal-flow
graph;
c. parallel system nodes
d. parallel system signal-flow
graph;
e. feedback system nodes
f. feedback system signal-flow
graph

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Converting a block diagram to a signal-flow graph

Problem: Convert the block diagram to a signal-flow graph.

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 Converting a block diagram to a signal-flow graph
Signal-flow graph development:
a. signal nodes;
b. signal-flow graph;
c. simplified signal-flow graph

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 Mason’s rule - Definitions

Loop gain: The product of branch gains found by traversing a path that starts at a node and ends at the
same node, following the direction of the signal flow, without passing through any other node more than
once. G2(s)H2(s), G4(s)H2(s), G4(s)G5(s)H3(s), G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)
Forward-path gain: The product of gains found by traversing a path from input node to output node in
the direction of signal flow. G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G7(s), G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G7(s)
Nontouching loops: loops that do not have any nodes in common. G2(s)H1(s) does not touch G4(s)H2(s),
G4(s)G5(s)H3(s), and G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)
Nontouching-loop gain: The product of loop gains from nontouching loops taken 2, 3,4, or more at a
time.
[G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)H2(s)], [G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)G5(s)H3(s)], [G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)]
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 Mason’s Rule
The Transfer function. C(s)/ R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is

C (s) T k k
G (s )   k

Where
R (s ) 
K = number of forward paths
Tk = the kth forward-path gain

= 1 - loop gains + nontouching-loop gains taken 2 at a time - nontouching-loop

 gainstaken 3 at a time + nontouching-loop gains taken 4 at a time- …….

= - loop gain terms in that touch the kth forward path. In other words,
k  by eliminating from  those loop gains that touch the kth forward path.
is formed k


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 Transfer function via Mason’s rule
Problem: Find the transfer function for the signal flow graph
Solution:
forward path
G1(s)G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)
Loop gains
G2(s)H1(s), G4(s)H2(s), G7(s)H4(s),
G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G6(s)G7(s)G8(s)
Nontouching loops
2at a time
G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s)
G2(s)H1(s)G7(s)H4(s)
G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)
3 at a time G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)
Now
 = 1-[G2(s)H1(s)+G4(s)H2(s)+G7(s)H4(s)+ G2(s)G3(s)G4(s)G5(s)G6(s)G7(s)G8(s)] + [G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s) +
G2(s)H1(s)G7(s)H4(s) + G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)] – [G2(s)H1(s)G4(s)H2(s)G7(s)H4(s)]

1 = 1 - G7(s)H4(s)
T 1 1 [G1(s)G 2(s)G (s)G (s)G (s)][1-G (s)H (s)]
G (s)   3 4 5 7 4

 
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Signal-Flow Graphs of State Equations
P roblem: draw signal-flow graph for:
x 1 2x 1  5x 2  3x 3  2r

x 2  6x 1  2x 2  2x 3  5r
x 3  x 1  3x 2  4x 3  7 r
y  4x 1  6x 2  9x 3
a. placenodes;
b. interconnect state variables and
derivatives;
c. form dx1/dt ;
d. form dx2/dt

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Signal-Flow Graphs of State Equations

(continued)
e. form dx3 /dt;
f. form output

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 Alternate Representation: Cascade Form

C (s ) 24

R (s ) (s  2)(s  3)(s  4)

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 Alternate Representation: Cascade Form

 4 1 0   0 
x 1  4 x 1  x 2  X  0  r
X 0 3 1
x2   3x 2  x 3   
 0 0 2 24
x3   2x 3  24r
y  c (t )  x 1 y  1 0 0X
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 C (s ) Alternat2e4Representation1: P2arallel F2o4rm 12
   
R (s ) (s  2)(s  3)(s  4) (s  2) (s  3) (s  4)

x 1  2 x 1  12r
x 2   3x 2  24r
x 3  4x 3  12r
y  c (t )  x 1  x 2  x 3

2 0 0 12 
X   0 3 0  X  24 r
0 0 4 12 
y  1 1 1X

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 Alternate Representation: Parallel Form Repeated roots
C (s) (s  3) 2 1 1
   
R (s ) (s  1) (s  2) (s  1)
2 2
(s  1) (s  2)

x 1  x 1  x2
x2  x2 +2r
x 3  2x 3  r
y  c (t )  x 1  1 / 2 x 2  x 3

1 1 0  0 
X   0 1 0  X   2 r
 0 0 2 1
y  1 1 / 2 1X

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 Alternate Representation: controller canonical form

G(s) = C(s)/R(s) = (s2 + 7s + 2)/(s3 + 9s2 + 26s + 24)

This form is obtained from the phase-variable form simply by ordering the
phase variable in reverse order

x  x 
 1  0 1 0   x 1  0   1  9 26 24  x 1  1 
    
x 2  
 0 0 1  x 2   0  r x 2    1 0 0  x 2   0  r
        
  24 26 9   x 3  1   0 0   x 3  0
x 3  
1
x 3 
   
x1  x1 
y  2 7 1x 2  y  1 7 2x 2 
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 x 3   x 3 
 Alternate Representation: controller canonical form

System matrices that contain the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial are
called companion matrices to the characteristic polynomial.
Phase-variable form result in lower companion matrix
Controller canonical form results in upper companion matrix

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 Alternate Representation: observer canonical form

Observer canonical form so named for its use in the design of observers
G(s) = C(s)/R(s) = (s2 + 7s + 2)/(s3 + 9s2 + 26s + 24)
= (1/s+7/s2 +2/s3 )/(1+9/s+26/s2 +24/s3 )
Cross multiplying
(1/s+7/s2 +2/s3 )R(s) = (1+9/s+26/s2 +24/s3 ) C(s)
And C(s) = 1/s[R(s)-9C(s)] +1/s2[7R(s)-26C(s)]+1/s3[2R(s)-24C(s)]
= 1/s{ [R(s)-9C(s)] + 1/s {[7R(s)-26C(s)]+1/s [2R(s)-24C(s)]}}

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 Alternate Representation: observer canonical form

x 1  9x 1  x 2 r
x 2  26x 1  x 3 +7r

x 3  24x 1  2r
y  c (t )  x 1

 9 1 0 1 
X  26 0 1 X  7 r
24 0 0 2
y  1 0 0X
Note that the observer form has A matrix that is transpose of the
controller canonical form, B vector is the transpose of the controller C
vector, and C vector is the transpose of the controller B vector. The 2
forms are called duals.
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 Feedback control system for Example 5.8

Problem Represent the feedback control system

shown in state space. Model the forward transfer
function in cascade form.
Solution first we model the forward transfer
function as in (a), Second we add the feedback
and input paths as shown in (b) complete system.
Write state equations

x 1  3x 1  x 2
x 2  - 2 x 2  100(r - c )

but c  5x 1  (x 2  3x 1 )  2 x 1  x 2
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 Feedback control system for Example 5.8

x 1  3x 1  x 2
x 2   200x 1  1 0 2 x 2  100r

y  c (t )  2x 1  x 2

 3 1 

0 
X  102  X 100 r
200   
y  2 1X

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 State-space forms for

C(s)/R(s) =(s+ 3)/[(s+ 4)(s+ 6)].

Note: y = c(t)

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 UNIT-III
TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

71
 Transient vs Steady-State
The output of any differential equation can be broken up into two parts,
• a transient part (which decays to zero as t goes to infinity) and
• a steady-state part (which does not decay to zero as t goes to infinity).

y(t)  ytr (t)  yss (t)

lim ytr (t)  0
t0

Either part might be zero in any particular case.

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 Prototype systems
1st Order system 1
c(t)  c(t)  kr(t)

2nd ordersystem c(t)  2nc(t)  n2 c(t)  kr(t)
Agenda:
transfer function
response to test signals
impulse
step
ramp
parabolic
sinusoidal

73
1st order system C(s) 1T
G(s)  
Impulse response
Step response R(s) s 1 T
Ramp response
Relationship between impulse, step and ramp
Relationship between impulse, step and ramp responses

1 t T
r(t)   (t), R(s)  1, c (t)  e 1(t)
T
1 cstep (t)  1e t T 1(t)
r(t)  1(t), R(s)  ,
s
1  1(t)
r(t)  t1(t), R(s)  2
, cramp (t)  t  T  Te t T
s

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 1st Order system
Prototype parameter: Time constant

Relate problem specific parameter to prototype parameter.

Parameters: problem specific constants. Numbers that do not change with

time, but do change from problem to problem.

We learn that the time constant defines a problem specific time scale that is more
convenient than the arbitrary time scale of seconds, minutes, hours, days, etc, or
fractions thereof.

75
 Transient vs Steady state
Consider the impulse, step, ramp responses computed earlier. Identify the steady
state and the transient parts.

76
1st order Consider the impulse, step, ramp responses computed
earlier. Identify the steady state and the transient
system parts.
Impulse response
Step response C(s) 1T
Ramp response G(s)   , T0
Relationship between impulse, step and ramp R(s) s 1 T
Relationship between impulse, step and ramp responses

1 t T
r(t)   (t), R(s)  1, c (t)  e 1(t)
T
1 cstep (t)  1e t T 1(t)
r(t)  1(t), R(s)  ,
s
1  1(t)
r(t)  t1(t), R(s)  2
, cramp (t)  t  T  Te t T
s
Compare steady-state part to input function, transient part to TF.
77
 C(s) n K 2
2nd order system G(s)   2
R(s) s  2n s   n2
Over damped
• (two real distinct roots = two 1st order systems with real poles)
Critically damped
• (a single pole of multiplicity two, highly unlikely, requires exact matching)
Underdamped
• (complex conjugate pair of poles, oscillatory behavior, most common)
step response

 
cstep (t)  K 1

ent
1  2
sin d t  tan 1
1  2
  1(t)

 
  
c (t)  K  n
e nt sin  d t 1(t)
 1  2  78
 2nd Order System

Prototype parameters:
undamped natural frequency,
damping ratio

Relating problem specific parameters to prototype parameters

79
 Transient vs Steady state
Consider the step, responses computed earlier. Identify the steady state and the
transient parts.

80
 C(s) n K 2
2nd order system G(s)   2
R(s) s  2n s   n2
Over damped
• (two real distinct roots = two 1st order systems with real poles)
Critically damped
• (a single pole of multiplicity two, highly unlikely, requires exact matching)
Underdamped
• (complex conjugate pair of poles, oscillatory behavior, most common)
step response

 
cstep (t)  K 1

ent
1  2
sin d t  tan 1
1  2
  1(t)

 
  
c (t)  K  n
e nt sin  d t 1(t)
 1  2  81
 Use of Prototypes

Too many examples to cover them all

We cover important prototypes
We develop intuition on the prototypes
We cover how to convert specific examples to prototypes
We transfer our insight, based on the study of the prototypes to the specific
situations.

82
 Transient-Response Spedifications
1. Delay time, td: The time required for the response to reach half the final value the
very first time.
2. Rise time, tr: the time required for the response to rise from
10% to 90% (common for overdamped and 1st order systems);
5% to 95%;
or 0% to 100% (common for underdamped systems);
of its final value
1. Peak time, tp:
2. Maximum (percent) overshoot, Mp:
3. Settling time, ts

83
Derived relations for 2nd d  n 1  2
Order Systems   n
   1  d 
tr  tp    tan  
d d  
 
 See book for details. (Pg. 232)
1 2
Mp e 100%
4 4 3 3
ts  4T   2% ts  3T   5%
 n  n
Allowable Mp determines dampingratio.
Settling time then determines undamped naturalfrequency.
Theory is used to derive relationships between design specifications andprototype
parameters.
Which are related to problem parameters.

84
 Higher order system

PFEs have linear denominators.

• each term with a real pole has a time constant

•each complex conjugate pair of poles has a damping ratio and an undamped
natural frequency.

85
Proportional control of plant w
integrator

1
GC (s)  K p , G(s) 
s(Js  b)

86
Integral control of Plant w disturbance

K 1
GC (s)  , G(s) 
s s(Js  b)

87
Proportional Control of plant w/o
integrator

1
GC (s)  K, G(s) 
Ts 1

88
Integral control of plant w/o integrator

K 1
GC (s)  , G(s) 
s Ts 1

89
 UNIT-IV
STABILITY ANALYSIS IN S- DOMAIN

90
 Routh’s Stability Criterion
How do we determine stability without finding all poles?
Actual poles provide more info than is needed.
All we need to know if any poles are in LHP.
Routh’s stability criterion (Section 5-7).

q(s)  s 4  2s3  3s2 4s  5

q(s)  s3  2s 2  s  2
q(s)  s5  2s 4  24s3  48s2  25s  50
What values of K produce a stable system?

K G(s)
G(s)  , T(s) 
s(s  s 1)(s  2)
2
1 G(s) 91
 The Stability of Linear Feedback Systems

The issue of ensuring the stability of a closed-loop feedback system is central to

control system design. Knowing that an unstable closed-loop system is generally
of no practical value, we seek methods to help us analyze and design stable
systems. A stable system should exhibit a bounded output if the corresponding
input is bounded. This is known as bounded-input, bounded-output stability
and is one of the main topics of this chapter.

The stability of a feedback system is directly related to the location of the roots
of the characteristic equation of the system transfer function. The Routh–
Hurwitz method is introduced as a useful tool for assessing system stability. The
technique allows us to compute the number of roots of the characteristic
equation in the right half-plane without actually computing the values of the
roots. Thus we can determine stability without the added computational burden
of determining characteristic root locations. This gives us a design method for
determining values of certain system parameters that will lead to closed-loop
stability. For stable systems we will introduce the notion of relative stability,
which allows us to characterize the degree of stability.

92
The Concept of Stability

A stable system is a dynamic system with a bounded

response to a bounded input.

Absolute stability is a stable/not stable characterization for a

closed-loop feedback system. Given that a system is stable
we can further characterize the degree of stability, or the
relative stability.

93
 The Concept of Stability
The concept of stability can be
illustrated by a cone placed on
a plane horizontal surface.

A necessary and
sufficient condition for a
feedback system to be
stable is that all the
poles of the system
transfer function have
negative real parts.

A system is considered marginally stable if only certain bounded

inputs will result in a bounded output.
94
 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

It was discovered that all coefficients of the characteristic polynomial must

have the same sign and non-zero if all the roots are in the left-hand plane.

These requirements are necessary but not sufficient. If the above

requirements are not met, it is known that the system is unstable. But, if the
requirements are met, we still must investigate the system further to
determine the stability of the system.

The Routh-Hurwitz criterion is a necessary and sufficient criterion for the

stability of linear systems.

95
 The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Characteristic equation, q(s) ans n  a n1 sn1  a n2 s n2  a1 s a0  0

Routh array sn an an2 an4

s n1 an1 an3 an5
s n2 bn1 bn3 bn5
s n3 cn1 cn3 cn5
   
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion    
states that the number of    
roots of q(s) with positive real s0 hn1
parts is equal to the number
of changes in sign of the first
column of the Routh array. bn1 
an1 an2  an an3   1 an a n2
an1 an1 an1 an3
1 a n2 a n4
bn3 
an1 an1 an3
1 an1 a n3
cn1 
bn1 bn1 bn3 96
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case One: No element in the first column is zero.

Example 6.1 Second-order system

The Characteristic polynomial of a second-order system is:

q(s) a 2 s 2  a 1 s  a 0

2
The Routh array is written as:
s a2 a0
1
s a.1 0
0
w here: s b.1 0
a 1 a 0  (0)a 2
b1 a0
a1

Theref ore the requirement for a stable second-order system is

simply that al coeff icients be positive or all the coefficients be
negative.
97
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Two: Zeros in the first column while some elements of the row containing a
zero in the first column are nonzero.

If only one element in the a r r a y is ze r o , it may be replaced w ith a smal positiv e

number  that is allow e d to a ppr o a c h ze r o a f t e r completing the a r r a y.

q ( s ) s 5  2s 4  2s 3  4s 2  11s  1 0

The Routh a r r a y is then:

s5 1 2 11
s4 2 4 10
s3 b1 6 0
s2 c1 10 0
s1 d1 0 0
s 0 10 0 0
w here:
22  14 4  2 6 1 2 6c 1  10
b1 0  c1 d1 6
2   c1
There are t w o sign c ha nge s in the f irst column d u e to the large negativ e number
calculated f o r c1. Thus , the s y s t e m is unstable be c a us e t w o roots lie in the
right half of the plane. 98
The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Three: Zeros in the first column, and the other elements of the row containing
the zero are also zero.

This case occurs when the polynomial q(s) has zeros located sy metrically about the
origin of the s-plane, such as (s+)(s -) or (s+j)(s-j). This case is solved using
the auxiliary polynomial, U(s), w hich is located in the row above the row containing
the zero entry in the Routh array.

q(s) s3  2s2  4s  K

Routh array: s3 1 4
s2 2 K
s1 8 K
0
2
s0 K 0
For a stable system we require that 0s8

For the marginally stable case, K=8, the s^1 row of the Routh array contains all zeros. The
auxiliary plynomial comes f rom the s^2 row.
U(s) 2s 2  Ks 0 2s 2  8 
2 s2  4  2(s  j2)(s  j2)

It can be proven that U(s) is a factor of the characteristic polynomial:

q(s) s2
U(s) 2 Thus, w hen K=8, the factors of the characteristic polynomial are:

q(s) (s  2)(s  j2)(s  j2) 99

The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
Case Four: Repeated roots of the characteristic equation on the jw-axis.

With simple roots on the jw-axis, the system will

have a marginally stable behavior. This is not the
case if the roots are repeated. Repeated roots
on the jw-axis will cause the system to be
unstable. Unfortunately, the routh-array will fail
to reveal this instability.

100
Example 6.4

101
Example 6.5 Welding control

Using block diagram reduction we find that:

The Routh array is then: s4 1 11 Ka
s3 6 (K  6)
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka
60  K b3(K  6)  6Ka
where: b 3 and c3
6 b3

For the system to be stable both b3 and c3 must be positive.

Using these equations a relationship can be determined forK and a .
102
The Relative Stability of Feedback Control Systems

It is often necessary to know the

relative damping of each root to
the characteristic equation.
Relative system stability can be
measured by observing the
relative real part of each root. In
this diagram r2 is relatively more
stable than the pair of roots
labeled r1.

One method of determining the relative stability of

each root is to use an axis shift in the s-domain and
then use the Routh array as shown in Example 6.6
of the text.

103
Design Example: Tracked Vehicle Turning Control

Problem statement: Design the turning control for a tracked vehicle. Select K
and a so that the system is stable. The system is modeled below.

104
Design Example: Tracked Vehicle Turning Control

The characteristic equation of this system is:

1  GcG(s) 0

or
K(s  a)
1 0
s(s  1)(s  2)(s  5)

Thus,
s(s  1)(s  2)(s  5)  K(s  a) 0

or
s 4  8s3  17s2  (K  10)s  Ka 0
To determine a stable region for the system, we establish the Routh array as:
s4 1 17 Ka
s3 8 (K 10) 0
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka
where
126  K b 3 (K  10)  8Ka
b3 and c3
8 b3
105
Design Example: Tracked Vehicle Turning Control

s4 1 17 Ka
s3 8 (K 10) 0
s2 b3 Ka
s1 c3
s0 Ka

where
126  K b3(K  10)  8Ka
b3 and c3
8 b3

Therefore,
K  126

Ka  0

(K  10)(126  K)  64Ka  0

106
System Stability Using MATLAB

107
System Stability Using MATLAB

108
System Stability Using MATLAB

109
System Stability Using MATLAB

110
Root Locus
•Motivation
To satisfy transient performance requirements, it may be necessary to know how to
choose certain controller parameters so that the resulting closed-loop poles are in the
performance regions, which can be solved with Root Locus technique.

•Definition
A graph displaying the roots of a polynomial equation when one of the parameters in
the coefficients of the equation changes from 0 to .

•Rules for Sketching Root Locus

•Examples
•Controller Design Using Root Locus
Letting the CL characteristic equation (CLCE) be the polynomial equation, one can use
the Root Locus technique to find how a positive controller design parameter affects the
resulting CL poles, from which one can choose a right value for the controller
parameter.

111
 Poles and zeros
k(s  z1 )(s  z2 )(s  zm ) z1 , z2 , zm zeros
F (s)  poles
(s  p1 )(s  p2 )(s  pn ) p1 , p2 , p n
Im axis
pole

zero

Re axis

112
  2

T (s) n
Closed-loop transfer function :
s  2n s   n 2
2

e   n t
y(t)  1  sin(  n 1   2 t  cos  1  )
1 2

j
Im axis cos  
j n 1  

2

Tp
n n 1  2
  4
Ts 
 n Re axis  n

1 2
m.o.  e 100%

113
 j
p3
1  2  3
p2 j n 1  2   1   2   3
p1  Tp1  Tp 2  Tp3
  o.s.1  o.s.2 o.s.3
n
n3  n2   n1
 Ts1  Ts2  Ts3

114
 j
1  2  3
 1   2   3
p3 p2 p1

 o.s.1  o.s.2  o.s.3

  Tp1  Tp 2 Tp3
n3  n2  n1
n 
 Ts1  Ts2  Ts3
(i)n  Ts 
(ii)n 1  2  Tp 
(iii)    o.s.

115
 j
 0
Negative damped
 0

0   1 1    0
 0
Undamped

1 1   1 
1 0   1
  1   1 Underdamped

1    0
0   1  1
 0 Critically damped

 1
Overdamped

116
 Root locus
r(t) y(t)
k G(s)
＋
－

H(s)

y(s) kG(s)
T (s)  
R(s) 1 kG(s)H (s)

1 kG(s)H (s)  0 poles

117
1 kG(s)H (s)  0 Open loop transfer function

 kG(s)H (s)  1
kG(s)H (s) 1

kG(s)H (s)  (2n 1)
Using open loop transfer function + system parameters to analyze the
closed-loop system response

k 0
Draw the s-plan root locus

118
Root locus properties:
(i) The locus segments are symmetrical about the real axis.
(ii)
1
k ,k  0  
G(s)H (s)

k  0, G(s)H (s)  poles

(iii) k  , G(s)H (s)  zeros

j  s0
3
G(s0 )H (s0 )  1  ( 2   3   4 )
1
4
2 

119
 Root locus construction

(i) Loci Branches each locus from poles to kzero0s k 

if nm for excess zeros or poles, locus segments extend from

infinity.

(1) nm  0

n m branches  
(2) nm 0

mn branches   zeros

120
(ii) Real axis segments

Poles + zeros = odd

1800

kG(s)H(s)  1180 0

Poles + zeros = even

121
  k  (2k 1) , k  0,1,2,
(iii) Asymptotic angles
nm

180
if n  6,m  2    450
4

450

 450

122
(iv) Centroid of the asymptotes

  poles   zeros
nm
example 3s
G(s)H (s) 
(s  2)(s2  6s 18)

Zero : 0
(2  3  j3  3  j3)  0
Poles: -2, -3+j3, -3-j3   4
31

  180  900
31

123
(v) Breakaway and entry points dk
0
ds
k
example kGH 
s(s 1)(s  2)

1 kGH  0 The characteristic function of closed loop system

s3  3s2  2s k
1 kGH  0
s(s 1)(s  2)

k  (s3  3s2 2s)

dk
 3s2  6s  2  0
ds
s  0.423,1.577

124
(vi) Angle of departure and approach

D  1800  G(s)H (s)

 A  1800  G(s)H (s)
k(s  2)
example kGH 
(s 1 j)(s 1 j)
Angle of departure from the pole: s  1 j

(s  2)  (s 1 j)  (s 1 j)  1800

(s  2)  D  (s 1 j)  180 0
(1 j  2)  D  (1 j 1 j)  180 0

D  180  (1 j  2)  (1 j 1 j)

D  225 0
125
 k(s  j)(s  j)
example kGH 
s(s 1)

Angle of approach to the zero: s j

(s  j)  (s  j)  s  (s 1)  1800

(s  j)  A  s  (s 1)  180 0
( j  j)  A  j  ( j 1)  180 0
A  1800  ( j  j)  j  ( j 1)
A  135 0

126
(vii) The cross point of root locus and Im-axis

k
example kGH 
s(s  3)(s2  2s  2)

The characteristic function of closed loop system:

s(s  3)(s2  2s  2)  k  0
s4 1 8 k
s  5s  8s  6s  k  0
4 3 2

s3 5 6
204  25k
0 s2 34 k
34 5
k  8.16 204 25k
s1
34
34 2
s  k 0 s0 k
5
s   j1.095

127
 R(s) k C(s)

+ s(1 0.5s)(10.1s)
-

k
kGH(s) 
s(1 0.5s)(1 0.1s)

poles  0,  2, 10 s(1 0.5s)(1 0.1s)  k  0

(i)
zeros  , ,  0.05s3  0.6s2  s  k  0
(iii)
dk d
  0  (2)  (10)  0  4   (0.05s3  0.6s2  s)  0
(ii) 30 ds ds
 k  180 60 s1  0.945, s2  7.05
30

128
0.05s3  0.6s2  s  k  0 k  12
s3 0.05 1
0.6s 2 12 0
s2 0.6 k
s1
0.6  0.05k s   j4.5
0.6
s k
j4.5(k  12)

600 s  0.945
  4
10 2 0
(k  0) (k  0) (k  0)

 j4.5(k  12)

129
 MATLAB method

k
kGH(s) 
s(1 0.5s)(1 0.1s)

gh=zpk([],[0 –2 -10],[1])
rltool(gh)

k(3s  9)
kGH (s) 
s 4  s3  s 2 15s

n=[-3 -9]
m=[1 –1 –1 –15 0]
gh=tf(n,m)
rltool(gh)

130
 UNIT-V
BODE PLOT

131
 Poles and Zeros and Transfer Functions

Transfer Function: A transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace

transform of the output to the input with all initial
conditions equal to zero. Transfer functions are defined
only for linear time invariant systems.

Considerations: Transfer functions can usually be expressed as the ratio

of two polynomials in the complex variable, s.

Factorization: A transfer function can be factored into the following form.

G(s)  K (s  z )(s  z )...(s  z )

1 2 m

(s  p )(s  p ) ... (s  p )
1 2 n

The roots of the numerator polynomial are called zeros.

The roots of the denominator polynomial are called poles.

wlg 132
 Poles, Zeros and the S-Plane
An Example: You are given the following transfer function. Show the
poles and zeros in the s-plane.

G(s)  (s  8)(s  14)

s(s  4)(s  10)

j axis

S - plane

origin
o x o x x
-14 -10 -8 -4 0  axis

wlg
133
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Characterization: Considering the transfer function of the

previous slide. We note that we have 4 different
types of terms in the previous general form:
These are:
1 1
K , , , (s / z  1)
(s / p  1)
B
s

Expressing in dB: Given the tranfer function:

G( jw)  K ( jw / z 1)
B

( jw)( jw / p 1)

20log | G( jw | 20log K  20log | ( jw/ z 1) | 20log | jw | 20log | jw/ p 1|

B

wlg
134
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: We have 4 distinct terms to consider:

20logKB

20log|(jw/z +1)|

-20log|jw|

-20log|(jw/p + 1)|

wlg
135
 1 1 1 1 1 1

This is a sheet of 5 cycle, semi-log paper.

This is the type of paper usually used for
preparing Bode plots.

dB Mag
Phase
(deg)

wlg
136
 (rad/sec)
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: The gain term, 20logKB, is just so many

dB and this is a straight line on Bode paper,
independent of omega (radian frequency).

The term, - 20log|jw| = - 20logw, when plotted

on semi-log paper is a straight line sloping at
-20dB/decade. It has a magnitude of 0 at w = 1.

20
-20db/dec

-20

=1
wlg
137
 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots

Mechanics: The term, - 20log|(jw/p + 1), is drawn with the

following approximation: If w < p we use the
approximation that –20log|(jw/p + 1 )| = 0 dB,
a flat line on the Bode. If w > p we use the
approximation of –20log(w/p), which slopes at
-20dB/dec starting at w = p. Illustrated below.
It is easy to show that the plot has an error of
-3dB at w = p and – 1 dB at w = p/2 and w = 2p.
One can easily make these corrections if it is
appropriate.

2
0
0
-20db/dec
-20

-40

=p wlg 138

 Poles, Zeros and Bode Plots
Mechanics: When we have a term of 20log|(jw/z + 1)| we
approximate it be a straight line of slop 0 dB/dec
when w < z. We approximate it as 20log(w/z)
when w > z, which is a straight line on Bode paper
with a slope of + 20dB/dec. Illustrated below.

20
+20db/dec
0

-20

-40

=z

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Example 1:

Given: 50, 000( jw 10)

G( jw) 
( jw 1)( jw  500)
First: Always, always, always get the poles and zeros in a form such that
the constants are associated with the jw terms. In the above example
we do this by factoring out the 10 in the numerator and the 500 in the
denominator.

50, 000x10( jw /10 1) 100( jw /10 1)

G( jw)  
500( jw 1)( jw / 500 1) ( jw 1)( jw / 500 1)

Second: When you have neither poles nor zeros at 0, start the Bode
at 20log10K = 20log10100 = 40 dB in this case.

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Example 1: (continued)

Third: Observe the order in which the poles and zeros occur.
This is the secret of being able to quickly sketch the Bode.
In this example we first have a pole occurring at 1 which
causes the Bode to break at 1 and slope – 20 dB/dec.
Next, we see a zero occurs at 10 and this causes a
slope of +20 dB/dec which cancels out the – 20 dB/dec,
resulting in a flat line ( 0 db/dec). Finally, we have a
pole that occurs at w = 500 which causes the Bode
to slope down at – 20 dB/dec.

We are now ready to draw the Bode.

Before we draw the Bode we should observe the range

over which the transfer function has active poles and zeros.
This determines the scale we pick for the w (rad/sec)
at the bottom of the Bode.

The dB scale depends on the magnitude of the plot and

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 Bode Plot Magnitude for 100(1 + jw/10)/(1 + jw/1)(1 + jw/500)
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

20

dB Mag dB Mag Phase (deg)

Phase (deg)
0

-20

-60

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
 (rad/sec)
 (rad/sec)

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 Using Matlab For Frequency Response

Instruction: We can use Matlab to run the frequency response for

the previous example. We place the transfer function
in the form:
5000(s 10)  [5000s 50000]
(s 1)(s  500) [ s 501s  500]
2

The Matlab Program

num = [5000 50000];
den = [1 501 500];
Bode (num,den)
In the following slide, the resulting magnitude and phase plots (exact)
are shown in light color (blue). The approximate plot for the magnitude
(Bode) is shown in heavy lines (red). We see the 3 dB errors at the
corner frequencies.

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 Bode Diagrams

From: U(1)
40

30

20
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

10

-10
1 10 100 500
0

-20

-40
To: Y(1)

-60
100(1  jw/10)
Bode for: G( jw) 
-80 (1 jw)(1 jw/ 500)
-100
10-1 100 101 102 103 104

Frequency (rad/sec)
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 Phase for Bode Plots
Comment: Generally, the phase for a Bode plot is not as easy to draw
or approximate as the magnitude. In this course we will use
an analytical method for determining the phase if we want to
make a sketch of the phase.

Illustration: Consider the transfer function of the previous example.

We express the angle as follows:

G( jw) tan (w /10) tan (w /1)  tan (w / 500)

1 1 1

We are essentially taking the angle of each pole and zero.

Each of these are expressed as the tan-1(j part/real part)

Usually, about 10 to 15 calculations are sufficient to determine

a good idea of what is happening to the phase.

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 Bode Plots
Example 2: Given the transfer function. Plot the Bode magnitude.

G(s) 100(1 s /10)

s(1  s /100)
2

Consider first only the two terms of

100
jw
Which, when expressed in dB, are; 20log100 – 20 logw.
This is plotted below.

The is
40
-20db/dec a tentative line we use
dB 20 until we encounter the
first pole(s) or zero(s)
0
not at the origin.
-20

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1  (rad/sec) 146
 Bode Plots
Example 2: (continued) The completed plot is shown below.

G(s) 100(1 s /10)

s(1  s /100) 2

1 1 1 1 1 1
60

-20db/dec
40

20

dB Mag -40 db/dec Phase (deg)

0

-20

G(s) 100(1 s /10)

-40 s(1  s /100) 2

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000
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 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 3:

G(s)  80(1  jw) 3

Given: 20log80 = 38 dB
( jw)3 (1  jw / 20)2
1 1 1 1 1 1

-60 dB/dec

60

dB Mag 40

-40 dB/dec
20

-20 .

0.1 1 10 100 wlg

148
 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Example 4:

10(1  jw /2)
Given: G( jw) 
(1  j0.025w)(1  jw /500)2
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

+ 20 dB/dec
20 -40 dB/dec

dB Mag Phase (deg)

0

-20 Sort of a low

pass filter
-40

-60
2
0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg
149
 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots
Given:
(1  jw / 30) (1 jw /100)
2 2

G( jw)
(1 jw / 2) (1 jw/1700)
2 2

Example 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
60

40

20

dB Mag Phase (deg)

0

-40 dB/dec
-20 Sort of a low
pass filter
+ 40 dB/dec
-40

-60
0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg
159
 (rad/sec)
 Bode Plots

Given: problem 11.15 text

Example 6
640( jw  1)(0.01jw 1) 64( jw  1)(0.01jw  1)
H ( jw) 
( jw) ( jw  10)
2
( jw) (0.1jw  1) 2

.
-40dB/dec

40 .
-20db/dec

20 .
-40dB/dec
dB mag 0

-20 .
-20dB/dec

-40 .

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg 151

 Bode Plots

Design Problem: Design a G(s) that has the following Bode plot.

Example 7

40
30 dB

20
+40 dB/dec
-40dB/dec

0
dB mag
? ?

30 900
0.1 1 10 100 1000 wlg
 rad/sec 152
 Bode Plots
Procedure: The two break frequencies need to be found.
Recall:
#dec = log10[w2/w1]
Then we have:

(#dec)( 40dB/dec) = 30 dB

log10[w1/30] = 0.75 w1 = 5.33 rad/sec

Also:

log10[w2/900] (-40dB/dec) = - 30dB

This gives w2 = 5060 rad/sec

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 Bode Plots
Procedure:

G(s)  (1  s / 5.3) 2
(1  s / 5060) 2

(1  s / 30)2 (1  s / 900)2
Clearing:
G(s)  (s  5.3) (s  5060)
2 2

(s  30)2 (s  900)2

Use Matlab and conv:

N1(s 2  10.6s  28.1) N 2 (s 2  10120s  2.56xe7 )

N1 = [1 10.6 28.1] N2 = [1 10120 2.56e+7]
N = conv(N1,N2)
1 1.86e+3 2.58e+7 2.73e+8 7.222e+8

s4 s3 s2 s1 s0

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 Bode Plots
Procedure: The final G(s) is given by;

(s 10130.6s  2.571e s  2.716e s  7.194e )

4 3 8 2 8 8

G(s) 
(s 1860s  9.189e s  5.022e s  7.29e )
4 3 2 2 7 8

Testing: We now want to test the filter. We will check it at  = 5.3 rad/sec
And  = 164. At  = 5.3 the filter has a gain of 6 dB or about 2.
At  = 164 the filter has a gain of 30 dB or about 31.6.

We will check this out using MATLAB and particularly, Simulink.

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Matlab (Simulink) Model:

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156
Filter Output at  = 5.3 rad/sec

Produced from Matlab Simulink

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Filter Output at  = 70 rad/sec

Produced from Matlab Simulink

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 Reverse Bode Plot
Required:
From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function
Example 8 (Assume a minimum phase system)

Not to scale
68

20 db/dec

-20 db/dec
30

20
db/dec
dB

1 110 850
 wlg
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 Reverse Bode Plot
Required:
From the partial Bode diagram, determine the transfer function
Example 9 (Assume a minimum phase system)

100 dB
-40 dB/dec
Not to scale
50 dB
-20 dB/dec
-20 dB/dec

10 dB
-40 dB/dec

0.5 40 300
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w (rad/sec)
THANK YOU

161