Course Title

Course Title: The Child and

The Child and
Adolescent Adolescent
learners Learners
and Learning
and Learning Principles
Principles
Learning Module No.: 1#

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:

PROFESSOR
Name: GISELA I. PINGAD
Academic Department: DASTE
Consultation Schedule: Saturday
Email Address: [email protected]
Contact Number:09176501433

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 ********************************* DISCLAIMER *********************************

No reproduction of any part of the module may be used, sold or distributed

for commercial purposes or be changed or included in any other Colleges and
Universities, work or publication, whether in print or electronic, including sending,
publishing or incorporating them to another module unless prior permission has
been granted.
 LEARNING MODULE INFORMATION
I. Course Code EDUC 101
II. Course Title The Child and Adolescent Learners and learning Principles
III. Module Number 1
IV. Module Title The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
V. Overview of the Module The Child and Adolescent Learners and learning principle
module was created for use as both a training tool and a
reference for future educators. Information in the book is
presented in training lectures and activities. Using this module
during pandemic will replace transfer of knowledge from
face to face to distance modular learning.
The first part of the module contains information on learner-
centered psychological principles, and then goes into more
depth on key topics, such as basic concepts and issues on
human development. It also briefly discusses developmental
theories and other relevant theories.
The second part contains information of the learners at
various stages that further discusses on Pre-natal period,
Infancy and Toddlerhood, Early Childhood, Middle
Childhood, Late Childhood and Adolescence.
The last part of the module pertains to revisiting the learner
centered psychological principles in relation to the learner’s
developmental stage.

VI. Module Outcomes As an outcome of this module you are expected to:
• Observe and reflect on the applicability of the theories
to children and adolescent on locale (i.e. community,
regional or Philippines)
• Articulate their own views and ideas on how children
and adolescents grow
• Appreciate value and respect the difficult and
complex process that students of different ages go
through

VII. General Instructions You must allot the necessary time to complete the lessons
each week. If you choose not to complete the lesson using
the schedule provided, you must understand that it is your full
responsibility to complete them by the last day of
completion. Time is of the essence.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 The module is designed to assess student understanding of
the assigned lessons found within the associated content of
the prelim, midterm and final period of the course. The
assessment part of the module is composed of varied types
of questions. You may see true/false, traditional multiple
choice, matching, multiple answer, completion, and/or
essay. Pay attention to the answer to the assessment
questions as you move through each lesson. After each
module you will be given a summative test. Your responses to
the assessment parts of the module will be checked and
recorded.
Because the assessment questions are available within the
whole completion period and because you can reference
the answers to the questions within the content modules, we
will not release the answers within modules. However, your
professors are happy to discuss the assessments with you
during their consultation time, should you have any
questions.

Good luck.

You may not work collaboratively. This is independent work.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 1

Lesson 1: Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should able to:
• define human development in your own words
• distinguish between the traditional and life-span approach of development

Getting Started:
Here are pictures of seven-year old Naschielle and three-year-old Kenn. Each one is a bundle
of responsibilities. What do you think they will be possibly become?

Answer the following questions:

1. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child, adolescent and adult
Naschielle and Kenn may become and hypothesized on who they once were, you
were referring to human development. What then is development? Translate the
meaning of development in your Mother Tongue.
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Will three-year old Kenn be able to do all that seven-year old Naschielle can do?
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development of Naschielle and
Kenn? If yes, what?

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_______________________________________________________________________
4. Will there be differences in their development? What and why?
_______________________________________________________________________
5. Will the process of development take place very fast or gradually? Expound on your
answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
6. Do you believe that Naschielle and Kenn will continue to develop even in adulthood?
Or will they stop developing in adulthood?
_______________________________________________________________________

Discussion:
Two approaches to human development
If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change from birth to adolescence,
little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your approach to development
is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood developmental change takes
place as it does during childhood, your approach is termed life-span approach.
What are the characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective? Paul
Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Naschielle will continue
developing even in adulthood.
2. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is
possible throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as “I
am too old for that…” Neither Kenn nor Naschielle will be too old to learn something.
Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. These declines can be
prevented or reduced. In one research study, the reasoning abilities of older adults were
improved through retraining (Willies & Schose, 1994 cited by Santrock J., 2005)
3. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive, and
socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a process is complex because it is the
product of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes (Santrock, 2002).
Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The brains of
Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will gain height and weight. They will experience hormonal

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changes when they reach the period of puberty, and cardiovascular decline as they
approach late adulthood. All these show the common biological processes in development.
Development is relatively orderly.
Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit, crawl then walk before they can run. The muscular
control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. This is
the proximodistal pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top—the
head—with physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation gradually working its way
down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on). This is the
cephalo-caudal pattern. These development patterns are common to Naschielle and Kenn.
Development takes place gradually.
Naschielle and Kenn won’t develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years
before they become one. In fact, that’s the way of nature. The bud does not blossom
suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight. While some changes occur in a flash of
insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result
in the display of developmental characteristics.
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and
language. Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a word becoming two words,
the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on to memorizing their first prayer,
singing Bayang Magiliw in every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to be a
teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All these reflect the
role of cognitive processes in development.
Socio-emotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationships with other
people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. As babies, Naschielle and Kenn
responded with a sweet smile when affectionately touched and frowned when displeased
and even showed temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted. From
aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise,
depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may end
up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards. All these reflect the role of socio-emotional
processes in development.
These biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes are inextricably
intertwined. While these processes are studied separately, the effect of one process or factor
on a person’s development is not isolated from the other processes. If Kenn and Naschielle

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were undernourished and troubled by the thought of father and mother about to separate,
they could not concentrate on their studies and consequently would fail and repeat. As a
consequence, they may lose face and drop out of school, revert to illiteracy, become
unskilled, unemployed and so on and so forth. See how a biological process, affects the
cognitive process which in turn, affects the socio-emotional process.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
Individuals respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s
biological make up, physical environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and
cultural contexts. (Santrock, 2002) Naschielle’s and Kenn’s biological make up, social
and cultural contexts may vary and therefore make them develop differently from each
other.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation. Growth, maintenance and
regulations are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary
among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late
adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while maintenance and
regulation take the center stage.

Application:
Complete the table. State five characteristics of human development from a life-span
perspective and their implications to child care, education and parenting.

Characteristic of human development Educational implication to Child Care,

from a life-span perspective Education and Parenting
1. Development is lifelong
2.
3.
4.
5.

Summary of the Lesson:

The human development can be positive or negative. Growth deals with quantitative
changes while development deals with qualitative changes. Development is relatively orderly.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Development has proximodistal pattern that deals with the development from inward to
upward. Another pattern is the cephalocaudal pattern which the development is from head
to toe and from top to bottom. Development also takes place gradually. The pattern of
development is more likely be similar, the outcome of development process and the rate of
development are vary among individuals. Development as a process is complex because it
is the product of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional process. The biological process is
a physical change. The cognitive process is about knowledge, thoughts, language. The socio-
emotional is a process that focuses on dealing with people. The human development has five
(5) different approaches. It includes life-long, multi-dimensional, plastic, contextual and
involves growth, maintenance and regulation. The life-span of a human development occurs
al throughout the life-span of an individual. The development never stops until death. The
traditional occurs human development that shows extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in the late old age. The life-long
development does not end by adulthood and no development stage dominates the
development. The multi-dimensional consists of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional
dimensions. The plastic development is possible throughout the life-span. The contextual
development are individuals that can adopt changing beings in a changing world.
Development and learning result from a dynamic and continuous interaction of biological
maturation and experience.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions:
1. Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in this Module.
a. Give the meaning of human development
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
Patterns of development
a. The direction of growth following the cephalocaudal pattern is from the
__________________ to the ______________________.
b. The direction of growth following the proximodistal pattern is from
______________________ to the _____________________.
3. Differences between the traditional and life-span approaches to human development.
________________________________________________________________________

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4. In one sentence, write the characteristic of human development from a life span
perspective. ________________________________________________________________________
Put a ✓ check before a correct statement and an X before a wrong one. If you put X,
explain why.

__________5. Development is a pattern of change.

_______________________________________________________________________
__________6. Development is either growth or decline.
_______________________________________________________________________
__________7. From both traditional and life-span perspectives development is lifelong.
_______________________________________________
__________8. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
____________________________________________________________
__________9. Individuals develop uniformly.
_______________________________________________________________________
__________10. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
_______________________________________________________________

Enrichment Activity:
Complete the diagram by supplying the characteristics of human development from a life
span perspective

References/Attributions:

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 7

• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

Lesson 2: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module you should be able to:
• define developmental tasks in your own words
• describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage
• come up with research abstracts / summaries of researches on developmental tasks

Getting Started (Optional):

Study the three (3) pictures, each picture shows developmental stage. If you were given a
chance, which developmental stage would you like to be in? Why?

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:

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Concept of developmental tasks

In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of every individual.
Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that “arises at a certain period in our
life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while
failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks.” (Havighurst,
1972).

Developmental stages
There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight (8)
developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst’s six (6) developmental
stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period. Havighurst combined infancy and
early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These
developmental stages are described more in detail in the next paragraphs.

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

Let’s describe the developmental tasks and outstanding trait of each stage as
described by Santrock and compare them to those listed by Havighurst himself.
1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous growth – from a single
cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) – A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many
psychological activities are just beginning – language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor
coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years Grade I) – These are the preschool years.
Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves,
develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) – The
fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally
exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central
theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) – Begins with rapid
physical changes – dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and
the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts,
development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of
independence and identity are prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and
idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) – It is a time of
establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a

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mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing
child.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) – It is a time of expanding personal and social
involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent
and mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
8. Late adulthood (60s and above) – It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and
health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
Infancy and Middle Adolescence Early Middle Age Later Maturity
Early Childhood Adulthood
Childhood
1. Learning to 1. Learning 1. Achieving 1. Selecting 1. Achieving 1. Adjusting
walk. physical skillsnew and more a mate adult civic to
necessary for mature and social decreasing
ordinary relations with responsibility physical
games. age-mates of strength and
both sexes health
2. Learning 2. Building 2. Achieving a 2. Achieving 2. 2. Adjusting
to take solid wholesome masculine or a masculine Establishing to retirement
foods attitudes feminine social or feminine and and
toward oneself role social role maintaining reduced
as a growing an income
organism economic
standard of
living
3. Learning 3. Learning to 3. Accepting 3. Learning 3. Assisting 3. Adjusting
to talk get along with one's physique to live with teenage to death of
age-mates and using the a marriage children to a spouse
body partner become
effectively responsible
and happy
adults
4. Learning 4. Learning an 4. Achieving 4. Starting a 4. 4.
to control appropriate emotional family Developing Establishing
the masculine or independence adult an explicit
elimination feminine social of parents and leisure-time affiliation
role other adults activities

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DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
Infancy and Middle Adolescence Early Middle Age Later Maturity
Early Childhood Adulthood
Childhood
of body with one’s
wastes age group
5. Learning 5. Developing 5. Preparing 5. Rearing 5. Relating 5. Meeting
sex fundamental for marriage children oneself to social and
differences skills in reading, and family life one’s civil
and sexual writing, and Preparing for spouse as a obligations
modesty calculating an economic person
career
6. Forming 6. Developing 6. Acquiring a 6. 6. 6.
concepts concepts set of values Managing a Accepting Establishing
and learning necessary for and an ethical home and satisfactory
language to everyday system as a adjusting to physical
describe living. guide to the living
social and behavior; physiologic arrangement
physical developing an changes or
reality. ideology middle age
7. Getting 7. Developing 7. Desiring and 7. Getting 7. Adjusting
ready to conscience, achieving started in an to aging
read morality, and socially occupation parents.
a scale of responsible
values behavior
8. Achieving 8. Taking on
personal civic
independence responsibility
9. Developing 9. Finding a
attitudes congenial
toward social social group
groups and
institutions

Application:

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 11

Complete the sentence by giving implications of these developmental tasks to your role as a
teacher.

1. Early Childhood
Preschool teachers supposed to assist preschoolers by _________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Middle and Late Childhood
Elementary school teachers ought to help their pupils by ______________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Adolescence
High school teachers ought to help their students by __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Adulthood
What should adults do to obtain satisfaction in their career? What should schools teach for
students to be prepared for adulthood? I their retirement, what should adults do?
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Summary of the Lesson:

Development is the process of growth and change that people go through in life. Robert J.
Havighurst was a psychologist in the 20th century who developed a theory on how people
develop through life. Let's look closer at Havighurst's theory of development: the stages of
life and the sources of developmental tasks.

Stages of Life
As we have already seen, people change a lot from when they are babies to when they are
adults. But even adults change from when they are 20 to when they are 80. Havighurst
identified six stages of life that people go through. They are:
1.) Infancy and early childhood, which lasts from birth to age 5. These are babies who are
just learning to walk and talk and figuring out the world around them.

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2.) Middle childhood lasts from age 6 to age 12. During this time, children become more self-
sufficient as they go to school and make friends.
3.) Adolescence, which lasts from age 13 to age 18, comes with hormonal changes and
learning about who you are as an individual.
4.) Early adulthood lasts from age 19 to age 30 and involves finding an occupation and
often finding a life partner as well.
5.) Middle Age lasts from age 30 to age 60 and is the time when most people start a family
and settle into their adult lives.
6.) Later Maturity is the time of life after age 60. During this time, people adjust to life after
work and begin to prepare themselves for death.

Assessment:
Complete the unfinished sentence.
1. Developmental tasks are __________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. The difference between Havighurt’s Developmental Task and Santrock are as follows
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
I. Put a check (✓) beside those statements that are correct and an (X) beside those that are
wrong. If your answer is an X, explain why.
________1. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of human development.
_____________________________________________________________________________

________2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means failure for
the learner to master the developmental task in the next stage.

_____________________________________________________________________________

________3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.

_____________________________________________________________________________

________4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.

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______________________________________________________________________________

________5. Teenage is middle childhood.

______________________________________________________________________________

________6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.

______________________________________________________________________________

________7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood.

______________________________________________________________________________

________8. Preparing children for school readiness is the major concern of middle childhood.
______________________________________________________________________

Enrichment Activity:
Reflect on your childhood, middle and late childhood days. Were you able to acquire the
developmental tasks expected of early, middle, late childhood and adolescence? What
facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to perform such tasks? Write your reflections?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested Links (Optional):

https://study.com/academy/lesson/havighursts-developmental-task-model.html

References/Attributions:
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

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Lesson 3: Issues on Human Development

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to
• take a research-based position on the three (3) issues on development.

Getting Started:
Choose your stand. Choose a topic that you want to discuss. Explain in your own words why
you chose that certain topic.
1. Nature versus Nurture
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. Stability versus Change
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Discussion:
The issues presented can be translated into questions that have sparked animated debate
among developmentalists. Are girls less likely to do well in math because of their ‘feminine’
nature or because of society’s ‘masculine’ bias? How extensively can the elderly be trained
to reason more effectively? How much, if at all, does our memory decline in old age? Can
techniques be used to prevent or reduce the decline? For children who experienced a world
of poverty, neglect by parents, and poor schooling in childhood, can enriched experiences
in adolescence remove the ‘deficits’ that they encountered earlier in their development
(Santrock, 2002)?

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Based on the presentations, each one has his/her own explanations for his/her stand on
the developmental issues. What is the right answer? Up to this time, the debate continues.
Researches are on-going. But let me tell you that most life-span developmentalists recognize
that extreme positions on these issues are unwise. Development is not all nature or all nurture,
not all continuity or discontinuity and not all stability or all change (Lemer, 1998 as quoted by
Santrock, 2002). Both nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, stability and change
characterize our life-span development. The key to development is the interaction of nature
and nurture rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). In other
words, it is a matter of “both-and” not “either-or”. Just go back to the quote beneath the title
of this lesson and the message gets crystal clear.

To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to exist.
Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person (Scarr and
Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and environment operate together – or
cooperate and interact – to produce a person’s intelligence, temperament, height,
weight…ability to read and so on.

If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or contribution,
heredity or environment? The relative contributions of heredity and environment are not
additive. So we can’t say 50% is a contribution of heredity and 50% of environment. Neither is
it correct to say that full genetic expression happens once, around conception or birth, after
which we take our genetic legacy into the world to see how far it gets us. Genes produce
proteins throughout the life span, in many different environments. Or they don’t produce these
proteins, depending on how harsh or nourishing those environments are (Santrock, 2002).

Application:
Here is an interesting article titled “How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life”
from the October 4, 2010 Issue of Time Magazine. Read, analyze then answer the following
questions:
1. Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual’s choice are the
factors that contribute to what a person may become? State the paragraph that tells
so._________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

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2. Read the 4th paragraph again. Focus your attention on the highlighted word
PERMANENTLY. Does the word PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what our first
experiences have made of us? Explain your answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of your Life

What makes us he way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious,
overweight or asthmatic? How is that some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes or high
blood pressure?

There’s a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are
because it’s in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of our childhood experiences.
Or our health and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices we make as adults.

But there’s another powerful source of influence you may not have considered: your life
as a fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb; the pollutants, drugs and infections you
were exposed to during gestation; your mother’s health and state of mind while she was
pregnant with you – all these factors shaped you as a baby and continue to affect you to this
day.

This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose pioneers assert
that the nine months of gestation constitute the most consequential period of our lives,
PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, mine) influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of
organs such as the heart, liver and pancreas. In the literature on the subject, which has
exploded over the past 10 years, you can find references to the fetal origins of cancer,
cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental illness. At
the farthest edge of fetal origins research, scientists are exploring the possibility that
intrauterine conditions influence not only our physical health but also our intelligence,
temperament, even our sanity.

As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigues when I first heard about fetal origins.
But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into the field, I had a more personal

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motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was true that my actions over the next nine months
would affect my offspring for the rest of my life, I needed to know more.

Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the message that
what she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor’s appointments, sees it in the pregnancy
guidebooks: Do eat this, don’t drink that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant mothers
could be forgiven for feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog, full of guilt and devoid
of pleasure, and this research threatened to add the burden.

But the scientists I met weren’t full of dire warnings but of the excitement of discovery –
and the hope that their discoveries would make a positive difference. Research on fetal origins
is prompting a revolutionary shift in thinking about where human qualities come from and
when they begin to develop. It’s turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier: The National
Institutes of Health embarked last year on a multidecade study that will examine its subjects
before they’re born. And it makes the womb a promising target for prevention, raising hopes
of conquering public-health scourges like obesity and heart disease through interventions
before birth.

Time Magazine, October 4, 2010

Summary of the Lesson:

Some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental psychology and what
many psychologists today believe about these issues.

Nature vs. Nurture

Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On
the other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief
that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.

Early Experience vs. Later Experience

A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative

importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by
events that occur in early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role?

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Continuity vs. Discontinuity

A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur
smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?

Some theories of development argue that changes are simply a matter of quantity; children
display more of certain skills as they grow older. Other theories outline a series of sequential
stages in which skills emerge at certain points of development.

Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:

1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who
believed in the importance of the unconscious mind and childhood
experiences.5 Freud's contribution to developmental theory was his proposal that
development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages.
1. Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of
psychosocial development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at
different stages of development and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described
development throughout the lifespan.
2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning
processes include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In
each case, behavior is shaped by the interaction between the individual and the
environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities.
Examples of cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Assessment:
Complete the sentence.

1-2. With regard to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity and change-stability

controversies, your stand is
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

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As far as our discussions are concerned, which statement is correct and which one is wrong?
Put a check (✓) before the correct statement and mark (X) the wrong one, If you mark a
statement X, explain why.
___________3. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than
environment._________________________________________________________________
___________4. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no
longer be changed.
______________________________________________________________________________
___________5. From the perspective of life-span developmentalist, later experiences are the
key determinants of a person’s development.
______________________________________________________________________________
Enrichment Activity:
Relate what you have learned here to your personal development. Reflect on your own
personal development. What has helped you become the person you are now?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested Links (Optional):

https://www.verywellmind.com/issues-in-developmental-psychology-2795069

References/Attributions:
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

Lesson 4: Research in Child and Adolescent Development

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Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• explain the basic principles of research
• demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers and producers of
developmental research
• read researches on child and adolescent development and make simple research
abstracts out of researches read

Getting Started:
Read each statement below. Do you agree/disagree with each stamen? Put a check mark
(✓) to indicate your answer.

Statement Yes No
1. Research is only for those who plan to take master’s degree
or doctorate degree.
2. Research is easy to do.
3. Research is all about giving questionnaires and tallying the
responses.
4. Research with one or two respondents is not a valid research
5. Teachers, because they are busy in their classrooms, are
expected to use existing research rather than conduct their
own research in the classroom.
6. there is no need to go into research because a lot of
researches have already been conducted.
7. Students are mere users of knowledge arrived at by research.
It is not their task to conduct research.
8. Students do not possess the qualifications to conduct
research.
9. It is not worth conducting research considering the time and
money it requires.
10. Research is just a waste of time.

Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude about research. As a pre-
service teacher, it is important to have a positive regard for research. Best practices in
education are usually borne out of research. Research informs practice.

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Discussion:
Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use in decision-
making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-informed teachers are able to use
and integrate the most authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers to come
up with informed decision on what to teach and how to teach. This involves decisions related
to educational policies, curriculum, effective teaching-learning processes, and even those
involving research, too. It can help us, teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit
our teaching with the developmental levels of our learners.

Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for
the students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to conduct research by finding out the
different research principles and the research methods and designs with focus on child and
adolescent development.

The Scientific Method

One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method, since
research is a systematic and a logical process. As such, researchers basically follow the
scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They are as follows:
1. identify and define the problem
2. determine the hypothesis
3. collect and analyze data
4. formulate conclusions
5. apply conclusions to the original hypothesis

Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is followed by
stating a tentative answer to the research problem called the hypothesis. The hypothesis is
also referred to as an “educated guess”. How correct is your “educated guess” or
“hypothesis”? If your research problem is concerned with determining the cause of an effect
or a phenomenon you have to gather and analyzed data derived from an experiment. This is
true with experimental research. However, if your research problem is concerned with
describing data and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are studying, you
do not need to perform an experiment. This is descriptive research. After analyzing the data,
you formulate your conclusions.
Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your original hypothesis is
correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your finding and conclusion, affirm your
hypothesis. If your original hypothesis does not jibe with your finding and conclusions, reject
your original hypothesis.

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Research Designs
Researches that are done with high level of quality and integrity provide us with
valuable information about child and adolescent development. To be able to conduct
quality research, it is important that you know various research designs and different data-
gathering techniques used by developmental researchers. Some are given and described
below:

Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

1. Case Study An in-depth It provides Need to exercise caution
look at an information when generalizing from the
individual. about an information; the subject of a
individual’s case study is unique, with a
fears, hopes, genetic make-up and
fantasies, experiences no one else
traumatic shares; involves judgements of
experiences, unknown reliability, in that
upbringing, usually no
family
relationships,
health, and
anything that
helps a
psychologist
understand
that person’s
development
(Santrock,
2002)

check is made to see if other

psychologists agree with other
observations (Santrock, 2002).

2. Correlational A research Useful because Because correlational

Study design that the more research does not involve the

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Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

determines strongly two manipulation of factors, it is
associations events are not a dependable way to
correlated, the isolate cause (Kantowitz, et al,
more we can 2001 cited by Santrock, 2002)
predict one
from the other
3. Experimental A research The only true Experimental research is
design that reliable limited to what is observable,
determines method of testable and manipulable.
cause-and- establishing
effect cause-and- Failure to achieve
relationships. effect randomisation may limit the
The extent to
experimental
method
involves
manipulating
one variable

to determine if which the study sample is

changes in one representative of the parent
variable cause population and, with it,
changes in generalizability of the findings
another of the study.
variable. This
method relies Experimentation with humans
on controlled is subject to a number of
methods, external influences that may
random dilute the study results
assignment (Donnan, 2000). A further
and the limitation of experimental
manipulation research is that subjects may
of variables to change their behavior or
test a respond in a specific manner
hypothesis. simply because of awareness
of being observed –

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Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

Hawthorne effect
(Haughey,1994; Clifford,
1997).
4. Naturalistic A research One of the The disadvantage of
Observation design that advantages of naturalistic observation
focuses on this type of include the fact that it can be
children’s research is that difficult to determine the
experiences in it allows the exact cause of the behavior
natural researcher to and the experiment cannot
settings. directly control outside variables.
This does not observe the
involve any subject in a
intervention or natural setting.
manipulation
on the part of
the researcher.
This technique
involve
observing
subjects in their
natural
environment.
This type of
research is
often utilized in
situations
where
conducting
where
conducting lab
research is
unrealistic, cost
prohibitive or
would unduly
affect the

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Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

subject’s
behavior.

5. Longitudinal This research Allows them to They are expensive and time-
design studies record and consuming.
and follows monitor
through a develop- The longer the study lasts, the
single group mental trends. more subjects drop out – they
over a period move, get sick lose interest,
of time. The etc. Subject can bias the
same outcome of a study, because
individuals are those who remain may be
studied over a dissimilar to those who drop
period of time, out.
usually several
years or more.
6. Cross-sectional A research Allows them to It gives no information about
strategy in record and how individuals change or
which monitor about the stability of their
individuals of develop- characteristics (Santrock,
different ages mental trends. 2002).
are compared The researcher
at one time. does not have
to wait for the
individuals to
grow up or
become older.
7. Sequential This is the Allows them to It is complex, expensive, and
combined record and time consuming.
cross-section monitor
and develop-
longitudinal mental trends.
approaches to It provides
learn about information
life-span that is
develop – impossible to

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Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

ment (Schaie, obtain from
1993 cited bt cross-sectional
Satrock 2002). or longitudinal
This starts with approaches
a cross- alone
sectional study (Santrock,
that includes 2020).
individuals of
different ages.
A number of
months or
years after the
initial
assessment the
same
individuals are
tested again –
this is the
longitudinal
aspect of the
design. At this
later time a
new group of
subjects is
assessed at
each grade
level.
8. Action Action Appropriate in Typically takes place in one
Research research is a a particular organization only at a
reflective setting when particular time and could not
process of the purpose of be interpreted within different
progressive study is “to organizations in the same
problem- create way. Therefore, research
solving led by changes & findings are hard (impossible)
individuals gain to generalize.
working with information on

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Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

others in teams processes and If research participants do not
or as parts of a outcome of feel they understand and
“community of the strategies ‘own’ the research project,
practice” to used” this could lead to a potential
improve the (Hunt 1987). conflict of interest between
way they the researcher and those
address issues Uses different participating in the
and solve methods, can organization, but also
problems get the best between the research with
(Wikipedia, the out of the some participants, on the one
free different hand and other members of
encyclopedia). methods the organization, on the other.
employed, if
In the context done well.
of teaching, Stakeholders
action are included
rersearches of throughout
teachers stem and so
from their own researchers are
questions more likely to
about and make a
reflections on “difference”.
their everyday
classroom
practice.

Data-Gathering Techniques

Data-Gathering Technique Definition/Description

1. Observation Observations can be made in either laboratories or

natural settings. In naturalistic observation, behavior
is observed in the real world like classrooms, home
in neighborhood.

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2. Physiological Certain indicators of children’s development such

Measures as, among others, heart rate, hormonal levels,
bone growth, body weight, and brain activity are
measured.

3. Standardized These are prepared tests that assess individuals’

performance in different domains. These tests are
administered in a consistent manner.

4. Interviews and Involve asking the participants to provide

Questionnaires information about themselves based on the
interview or questionnaire given by the researcher.

Gathering of data may be conducted through a

printed questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail,
in person, or on-line.

Information is obtained by utilizing standardized

procedures so that every participant is asked the
same questions in the same manner. It entails
asking participants for information in some
structured format.

5. Life-History Records These are records of information about a lifetime

chronology of events and activities. They often
involve a combination of data records on
education, work, family, and residence. These
include public records or historical documents or
interviews with respondent.

Application:
Complete the table. You may use your old research during Senior High School.

Problem

Research Methodology

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Findings

Conclusion

Source (bibliographical
entry format

Summary of the Lesson:

Research is a careful and detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue using the
scientific method. It's the adult form of the science fair projects back in elementary school,
where you try and learn something by performing an experiment. This is best accomplished
by turning the issue into a question, with the intent of the research to answer the question.

Assessment:

Write T if the statement is CORRECT and F if the statement is WRONG.

_________ 1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.

_________ 2. For research on child and adolescent development to serve its ultimate
purpose, researchers must be governed by ethical principles.
_________ 3. Which research design and data-gathering technique to use has nothing to do
with the nature of the research problem and objective/s of the research.
_________ 4. Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research and
are consumers or end of users of knowledge when they utilize research findings to improve
instruction.
_________ 5. Research has transformative effect on teachers’ self-understanding and on their
classroom practice. It enables teachers to develop a better understanding of themselves,
their classrooms, and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.

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Enrichment Activity:
Why is research useful to teachers?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested Links :
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-research-definition-purpose-typical-
researchers.html

References/Attributions:
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

Lesson 5: Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to
• Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development
• Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education

Getting Started:
Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate the situation,
indicate what the decision was about, the factors that were involved and how you arrived at
your decision.

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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

Which of the following did you consider most in making your decision: what will make you feel
satisfied, what is most beneficial or practical, or what you believed was the most moral thing
to do? Elaborate your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Discussion:
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most known as the founder of
psychoanalysis. Freud's developed a set of therapeutic techniques centered on talk
therapy that involved the use of strategies such as transference, free association, and dream
interpretation.
Psychoanalysis became a dominating school of thought during the early years of
psychology and remains quite influential today. In addition to his influence on psychology,
Freud's ideas have permeated popular culture and concepts such as denial, Freudian slips,
the unconscious, wish fulfillment, and the ego are even commonly used in everyday
language.
Freud also influenced many other prominent psychologists, including his daughter Anna
Freud, Melanie Klein, Karen Horney, Alfred Alder, Erik Erikson, and Carl Jung. Regardless of the
perception of Sigmund Freud’s theories, there is no question that he had an enormous impact
on the field of psychology. His work supported the belief that not all mental illnesses have
physiological causes and he also offered evidence that cultural differences have an impact
on psychology and behavior.
His work and writings contributed to our understanding of personality, clinical
psychology, human development, and abnormal psychology.

Freud’s Stage of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also
probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual development includes five district
stages and along the way there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not,
determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is quite
interesting for many because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of

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points for the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an
adult, the person will now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.

Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the
child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an
Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an increased focus that is, have a stronger
tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite
his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may become too
dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership traits. On the other hand, they may
also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.

Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The
child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s expectations,
particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. Let us remember that
between one year and a half to three years the child’s favorite word might be “No!”. Therefore
a struggle might exist in the toilet training process when the child retains feces when asked to
eliminate, or may choose to defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason. In terms of
personality, fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection, and control; or anal expulsive where the person may become messy
and disorganized.

Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool
age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will
sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s studies led him to believe that during this
stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys then see their father as a
rival for her mother’s affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these
feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus
Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and married his mother
Jocasta.
Psychoanalysis also believed that girls may also have a similar experience, developing
unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred to as the Electra
Complex.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of their
father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By identifying with
their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identify themselves as males and
repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual
deviances (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identify
accordance to psychoanalysis.

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Latency Stage (age to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The
children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with
boys and girls with girls during this stage.

Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the
start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages,
adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure
centered on the genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego
and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego, and last
to develop is the superego.

The id.
Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality
because as a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates
on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its
needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the
reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example, a baby is hungry. It’s id
wants food or milk… so the baby will cry. When the child needs to be changed, the id
cries. When the child is uncomfortable, un pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention,
the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented
towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry any time of
day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired or daddy is sleeping.
When the id wants something, it wants it fast!

The ego.
As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she relates more with
the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the reality
principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is practical because it
knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it
reasons and considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent
of the personality. Although it functions to help the id meet it needs, it always takes into
account the reality of the situation.

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The superego.
Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the superego
embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the parent’s teachers and
other persons who exert influence impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened
to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right and wrong.

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help satisfy
the needs of the id without going against the superego while maintaining the person’s sense
of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the ego to do all that and
strike a balance, If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the person becomes to
impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one’s life. On the opposite direction, one
may find the superego so strong that the ego is overpowered. The person becomes so harsh
and judgmental to himself and others’ actions . The person’s best effort to be good may still
fall short of the superego’s expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner was
brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the extent to which he was
allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was taught to do the things he
wanted to do, and also how he was taught about right and wrong, all figures to the type of
personality and consequent adjustment that a person will make. Freud believed that the
personality of an individual is formed early during the childhood years.

Topographical Model

The Unconscious.
Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings, and
impulses deep within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of
what influence us is our unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier

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were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety
they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking,
feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.

The Conscious.
Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our
conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life,
we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up our personality; most of what we are
is hidden and out of reach.

The Subconscious.
The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach
if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right below the surface, but still “hidden”
somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone number, some childhood
memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very small
conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part
of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water’s surface.
The water may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced, and that
has not been made part of our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious .

Application:
Explain on your own words Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Summary of the Lesson:

Freudian theory suggests that as children develop, they progress through a series of
psychosexual stages. At each stage, the libido's pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a
different part of the body.

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The five stages of psychosexual development are:

The oral stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the mouth.
The anal stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the anus.
The phallic stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the penis or clitoris.
The latent stage: A period of calm in which little libidinal interest is present.
The genital stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the genitals.

Assessment:
Choose the correct answer.
1. Sigmund Freud is widely considered to be the father of _______________.
A. Psychology C. Behaviorism
B. Psychoanalysis D. Principles

2. Freud is well known for his development of what theory?

A. Stages of Psychosexual Development C. Classical Conditioning
B. Archetypes D. Level of Personality

3. According to Freud, what is the function of the "ego"?

A. To boost a person's self-confidence.
B. To push for the fulfillment of one's self-interests.
C. To mediate between impulsive drives and the moral conscience.
D. To know the difference between fact and opinion

4. What did Freud consider to be the role of the "id"?

A. To represent innate, instinctive desires and impulses.
B. To be aware of the needs and feelings of those around us.
C. To moderate our impulses, acting as the moral conscience of the mind.
D. To mediate between the ego and super ego

5. What is the role of the "super ego"?

A. To inflate a person's ego and provide a self confidence boost.
B. To provide a conscience and awareness of others through feelings such as guilt.
C. To reveal a person's repressed desires.
D. To do the action needed

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6. In what order do the following areas of the psyche develop?

A. Ego, Super Ego, Id
B. Super Ego, Ego, Id
C. Id, Ego, Super Ego
D. All can be considered
7. What happens to a memory when it is repressed?
A. It disappears.
B. It remains in the conscious but a person tries not to think about it.
C. It is retained in the unconscious.
D. It is communicated.

8. The 'oral stage' lasts from birth until approximately what age?
A. 5 years C. 1 year
B. 3 years D. 10 years

9. A person who is anally expulsive might exhibit what behavior according to Freud?
A. Over-regular use of the bathroom.
B. Messiness and dis organization.
C. Quietness, afraid to socialize.
D. Very organized and sociable to all

10. During the phallic stage, what may develop?

A. Oral Fixation C. Anal retentiveness
B. Electra complex D. Oedipus complex

Enrichment Activity:
From the lesson about Freud Psychoanalytic theory, I learned that…
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Suggested Links (Optional):
https://www.verywellmind.com/freudian-theory-2795845

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 38

References/Attributions:
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

Lesson 6: Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Describe Piaget’s stages in your own words
• Match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage

Getting Started:
Read the situation, then answer the question that follow:
• It is Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving Aguinaldo to the children. Three-year-old Karen
did not want to receive the one-hundred-peso bill and instead preferred to receive
four twenty-peso bill.
• Why do you think Karen prefer the 20-peso bills?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

• Siblings, Tria 10, Enzo 8 and Riel 4 were sorting out their stuffed animals. They had 7
bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and 1 dolphin. Their mommy a psychology teacher and enters
and says “Good thing you’re sorting those. Do you have more animals or more
bears?” Tria and Enzo says “stuffed animals” Riel says “Bears”
• Why do you think Riel answered Bears?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

• While eating on her high chair, seven-month-old Liza accidentally dropped her spoon
on the floor she saw mommy pick it up. Liza again drops her new spoon, and she does
it several times more on purpose. Mommy didn’t like it at all but Liza appeared to
enjoy dropping the spoons the whole time.
• Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons?

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____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

• Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too! Then the mommy
explains that it is not a funny dog it is a goat.
• What kind of basic concept does it showed, explain?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

• Since her mommy comes home every day around six o’ clock in the evening. When
asked why it is already night, the child will say “because my mom is already home.”
even without looking at the clock.
• On what Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, it is, and explain the specific
characteristics.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Discussion:
The children in the situation presented above were of different ages and so also should
apparent differences in the way the thought. They were in different stages of cognitive
development. Perhaps no one has influenced the field of cognitive development more than
Jean Piaget. As you read through this Module you will come to understand cognitive
development of children and adolescents and also identify ways of applying this
understanding in the teaching learners.
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His
research method involved observing a small number of individuals as they responded to
cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemo-logy” because he
was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into
biology and he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both these disciplines
influenced his theories and research of child development. Out of his researches, Piaget came
up with the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also
to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied widely to teaching and
curriculum design specially in the preschool and elementary curricula.

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Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way to
understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a filing
cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had an experience
with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a
dog is, It has four legs and a tail. It barks, It’s furry. The child then “puts this description of a dog
‘on file’ in his mind.” When he sees another similar dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a
dog) in his mind looks at the animal, and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry…. That’s a dog!”

Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller
one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a
different0looking dog into his schema of a dog.

Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the sane child now sees
another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a funny looking
dog. Its bark is funny too!” Then the mommy explains, “That’s not a funny looking dog. That’s
a goat!” With mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of
a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing cabinet.

Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to understand how the
world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving
proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not
match schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive
disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is
understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish
equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in
terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s theory in nature to other
constructivist perspectives of learning like Bruner and Vygotsky.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage.
The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is
initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement
and activity. The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle

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movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world. In working
with children in rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage. (Please refer to Unit
2, Module 13 for more notes.)

Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage.

The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old, roughly
corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this
stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend, the child is now
ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing
that represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to
be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train. Symbolic function
gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. Riel, a two-year-old may pretend
that she is drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretends the
presence of water, the glass remains to be glass. At around four years of age, however,
Nico may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship
or a telephone. By the age of or 7 the child can pretend play with objects that exist only
in his mind. Enzo, which is six, can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any costume
nor”props”. Tria who is seven can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball only in her
mind.

Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume
that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others. You see this in five year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his mother’s birthday.
Or a three year old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy “uncle”
and not daddy.

Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing
or event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is presented with two
identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same
amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is transferred to an
obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the
taller glass. The child only focused or “centered” only one aspect of the new glass is also
narrower. The child was not able to perceive that the new glass is also narrower. The
child only centered on the height of the glass and excluded the width in determining
the amount of the glass.

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Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability to reserve their thinking. They
can understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics
to inanimate objects. When at night the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply
“Mr. Sun is asleep.”

Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that
is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular
i.e., if A causes B, then B causes A. For example, since her mommy comes home
everyday around six o’ clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the
child will say “because my mom is already home.” (For more notes on the cognitive
development of the toddler, refer to Unit 2.)

Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage.

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms
of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary
school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or
dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects
and situations.

Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that
certain operations can be done in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend
the commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition.
They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled
back into a ball of clay.

Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number,
mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because
of the development of the child’s ability of decentering and also reversibility, the
concrete operational child can now judge rightly that that the amount of water in a
taller but narrower container is still same as when the water was in the shorter but wider
glass. The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-
conserver, a transitional thinker and then a conserver.

Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume or size.

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Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage.

In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking
becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage
is characterized by the following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment.
This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with
“What if” questions.

Analogical reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and
then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situations
or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an analogy. If United
Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to ________. The individual will reason that since
the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found in what continent?
Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete
objects, the individual can now understand relationships and do analogical reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a
particular instance of situation. For example, all countries near the north pole have cold
temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold
temperature.

From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:

1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive

development.

2. Cognitive development is facilitated by provided activities or situations that engage

learners and require adaption (i.e., assimilation and accommodation).

3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental
operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are
beyond their current cognitive capabilities.

4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

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Application:
This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members. Choose a story you
want to use for this activity. It can be from a story you have read or a movie or “telenovela”
that you watched or plan to watch. Use the matrix below to relate the characters to Piaget’s
stages of cognitive development.

Title of Story /
Movie/ Telenovela
Character Piagetian Connection
Description What is his/her stage of cognitive development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say he/she is in this
stage. (what he thought of, how he/she thought, his/her
reactions and attitudes)

Father

Mother

Children 1

Other Characters 1

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Summary of the Lesson:

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational
psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of development and learning.
Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of
intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

• Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

• Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
• Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
• Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like
little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world.
As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build
upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.

Assessment:
Choose the best answer.
1. According to Piaget, children are ______ in constructing their understanding of the
world.
A. Active
B. Passive
C. Neutral
D. Bystanders

2. Process of matching external reality to an existing cognitive structure known as:

A. Accommodation
B. Appropriation
C. Assimilation
D. Initiation

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3. Two containers hold the same amount, but Jane thinks that the taller, skinnier glass
holds more. This is known as:
A. Accommodation
B. Egocentrism
C. False belief
D. Conservation

4. Piaget believed that children in the concrete operational stage have difficulty with:
A. Perspective-taking
B. Deductive logic
C. Inductive logic
D. Conservation

5. Jean Piaget was a:

A. Child Enthusiast
B. Social Behaviorist
C. Botanist
D. Genetic Epistemologist

Enrichment Activity:
From the lesson on Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, I learned that…
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Suggested Links (Optional):
https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

References/Attributions:
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

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Lesson 7: Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Understand the 8 stages of life.
• Write a short story of your life using Erikson’s stages as framework.
• Suggest ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a future teacher.

Getting Started:
Erik Erikson’s Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire
This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Cornelis Plug’s self-report
questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with Erikson’s first stages of
psychosexual development. It can serve to make the stages personally relevant to you.
Indicate how often each of these statements apply to you by using the following scale:

0 = never applies to you

1 = occasionally or seldom applies to you
2 = fairly often applies to you
3 = very often applies to you

Trust Versus Mistrust

1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humankind.
2. I feel the world’s major problems can be solved.
3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
4. People can be trusted.
5. I feel optimistic about my future.

Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt

6. When people try to persuade me to do something I don’t want to, I refuse.
7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have made a mistake.
8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
9. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.

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Initiative Versus Guilt

11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing something.
13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a successful conclusion.
14. I feel what happens to me is the result of what I have done.
15. When I have difficulty in getting something right, I give up.

Industry Versus Inferiority

16. When people look at something I have done, I feel embarrassed.
17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really like to do in life.
19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I would fail.
20. I feel competent.

Identity Versus Identity Diffusion

21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
23. My worth is recognized by others.
24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
25. I am unsure as to how people feel about me.

Intimacy Versus Isolation

26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
27. I have a feeling of complete "togetherness" with someone.
28. I feel it is better to remain free that to become committed to marriage for life.
29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.

Items on the questionnaire were derived from Erikson’s statements about each stage. Scores
for each subscale range from 0 to 15, with high scores reflecting greater strength on a
particular personality dimension.
1. The response to item 1 should be reversed (0 = 3, 1 = 2, 2 =1, 3 = 0) and then added to the
numbers given in response to items 2, 3, 4, and 5 to obtain a trust score.
2. Responses to items 7, 8, and 9 should be reversed and added to items 6 and 10 to assess
autonomy.
3. Answers to 12 and 15 should be reversed and added to items 11, 13, and 14 to measure
initiative.

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4. Answers to 16, 18, and 19 should be reversed and then added to 17 and 20 to calculate
industry.
5. Responses to 21 and 25 must be reversed and added to 22, 24, and 25 to obtain a
measure of identity.
6. Answers to 26, 28, and 30 are reversed and added to 27 and 29 to give intimacy.
Source: Ochse, R., & Plug, C. (1986). Cross-cultural investigation of the validity of Erikson’s theory of personality development.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1240–1252. (Scale items appear on pages 1251–1252.) Copyright © 1986 by
the American Psychology Association. Reprinted with permission.

Discussion:
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like
Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's
theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and
relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings.
The Eight Psychological Stages of Development:

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust

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The trust versus mistrust stage is the first stage of psychologist Erik Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development, which occurs between birth and approximately 18 months of
age. According to Erikson, the trust versus mistrust stage is the most important period in a
person’s life because it shapes their view of the world as well as their overall personality.

What Happens During This Stage

It is in this initial stage of development that children learn whether or not they can trust the
world. As you might deduce, it is the care they receive from their parents and other adults that
is critical to forming this trust.
Because an infant is entirely dependent upon their caregivers, the quality of care that the
child receives plays an important role in the shaping of the child’s personality. During this stage,
children learn whether or not they can trust the people around them.1

Some factors that can play a role include:

• When a baby cries, does their caregiver attend to their needs?
• When they are frightened, will someone comfort them?
• When they are hungry, do they receive nourishment from their caregivers?

Trust
• Believing in caregivers
• Trusting that the world is safe
• Knowing that needs will be met

Mistrust
• Distrusting caregivers
• Fearing the world
• Unsure that needs will be met

Effects of Mistrust
Negative outcomes at this stage of development can have a detrimental impact on how a
child continues to develop. Children who develop mistrust may experience:
• Anxiety
• Decreased persistence
• Increased aggression
• Insecurity
• Poor relationships

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Inconsistent parenting has been linked to problems with attachment, which can also affect
relationships later in life. For example, poor attachment during childhood may be linked to
problems with intimacy in adulthood. Difficulties forming intimate relationships during
adulthood can lead to loneliness, isolation, and poor social support.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to around age 2 or 3 years.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a greater sense of self-
control.
What Happens During Stage 2
If you are a parent or if you have ever interacted with a child between the ages of 18 months
and 3 years, then you have probably witnessed many of the hallmarks of the autonomy versus
shame and doubt stage. It is at this point in development that young children begin to express
a greater need for independence and control over themselves and the world around them.
During the previous stage of development, trust versus mistrust, children are almost entirely
dependent upon others for their care and safety. It is during this stage that children build the
foundations of trust in the world. As they progress into the second stage, however, it is
important for young children to begin developing a sense of personal independence and

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control. As they learn to do things for themselves, they establish a sense of control over
themselves as well as some basic confidence in their own abilities.

Important Tasks
Gaining a sense of personal control over the world is important at this stage of development.
Children at this age are becoming increasingly independent and want to gain more control
over what they do and how they do it. There are a number of different tasks that are often
important during the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage of development.
• Toilet training plays a major role; learning to control one’s body functions leads to
a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

• Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.

• Kids in this stage of development often feel the need to do things independently,
such as picking out what they will wear each day, putting on their own clothes,
and deciding what they will eat. While this can often be frustrating for parents
and caregivers, it is an important part of developing a sense of self-control and
personal autonomy.

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do
not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. This stage also serves as an important
building block for future development. Kids who have confidence in their skills are more likely
to succeed in subsequent tasks such as mastering social, academic, and other skills.

Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt

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Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This
stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of 3 and 5. During the initiative
versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interaction.

A Closer Look at the Initiative vs. Guilt Stage

According to Erikson's theory, the first two stages of children's development are concerned
with trust versus mistrust and autonomy versus shame and doubt. During these first two periods,
the focus is on children forming a sense of trust in the world as well as feelings of independence
and autonomy. Each of these foundational stages plays a role in the later stages that will
follow.
It is as children enter the preschool years that they begin the third stage of psychosocial
development centered on initiative versus guilt. If they have successfully completed the earlier
two stages, kids now have a sense that the world is trustworthy and that they are able to act
independently. Now it is important for kids to learn that they can exert power over themselves
and the world. They need to try things on their own and explore their own abilities. By doing
this, they can develop ambition and direction.

How Do Kids Develop Initiative?

Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment by taking initiative
by planning activities, accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. During this stage, it is
important for caregivers to encourage exploration and to help children make appropriate
choices. Caregivers who are discouraging or dismissive may cause children to feel ashamed
of themselves and to become overly dependent upon the help of others.
This stage can sometimes be frustrating for parents and caregivers as children begin to
exercise more control over the things that impact their lives. Such decisions can range from
the friends they play with, the activities they engage in, and the way that they approach
different tasks. Parents and other adults might want to guide children toward certain friends,
activities, or choices, but children might resist and insist on making their own choices. While this
might lead to some conflicts with parental wishes at times, it is important to give kids a chance
to make such choices. However, it is important that parents continue to enforce safe

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boundaries and encourage children to make good choices through the use of modeling and
reinforcement.

As you might guess, play and imagination take on an important role at this stage. Children
have their sense of initiative reinforced by being given the freedom and encouragement to
play. When efforts to engage in physical and imaginative play are stifled by caregivers,
children begin to feel that their self-initiated efforts are a source of embarrassment.

Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development, which happens after the third stage of initiative versus guilt. The stage occurs
during childhood between the ages of approximately six and eleven.

Industry vs. Inferiority

According to Erikson’s theory, people progress through a series of stages as they develop and
grow. Unlike many other developmental theories, Erikson’s addresses changes that occur
across the entire lifespan, from birth to death.
1. Psychosocial theory does not focus on the obvious physical changes that occur as children
grow up, but rather on the socioemotional factors that influence an individual's psychological
growth.

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2. At each point in development, people cope with a psychosocial crisis. In order to resolve
this crisis, children and adults are faced with mastering the developmental task primarily to
that stage.
If this skill is successfully achieved, it leads to an ability that contributes to lifelong well-being.
For example, achieving trust is the primary task of the very first stage of development.
3. It is an ability that contributes to emotional health throughout life during both childhood
and adulthood. Failing to master these critical tasks, however, can result in social and
emotional struggles that last a lifetime.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role

According to Erikson, people progress through a series of stages as they grow and change
throughout life. During each stage, people face a developmental conflict that must be
resolved to successfully develop the primary virtue of that stage. He was interested in how
social interaction and relationships affect development and growth.

What Is Ego Identity?

One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego
identity. It is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction, which is
constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others.

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As they transition from childhood to adulthood, teens may begin to feel confused or insecure
about themselves and how they fit into society. As they seek to establish a sense of self, teens
may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors. According to Erikson, this is
important to the process of forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in
life.

Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
Erikson was a developmental psychologist who described eight distinct stages of life. During
each of these stages, people face unique conflicts. How a person manages these conflicts
plays a role in the outcome and future of their life. This stage takes place during young
adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40. The major conflict at this stage of
life centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Success at this stage leads to fulfilling relationships. Struggling at this stage, on the other hand,
can result in feelings of loneliness and isolation.

Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposes that people pass through a series of
stages centered on social and emotional development. At each point in a person’s life, they

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face a developmental conflict that must be resolved. Important elements of this theory
include:
• Conflict: The conflict in each stage can serve as a turning point, either driving or
hampering growth. Those who fail to master these challenges will continue to
struggle.
• Lifelong development: One thing that made Erikson’s theory unique is that unlike
many other developmental theories, the psychosocial stages look at how people
change and grow over the course of the entire lifetime.
• Psychological skills: People who overcome these conflicts are able to achieve
psychological skills that ultimately last the rest of their life.
These adult stages continue to play an important role in a person's development. The skills
acquired during earlier stages can build on one another and help determine if people
successfully navigate future stages.
What Happens During This Stage?
Erikson believed that it was vital to develop close, committed relationships with other people.
As people enter adulthood, these emotionally intimate relationships play a critical role in a
person's emotional well-being.
While the word intimacy is closely associated with sex for many, it encompasses much more
than that. Erikson described intimate relationships as those characterized by closeness,
honesty, and love.
Romantic and sexual relationships can be an important part of this stage of life, but intimacy
is more about having close, loving relationships. It includes romantic partners, but it can also
encompass close, enduring friendships with people outside of your family.

Intimacy
• Strong and deep romantic relationships
• Close relationships with friends and family
• Strong social support network
Isolation
• Poor romantic relationships
• No deep intimacy
• Loneliness and isolation

What It Means
People who are successful in resolving the conflict of the intimacy versus isolation stage
have:
• Close romantic relationships
• Deep, meaningful connections
• Enduring connections with other people

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• Positive relationships with family and friends

• Strong relationships
• People who navigate this period of life successfully are able to forge fulfilling
relationships with other people. This plays an important role in creating
supportive social networks that are important for both physical and mental
health throughout life.

Struggling in this stage of life can result in loneliness and isolation. Adults who struggle with this
stage experience:
• Few or no friendships
• Lack of intimacy
• Lack of relationships
• Poor romantic relationships
• Weak social support
• They might never share deep intimacy with their partners or might even struggle
to develop any relationships at all. This can be particularly difficult as these
individuals watch friends and acquaintances fall in love, get married, and start
families.

Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the
ages of approximately 40 and 65.1 The eighth and last stage is integrity vs. despair.
During this time, adults strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them; often by
parenting children or contributing to positive changes that benefit other people. Contributing
to society and doing things to benefit future generations are important needs at the
generativity versus stagnation stage of development.
Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world by caring for others as well as creating
and accomplishing things that make the world a better place.
Stagnation refers to the failure to find a way to contribute. These individuals may feel
disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 59

Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by
being active in their home and community.
Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Characteristics of Generativity and Stagnation

Some key characteristics of generativity include making commitments to other people,
developing relationships with family, mentoring others and contributing to the next generation.
As you might imagine, these sorts of things are frequently realized through having and raising
children.
Some characteristics of stagnation include being self-centered, failing to get involved with
others, not taking an interest in productivity, no efforts to improve the self and placing one's
concerns over above all else.

Expanding on the Generativity vs. Stagnation Stage

Research published in 2003 suggested further elaboration of the primary conflicts of the
generativity vs. stagnation stage. These include:
• Inclusivity versus exclusivity: This crisis centers on the scope of caregiving activities
and on what and who an individual is willing to include in his or her life. This stage
reflects the trust versus mistrust stage of early childhood.
• Pride versus embarrassment: This aspect of the generativity versus stagnation
stage is centered on the sense of pride that adults take in their family and children.
In many ways, it mirrors the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage of early
childhood.
• Responsibility versus ambivalence: This adulthood crisis centers on whether
people choose to take responsibility for their lives and choices. It reflects the
initiative versus guilt stage seen earlier during childhood.
• Productivity versus inadequacy: Work plays a major role in adulthood, so it is no
surprise that an individual’s sense of pride and accomplishment in their work can
lead to feelings of productivity. This stage mirrors the industry versus inferiority
stage of childhood.
• Parenthood versus self-absorption: This aspect of adulthood centers on reaching
out and contributing to the next generation. This can occur through parenting
although not all people who produce offspring necessarily become supportive
and giving parents and those who do not have children are still able to give to
the next generation in meaningful ways. This part of the generativity versus
stagnation stage reflects many of the aspects of the earlier identity versus
confusion stage of adolescence.
• Honesty versus denial: As the generativity stages draw to a close and people
approach the final stage of life, finding meaning plays an increasingly critical role.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Self-knowledge and self-understanding have an important role during this phase

of the generativity versus stagnation stage.

Stage 8. Integrity vs. Despair

Erikson’s theory suggests that people pass through eight distinctive developmental stages as
they grow and change through life. While many developmental theories tend to focus purely
on childhood events, Erikson was one of the few theorists to look at development across the
entire course of the lifespan. He was also one of the first to view the aging process itself as part
of human development.
At each stage of psychosocial development, people are faced with a crisis that acts as a
turning point in development. Successfully resolving the crisis leads to developing a
psychological virtue that contributes to overall psychological well-being. At the integrity versus
despair stage, the key conflict centers on questioning whether or not the individual has led a
meaningful, satisfying life.

Integrity vs. Despair

The integrity versus despair stage begins as the aging adult begins to tackle the problem of his
or her mortality. The onset of this stage is often triggered by life events such as retirement, the
loss of a spouse, the loss of friends and acquaintances, facing a terminal illness, and other
changes to major roles in life.
Successfully resolving the crisis at this stage leads to the development of what Erikson referred
to as ego integrity. People are able to look back at their life with a sense of contentment and

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 61

face the end of life with a sense of wisdom and no regrets. Erikson defined this wisdom as an
"informed and detached concern with life itself even in the face of death itself."
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Application:
Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development as framework. Go
through each of the stages that apply to you (most probably, stages 1-5 or 1-6). Ask
information from your parents and other significant persons in your life.

Summary of the Lesson:

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development.
The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
Assessment:
Suggest at least 5 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for u as a future teacher

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 62

!. _________________________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________________________
Enrichment Activity:
From the lesson on Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Theory of development, I learned that…
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Suggested Links (Optional):
https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740
References/Attributions:
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

References/Attributions:
• https://a9beac89-0dd6-4475-b797-a9868170e7bd.filesusr.com /ugd/4af37f_10748893
219c44d19b 16442b9bd240a2.pdf;Date Retrieved, August 10, 2020
• https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073;Date
Retrieved, August 10, 2020
• https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073;Date
Retrieved, August 10, 2020
• https://www.google.com/search?q=cephalocaudal+and+proximodistal+patterns+of+
development&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiP94-QrKTrAhUJYZQKHVkgDwsQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=cephalocaudal&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgDMgIIADICCAAyAggAM
gIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADoHCCMQ6gIQJzoECCMQJzoECAAQQ
zoFCAAQsQM6BwgAELEDEENQi8ElWL2iJmDGwyZoAXAAeAOAAWmIAaYbkgEENDUuM
ZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEKwAEB&sclient=img&ei=n5I7X8-

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 63

rBYnC0QTZwLxY&bih=568&biw=1226&hl=en&hl=en#imgrc=awE_lUTEnBuNSM; Date
Retrieved, August 12, 2020
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; LoriMar Publishing
• https://www.google.com/search?q=cognitive+development&authuser=1&source=ln
ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiIwNzRxazrAhWTZt4KHbhpDKQQ_AUoAXoECBcQA
w&biw=1242&bih=568#imgrc=U5DQB28J1-46cM; Date Retrieved, July 31, 2020
• https://www.verywellmind.com/sensorimotor-stage-of-cognitive-development-
2795462; Date Retrived, July 31, 2020
• http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/wwb/wwb23.html; Date Retrieved, August 1,
2020
• http://www.kamloopschildrenstherapy.org/fine-motor-skills-preschool-milestones;Date
Retrieved, August 1, 2020
• https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child-development-parenting-early-3-
7/article/12758-early-childhood-cognitive-development-symbolic-function;Date
Retrieved, August 2, 2020
• https://www.education.vic.gov.au/parents/child-development/Pages/preschoolers-
speech-
language.aspx#:~:text=Ideas%20to%20help%20your%20preschooler's,getting%20pronu
nciation%20or%20grammar%20right.&text=Leaving%20out%20words%20in%20stories,Sin
g%20songs%20together.;Date Retrieved, August 2, 2020
• https://www.brightfutures.org/physicalactivity/mc/1.html; Date Retrieved, August 4,
2020
• https://www.gracepointwellness.org/1272-child-development-theory-middle-
childhood-8-11/article/37676-physical-development-motor-
development#:~:text=During%20middle%20childhood%2C%20children%20continue,le
arned%20during%20earlier%20developmental%20stages., Date Retrieved, August 4,
2020
• Marion, Marian. Guidance of Young Children, USA: Pearson Merill-Prentice Hall, 2007
• Preschoolers Cognitive Development. USA Magna System, 2007.
• Preschoolers Physical Development. USA Magna System, 2007.
• Preschoolers Social and Emotional Development. USA Magna System, 2007.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
The Child and Adolescent learners
and Learning Principles
Learning Module No. 2#

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:

PROFESSOR
Name: Ashlene R. Jasmilona
Academic Department: DASTE
Consultation Schedule:
Email Address: [email protected]
Contact Number: 09062632993

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 LEARNING MODULE INFORMATION
I. Course Code EDUC101
II. Course Title The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
III. Module Number 02
IV. Module Title Revisiting the 14-Learner-Centered Psychological Principles in
Relation to the Learner's Developmental Stage
V. Overview of the Module The 14-Learner-Centered Psychological Principles are
revisited in relation to the learner’s developmental stage

VI. Module Outcomes • Apply pedagogical principles in the development

process during pre-natal period
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for infants and toddlers
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for preschoolers.
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for primary school children
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for intermediate school children
Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching appropriate for high
school learners
VII. General Instructions • You must allot the necessary time to complete the
lessons each week. If you choose not to complete the
lesson using the schedule provided, you must
understand that it is your full responsibility to complete
them by the last day of completion. Time is of the
essence.
The module is designed to assess student understanding of the
assigned lessons found within the associated content of the prelim,
midterm, and final period of the course.

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 1

Module 11: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain the stages of moral development
• Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral dilemmas
• Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as teacher
later on

Getting Started (Optional):

Read the moral dilemma then answer the question that follows.

Ryan 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this concert of rock band, His
parents have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with a rowdy crowd.
The band is notorious for having out-of-control audience who somehow manages to get drunk
and stoned during the concert. Ryan agreed not to watch anymore. But a day before the
concert, Nic, 15-year-old brother of Ryan, saw a corner of what appeared to be a concert
ticket showing in the pocket of Ryan’s bag. Nic examined it and confirmed it was indeed a
ticket. Looking at Ryan’s bag, Nic also found an extra shirt and 2 sticks of marijuana. So, he
figured Ryan will go to the concert after all. That night, Ryan told his parents that he was
spending tomorrow night at a classmate’s house for a school requirement. Then later that
evening, he told Nic his plan to go to the concert. Nic didn’t say anything, but he found it
difficult to sleep that night, thinking whether to tell their parents or not.

1. If you were Nic what would you do?

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you considered in deciding
what to do?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 2

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

Discussion:
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work, and set the groundwork for the present
debate within psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children form
ways of thinking through their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts
such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare. Kohlberg followed the development of
moral judgment and extended the ages covered by Piaget, and found out that the process
of attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive
development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). The case
you read in the Activity part of this module was written for this module but was based on how
Kohlberg wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas to the individuals in
his research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the responses
were right or wrong. He was interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three
major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral reasoning or
perspective of the person.

Level Stage Description

Pre-Conventional Obedience or Punishment
Moral reasoning is based on Orientation
the consequence/result of the This is the stage that all young
act, not on the whether the children start at (and a few
act itself is good or bad 1 adults remain in). Rules are seen
as being fixed and absolute.
Obeying the rules is important
because it means avoiding
punishment.
Mutual Benefit

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 3

Level Stage Description

2 One is motivated to act by the
benefit that one may obtain
later. You scratch mu back. I’ll
scratch yours.
Conventional Social Conformity or Approval
Moral Reasoning is based on By adolescence, most
the conventions or “norms” of individuals have developed to
society. This may include 3 this stage. There is a sense of
approval of others law and what "good boys" and "nice
order girls" do and the emphasis is on
living up to social expectations
and norms because of how
they impact day-to-day
relationships.
Law and Order
By the time individuals reach
4 adulthood, they usually
consider society as a whole
when making judgments. The
focus is on maintaining law and
order by following the rules,
doing one's duty and
respecting authority.
Post Conventional Social Contract
Moral reasoning is based on At this stage, people
enduring or consistent 5 understand that there are
principles. It is not just differing opinions out there on
recognizing the law, but the what is right and wrong and
principles behind the law that laws are really just a social
contract based on majority
decision and inevitable
compromise. People at this
stage sometimes disobey rules if
they find them to be
inconsistent with their personal
values and will also argue for
certain laws to be changed if

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 4

Level Stage Description

they are no longer "working".
Our modern democracies are
based on the reasoning of
Stage 5.
Universal Principles
Few people operate at this
stage all the time. It is based on
6 abstract reasoning and the
ability to put oneself in other
people's shoes. At this stage,
people have a principled
conscience and will follow
universal ethical principles
regardless of what the official
laws and rules are.

Application:
Cite a situation on how theory of moral development can be applied to your future work as
a teacher.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Summary of the Lesson:
Kohlberg's stages of moral development are planes of moral adequacy conceived
by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while
studying psychology at the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work of Jean
Piaget and a fascination with children's reactions to moral dilemmas. He wrote his doctoral
dissertation at the university in 1958, outlining what are now known as his stages of moral
development.
This theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has six
identifiable developmental stages. He followed the development of moral judgment beyond
the ages originally studied by Piaget, who claimed that logic and morality develop

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 5

through constructive stages. Kohlberg expanded considerably on this groundwork,

determining that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice
and that its development continued throughout the lifespan, even spawning dialogue of
philosophical implications of his research.
Kohlberg used stories about moral dilemmas in his studies, and was interested in how people
would justify their actions if they were put in a similar moral crux. He would then categorize
and classify evoked responses into one of six distinct stages. These six stages where broken into
three levels: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. His theory is based on
constructive developmental stages; each stage and level is more adequate at responding to
moral dilemmas than the last.

Assessment:
Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following:
__________ 1. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will think she is
kind and will like her to be their friend.
__________ 2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his Mom will take his play
station away if he gets bad grades.
__________ 3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning, saying that
although the government allows this, it is actually murder because the pills are abortifacient
(causes abortion).
__________ 4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test because Hannah agree to let her
copy during their sibika test.
__________ 5. Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the canteen so that people will
praise her honesty and think she’s such a nice girl.
__________6. John decide to return the wallet he found in the canteen because he believes
it’s the right thing to do.
__________ 7. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she likes to follow the school rules
and regulations.
__________ 8. A jeepney driver looks if there’s a policeman around before he u-turns in a no
u-turn spot.
__________ 9. Liza volunteers to tutor children-at-risk children in her community for free so they
will learn to love school and stay in school.
__________ 10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 6

Enrichment Activity:
Reflection: From this lesson of Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral Development I realized that….
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested Links (Optional):

https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/k/Kohlberg%2527s_stages_of_moral_
development.htm

References/Attributions:
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

Module 12: Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio Cultural” theory
• Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development
• Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill

Getting Started (Optional):

Activity. Answer the following questions.
1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually learned well, through
the help of another person. (like swimming, riding a bike, playing the piano etc.)

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 7

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What made you interested to learn the skill?
________________________________________________________________________
3. Who taught or assisted you? ____________________________________________
4. Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what steps or actions the
person did in order to help you learn.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Discussion:
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a
major impact on a child’s cognitive development. When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was
educated under a teacher who used the Socratic method. He believed that the social
interactions with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning.
Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far
as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. This method was a
systematic question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking
and practice higher levels of understanding. This experience, together with his interest in
literature and his work as a teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as
two central factors in cognitive development. His theory became known as the Socio-Cultural
Theory of Development.

Piaget Vygotsky
More individual in focus More social in focus
Believed that there are universal
Did not propose stages but
stages of cognitive development
emphasized on cultural factors in
cognitive development
Did not give much emphasis on Stressed the role of language in
language cognitive development

Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social.
Piaget’s work on Piagetian’s tasks focused heavily on how an individual’s cognitive
development became evident through the individual’s own processing of the tasks. Vygotsky,
on the other hand gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 8

cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social environment or the community takes
on a major role in one’s development.
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social
activities, making the social context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers, and other adults in
the learners’ environment all contribute to the process. They explain, model, assist, give
directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and
collaborate and enrich the learning experience.
Cultural factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the
cognitive development of children. Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures,
he goes through universal stages of cognitive development that allows him to move from
simple explorations with senses and muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other
hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For
instance, one culture’s view about education, how children are trained early in life all can
contribute to the cognitive development of the child.
Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others
already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world and solve
problems. Language serves a social function but it also has an important individual function.
It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Children talk to themselves.
Observe preschoolers play and you may hear, “Gagawin ko itong airplane (holding a
rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport (holding two blocks).” For Vygotsky, “this talking-to-
oneself” is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will eventually
lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of self that guides the child’s thinking and
action.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best
through hands-on activities than when listening passively. Learning by doing is even made
more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.

Zone of Proximal Development

When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient
at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to this as the zone
of actual development. However, with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO),
competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of
competency. The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she
can accomplish with the guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as a zone of
proximal development. The zone represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable
adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the child’s
development. See the illustration on the next page.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish
independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about doing shortcuts for the child.

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 9

Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food container and putting straw in the child’s
tetrapack juice for him is not scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance
given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of
proximal development. When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the
lunch bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening
the food container lid just a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is scaffolding. Leading
the straw to the hole and letting the child put the straw through the tetra pack hole is
scaffolding.
The examples given above show’s how a right amount of assistance can allow the child
to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the gap is bridged
between the learner’s current skill levels and the desired skill level. As learners become more
proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially do without
assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade-away technique.
Scaffolding, when done appropriately can make a learner confident and eventually he can
accomplish the task without any need for assistance.
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.
Learning will depend in the skill of the MKO, and the learners readiness and ability to learn and
the difficulty of the skill being learned.

Application:
An exercise in scaffolding:
1. Choose a skill you are good in. _________________________________

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
 10

2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will benefit from
scaffolding. _______________________________________________
3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will do to
scaffold.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5. Describe how the learning activity went.
________________________________________________________________________

Summary of the Lesson:

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a major
impact on a child’s cognitive development. Piaget and Gesell believed development
stemmed directly from the child, and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic
development, he argued that it is the language, writings, and concepts arising from the
culture that elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that the
social interactions with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for
learning. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would not
advance very far as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s
review some of Vygotsky’s key concepts.

Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding: Vygotsky’s best known concept is the Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky stated that children should be taught in the ZPD,
which occurs when they can almost perform a task, but not quite on their own without
assistance. With the right kind of teaching, however, they can accomplish it successfully. A
good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the child stretch beyond it. Then the adult
(teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then perform the task unaided.
Researchers have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary platforms on which
construction workers stand) to this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that
parents or teachers give a child to do a task.

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Assessment:
Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Enrichment Activity:
Reflection: From this lesson of Vygotsky’s socio-Cultural Theory, I realized that….
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Suggested Links (Optional):
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/chapter/vygotskys-
sociocultural-theory-of-cognitive-development/

References/Attributions
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

Module 13: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

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Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to
• Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model
• Identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s development
• Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a child
and adolescent development

Getting Started (Optional):

Looking Back
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask you parents for some
information.
Answer the following sentence completion items.
1. When I was 5 years old my parents
________________________________________________________________________
2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were
________________________________________________________________________
3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show
________________________________________________________________________
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in
________________________________________________________________________
5. I cannot forget my teacher who
________________________________________________________________________
6. When I was growing up, I was away from
________________________________________________________________________
7. When I was in high school, I was close to
________________________________________________________________________
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about
________________________________________________________________________
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was
________________________________________________________________________
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was
________________________________________________________________________

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Discussion:
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to
explain how the inherent qualities of a child and his environment interact to influence
how he will grow and develop.
Through the Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory, Bronfenbrenner stressed the
importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, also known as
ecological systems in the attempt to understand his development.

A child typically finds himself simultaneously trapped in different ecosystems, from the
most intimate home ecological system moving outward to the larger school system and
the most expansive system which is society and culture. Each of these systems inevitably
interact with and influence each other in every aspect of the child’s life.

The Bronfenbrenner Model: Microsystem

The microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in which the child lives.
As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group or
community environment of the child.

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Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family
members, classmates, teachers and caregivers, in which influences go back and forth. How
these groups or individuals interact with the child will affect how the child grows. Similarly, how
the child reacts to people in his microsystem will also influence how they treat the child in
return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will understandably
foster the child’s improved development.
Given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, however, it is not impossible for
the development of the two siblings to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular
personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological
factors, ultimately have a hand in how he is treated by others.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner uncovered in his study of
ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves within the same
ecological system to still experience very different environments.

The Bronfenbrenner Model: Mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which the
developing child finds himself in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves
linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, or between family and
church.
If a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of their child, invite friends over
to their house and spend time with them, then the child’s development is affected positively
through harmony and like-mindedness. However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers
and openly criticize them, then the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions,
probably affecting his development negatively.

The Bronfenbrenner Model: Exosystem

The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one
of which may not contain the developing child but affects him indirectly nonetheless. Other
people and places which the child may not directly interact with but may still have an effect
on the child, comprise the exosystem. Such places and people may include the parents’
workplaces, the larger neighborhood, and extended family members.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss
at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

The Bronfenbrenner Model: Macrosystem

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the
child that still exercises significant influence on the child.
It is composed of the child’s cultural patterns and values, specifically the child’s dominant
beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems. Children in war-torn areas.

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For example, will experience a different kind of development than children in

communities where peace reigns.

The Bronfenbrenner Model: Chronosystem

The chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence
of both change and constancy in the child’s environment.
The chronosystem may thus include a change in family structure, address, parent’s
employment status, in addition to immense society changes such as economic cycles and
wars.
By studying the different systems that simultaneously influence a child, the
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated
influences on the child’s development. Awareness of contexts can explain us to variations in
the way a child may act in different settings. For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller
children at school may portray the role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations,
adults concerned with the care of a particular child should pay close attention to behavior in
different settings or contexts and to the quality and type of connections that exist between
these contexts.

Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory presents child
development within the context of relationship systems that compares a child’s environment.
It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the child.
Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that
a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one’s development.
Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his
immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his
development.
Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s
development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but
also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start the publicly-funded early childhood program
in the U.S. He concluded that “the instability and unpredictability of family life is the most
destructive force to a child’s development.” Researchers tell us that the absence or lack of
children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their
development.
According to the bioecological theory, “if the relationships in the immediate
microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his
environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in the child/parent

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(or child/other important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These
deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-
discipline, and inability to provide self-direction.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their very important
role. If there is a lack of support, care and affection from the home, if there is a serious
breakdown of the basic relationship in a child’s life, what can the school, the teachers in
particular do?
This theory helps teachers look into every child’s environmental systems in order to
understand more about the characteristics and needs of each child, and learner. The school
and teachers can contribute stability and long-term relationships, but only to support and not
replace the relationships at home. Bronfenbrenner believes that, “the primary relationship
needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime.
This relationship must be forced by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the
child’s influence.”
Schools and teachers’ crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if such exists,
but to work so that the school becomes an environment that welcomes and nurtures families.
Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value work done on behalf of children at all
levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors,
legislators.

Application:
Looking at your answers in the Activity phase of the module, describe how these people or
circumstances have influenced your attitudes, behavior and habits.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Summary of the Lesson:

Bronfenbrenner believed that a person's development was affected by everything in their
surrounding environment. He divided the person's environment into five different levels: the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem.
Assessment:

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Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a child and
adolescent development.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Enrichment Activity:
Recall the 5 The Bronfenbrenner Model. Draw a symbol that would represent this model. Give
a short explanation on the symbol you had made.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Suggested Links (Optional):

https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
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References/Attributions
• Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles, LoriMar Publishing

Module 14: Pre-Natal Development

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
✓ Trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process that you went through.
✓ Explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development
✓ Become more appreciative for the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand.

Getting Started (Optional):

To understand better the topic, you may read “Life Before Death”
Life Before Death
The Development of the Unborn Child

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The development of the unborn child The development of human

life in the womb was once a mystery, but science and medicine have
changed that. Abortion advocates still try to dehumanize the developing
baby in the womb by speaking of the child as “a blob of tissue” or “uterine
contents.” But ultrasound images, prenatal surgery and other advances in
obstetrics are revealing the beauty and wonder of life in the womb. Dr.
Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these profound observations
after his amazing encounter with a tiny unborn baby boy: “Eleven years
ago while I was giving an anesthetic for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy (at
two months gestation), I was handed what I believe was the smallest living
human ever seen. The embryo sac was intact and transparent. Within the
sac was a tiny human male swimming extremely vigorously in the amniotic
fluid, while attached to the wall by the umbilical cord. “This tiny human was
perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and toes. The skin
was transparent and the delicate arteries and veins were prominent to the
ends of the fingers. “The baby swam about the sac with a natural
swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human was obviously alive! “When the sac was
opened, the tiny human immediately stopped moving and died." The point at which Dr.
Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby —eight weeks gestation—is the time when many
abortions are performed.

https://a9beac89-0dd6-4475-b797-a9868170e7bd.filesusr.com/ugd/4af37f_10748893219c44d19b16442b9bd240a2.pdf

Question:
Why does mothers are advised not to smoke, not to drink alcohol drinks, not to take in
any medication without doctor’s prescription?

Discussion:
The Stages of Pre-natal Development
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods: germinal, embryonic and fetal.

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1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception – This includes the a.) creation of the
zygote, b.) continued cell division and c.) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine
wall. The following are the details of development during this period:
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosomes
unite
b. 36 hours – the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two cells
c. 48 hours (2 days) – 2 cells become 4 cells
d. 72 hours (3 days) – 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e. 96 hours (4 days) – hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f. 4-5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h. 11-15 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it
(implantation)
In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer
layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, develops later into the embryo. The
trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later
provides nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson, textbook of Pediatrics, 17th ed.
2004)

2. The Embryonic Period

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the
third week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the
mass of cells becomes distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important
role in the development of the brain.

Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will
later develop into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The
neural tube begins to form along with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest
signs of development of the neural tube are the emergence of two ridges that form
along each side of the neural plate.

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Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is
formed. Once this tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center. 3 The tube
begins to close and brain vesicles form. These vesicles will eventually develop into parts
of the brain, including the structures of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes,
nose, ears, and mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During
the fifth week, buds that will form the arms and legs appear.

By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and
parts except those of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and
is about one inch in length.

By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central
nervous system have been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral
nervous system is also defined.
https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073

3. Fetal period

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage
and becomes known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more
important changes in the brain. This period of development begins during the ninth
week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by amazing change and growth.

The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage
continue to develop. The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord
and neurons continue to form. Once these neurons have formed, they begin to migrate
to their correct locations. Synapses, or the connections between neurons, also begin to
develop.

Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin
to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs.4

During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the
end of the month, all parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs
around three ounces. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although
the majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.

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The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy.
During the second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger
and other body systems become further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and
toenails form.5 Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

So what's going on inside the brain during this important period of prenatal
development? The brain and central nervous system also become more responsive
during the second trimester. Around 28 weeks, the brain starts to mature faster, with an
activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping newborn.

During the period from seven months until birth, the fetus continues to develop,
put on weight, and prepare for life outside the womb. The lungs begin to expand and
contract, preparing the muscles for breathing.

https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073

The Teratology and hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A
teratogen is that which causes birth effects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which means
“monster”.
Below are the clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:
1. Prescription to non-prescription drugs – These includes prescription as well as non-
prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of a prescription drug that can be harmful.
Examples of harmful non-prescription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee.
2. Psychoactive drugs – These includes nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as
marijuana, cocaine and heroine. Researches found that pregnant women who drank
more caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with
lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee.
(Eskanazi et al, 1999 qouted by Santrock, 2002)
3. Environmental hazards – These includes radiation in jobsites and X-rays, environmental
pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and bathtubs.
Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the offspring of
fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations. (Schrag and Dixon, 1985
cited by Santrock, 2002)

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4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS,
nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age, (too early or too late, beyond 30)
5. Paternal factors – father’s exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and
petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or disease
such as childhood cancer.

Application:
Pretend that you are a “junior”, 4 months old in the womb. Your mother is concentrating
on doing abortion. Write her a letter convincing her that you are a human being developing
contrary to what she and other pro-abortionists are thinking. Describe to her the development
that has already taken place in 4 months. Reflect what you have learned on pre-natal
development in this Module. (Refer to Summary of the Lesson)

Summary of the Lesson:

A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Physically
Domain: Physical Health, Well-Being and Motor development
PHYSICAL HEALTH
Standards 1: The child demonstrates adequate growth (weight, height, head
circumference).
Standards 2: The child has adequate sensory systems to participate in daily activities.
0-6 months
1. Startles to loud sounds
2. Visually follows a moving object from side to side
3. Visually follows a moving object up and down
4. Reacts to pain by crying
5. Withdraws or cries when in contact with something hot
6. Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact with something cold

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7. Reacts with pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/she tastes something delicious
8. Reacts by making a face/frowns/grimaces when he/she tastes something he/she does not
like.
7-12 months
1. Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice
2. Reacts by making a face when he/she smells something foul
Standards 3: The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities
1. Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (e.g., chairs, large boxes)
2. Walks without tiring easily
13-18 months
1. Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates
2. Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises
19-24 months
1. Sustains physical activity (e.g., dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for at least 3-5 minutes

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOR SKILLS)

Standards 1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements involving large
muscle groups
1. Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Holds head steadily
2. Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object
3. Rolls over
4. Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs

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5. Sits with support

6. Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this

7-12 months
1. Sits alone steadily without support
2. Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
3. Stands without support
4. Stahds from a sitting position without any help
5. Squats from a standing position with ease
6. Stands from a standing position with ease
7. Bends over easily without fallingg
8. Stands from a bent position without falling
9. Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or furniture (cruises)
10. Walks with one hand held
13-18 months
1. Walks without support
2. Walks backwards
3. Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step
4. Walks down the stairs with hand held, 2feet on each step
5. Jumps in place
6. Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.g., bed, adult chair, or bangko etc)
7. Kicks a ball but with little control of direction
8. Throws a ball but with little control of direction
9. Throws a ball but with little control of speed

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10. Runs without tripping or falling

11. Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines) without assistance
12. Moves with music when he/she hears it
13. Can move body to imitate familiar animals
14. Can move body to imitate another person/TV character
19-14 months
1. Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help
2. Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help
3. Kicks a ball with control of direction
4. Throws a ball with control of direction
5. Throws a ball with control of speed
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS)
Standards 1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Hands open most of the time
2. Brings both hands together towards dangling obeject/toy
3. Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp object
4. Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface
5. Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging)
7-12 months
1.Pulls toys by the string
2. Bangs 2 large blocks together

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3. Picks up objects with thumb and index fingers

4. Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand
5. Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preference established)
13-18 months
1. Puts small objects in/out of container
2. Unscrews lids
3. Unwraps candy/food
4. Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 fingers wrapped around pencil)
5. Scribbles spontaneously
19-24 months
1. Colors with strokes going out of the lines
PERSONAL CARE AND HYGIENE (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)
Standards 1: The child participates in basic personal care routines.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by
a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Sucks and swallows milk from breast/bottle
2. Begins to take complementary semi-solid foods by the end of 6months
3. Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undress bathed and while diaper is being
changed
7-12 months
1. Holds a feeding bottle by himself/herself
2. Helps hold cup for drinking
3. Chews solid food well
4. Feeds self with finger foods

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5. Scoops with a spoon with spillage

13-18 months
1. Feeds sself with assistance
2. Feeds self using fingers to eat rice/viands with spillage
3. Feeds self using spoon with spillage
4. No longer drinks from feeding bottle
5. Drinks from cup unassisted
6. Participates when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs
7. Pulls down gartered short pants/underpants or panties
8. Removes shoes/sandals
9. Informs caregiver of the need to move his bowels so he/she can be brought to comfort
room
10. Takes a bath with assistance
11. Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult
12. Washes and dries hands with assitance from adult
13. Washes and dries face with the assistance of an adult
19-24 months
1. Gets drink for self unassisted
2. Removes loose sando
3.Removes socks
4. Informs caregiver of the need to urinate so he/she can be brought to the comfort room
5. Goes to the designated place to urinate but sometimes wets his/her pants
6. Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but sometimes still soils his/her pants
7. Brushes teeth after meals with adult supervision

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8. Washes and dries face under adult supervision

The 3 Stages of Pre-natal Development

1. Germinal Period (1st two weeks after conception)
2. Embryonic period (2-8 weeks after conception)
3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception)
The Teratology and Hazard to pre-natal Development
1. Prescription and non-prescription drugs
2. Psychoactive Drugs
3. Environmental hazards
4. Other maternal Factors

Assessment:
A. Draw a graphic organizer showing the stages of the pre-natal development.

B. Discuss some hazards of pre-natal development using graphic organizers.

Enrichment Activity:

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Suggested Links (Optional):

References/Attributions:
https://a9beac89-0dd6-4475-b797-a9868170e7bd.filesusr.com /ugd/4af37f_10748893
219c44d19b 16442b9bd240a2.pdf;Date Retrieved, August 10, 2020
https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073;Date Retrieved,
August 10, 2020
https://www.verywellmind.com/stages-of-prenatal-development-2795073;Date Retrieved,
August 10, 2020
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; LoriMar Publishing

Module 15: Infancy and Toddlerhood

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this topic the students will be able to:
✓ Trace the physical development that you have gone through as infants and toddlers.
✓ Identify factors that enhance/empede the physical development of infants and
toddlers
✓ Draw implications of these principles and processes to child care, education and
parenting

Getting Started (Optional):

Take a look at the image and observe how does a human body grow.

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https://www.google.com/search?q=cephalocaudal+and+proximodistal+patterns+of+development&tb
m=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiP94-QrKTrAhUJYZQKHVkgDwsQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=cephalocaudal&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgDMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggA
MgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADoHCCMQ6gIQJzoECCMQJzoECAAQQzoFCAAQsQM6BwgAELEDEENQi8ElWL
Question:
2iJmDGwyZoAXAAeAOAAWmIAaYbkgEENDUuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEKwAEB&sclient=im
g&ei=n5I7X8-rBYnC0QTZwLxY&bih=568&biw=1226&hl=en&hl=en#imgrc=awE_lUTEnBuNSM
1. What do
you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts of the body as a
person grow older?
2. Does the physical development begin from the top or below? From the side to the
center?

Discussion:
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns

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Cephalocaudical trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the
head grows more than the body. This cephalocaudical trend of growth that applies to the
development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth. Infants learn to use their
limbs before their lower limbs. The same occurs in the area because the top parts of the head
– the eyes and the brain – grow faster than the lower parts such as jaws.
The Proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus
grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first months after birth as
shown in the earlier maturation of mascular control of the trunk and arms, followed by that of
the hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to
the development of motor skills from the center of the body outward.

Height and Weight

✓ Its normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a
couple of weeks of birth. That is due baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once they
adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
✓ Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six months.
After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than the bottle-fed babies.
✓ In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
✓ A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of
life.
✓ Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural
curve of steady development.

Brain Development
The early years of a child’s life are very important for later health and development. One of
the main reasons is how fast the brain grows starting before birth and continuing into early

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childhood. Although the brain continues to develop and change into adulthood, the first
8 years can build a foundation for future learning, health and life success.

How well a brain develops depends on many factors in addition to genes, such as:

• Proper nutrition starting in pregnancy

• Exposure to toxins or infections
• The child’s experiences with other people and the world

Nurturing and responsive care for the child’s body and mind is the key to supporting healthy
brain development. Positive or negative experiences can add up to shape a child’s
development and can have lifelong effects. To nurture their child’s body and mind, parents
and caregivers need support and the right resources. The right care for children, starting
before birth and continuing through childhood, ensures that the child’s brain grows well
and reaches its full potential. CDC is working to protect children so that their brains have a
healthy start.

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/early-brain-development.html

Motor Development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to
gross motor skills and fine motor skills.

According to Stanford Children there were reflexes that should be present in a

newborn?
Reflexes are involuntary movements or actions. Some movements are spontaneous and
occur as part of the baby's normal activity. Others are responses to certain actions.
Healthcare providers check reflexes to determine if the brain and nervous system are
working well. Some reflexes occur only in specific periods of development. The following are
some of the normal reflexes seen in newborn babies:

Rooting reflex
This reflex starts when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn
his or her head and open his or her mouth to follow and root in the direction of the stroking.
This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to start feeding. This reflex lasts about 4 months.

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Suck reflex
Rooting helps the baby get ready to suck. When the roof of the baby's mouth is touched, the
baby will start to suck. This reflex doesn't start until about the 32nd week of pregnancy and is
not fully developed until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak or immature
sucking ability because of this. Because babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex that goes
with rooting and sucking, they may suck on their fingers or hands.

Moro reflex
The Moro reflex is often called a startle reflex. That’s because it usually occurs when a baby is
startled by a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws back his or
her head, extends out his or her arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. A
baby's own cry can startle him or her and trigger this reflex. This reflex lasts until the baby is
about 2 months old.

Tonic neck reflex

When a baby's head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the
opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This is often called the fencing position. This reflex lasts
until the baby is about 5 to 7 months old.

Grasp reflex
Stroking the palm of a baby's hand causes the baby to close his or her fingers in a grasp. The
grasp reflex lasts until the baby is about 5 to 6 months old. A similar reflex in the toes lasts until
9 to 12 months.

Stepping reflex
This reflex is also called the walking or dance reflex because a baby appears to take steps or
dance when held upright with his or her feet touching a solid surface. This reflex lasts about 2
months.

https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=newborn-reflexes-90-P02630

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Gross Motor Skills

According to Kids Sense Gross Motor (physical) skills are those which require whole body
movement and which involve the large (core stabilising) muscles of the body to perform
everyday functions, such as standing and walking, running and jumping, and sitting upright at
the table. They also includes eye-hand coordination skills such as ball skills (throwing, catching,
kicking) as well as riding a bike or a scooter and swimming.

https://childdevelopment.com.au/areas-of-concern/gross-motor-skills/

Application:
Observe an infant or toddler, and put a check on items that you observed the
infants/toddlers demonstrated.

What can infants/toddlers can do

physically?
Holds head steady without support.
Pushes down on legs when feet are on a
hard surface.
Rolls over from tummy to back.
Holds and shakes toys, swings at dangling
toys.
Brings hands to mouth.
• Pushes up to elbows when lying on tummy.

Summary of the Lesson:

A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively
DOMAIN: LANGUAGE, PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH LANGUAGE (RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE)
Base on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a
child on the specified age?
0-6 months

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1. Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him/her

7-12 months
1. Understands “No”
2. Points to a family member when asked to do so
13-18 months
1. Points to 5 body parts on him/herself when asked to do so
2. Follows one-step insturctions without need for gestures
19-24 months
1. Points to 5 named pictured objects when asked to do so
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)
Standards 1: The child is able to use words and gestures to express his thoughts and feelings.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds
2. Uses gestures (e.g., stretching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what he/she wants
7-12 months
1. Repeats sounds produced by others
2. Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
3. Uses animal sounds to identify animals (e.g., meow-meow for cat)
4. Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environment (e.g., boom for
thunder)
13-18 months
1. Speaks in single words
2. Says “yes and “no” appropriately

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3. Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants

4. Responds to simple questions with single words
19-24 months
1. Uses pronouns
2. Uses possessive pronouns
3. Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gesture
4. Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING)
Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes, symbols.
Based on your experience are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by
a child on the specified age?
7-12 months
1. Able to match 2 identical objects (e.g., 2 spoons 2 balls)

19-24 months
1. Matches identical objects
2. Matches identical pictures
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (ROTE SEQUENCING)
Standards 1.2: The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in sequence.
Based on your experience are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
19-24 months
1. Counts from 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
Domain: Cognitive Development
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL

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Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity age-expected
levels.
Based on your experience are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g., rattle, dangling toy)
7-12 months
1. Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.g., pulling apart)
2. Looks with interest at picture books
3. Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13-18 months
1. May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus
2. Resists interruption while engaged in play
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT INFORMATION)
Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy, space, time,
quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for understanding how materials are
categorized in his/her environment.
Based on your experience, are these indicators performed generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting them in his/her mouth
2. Looks in the direction of a fallen object
7-12 months
1. Looks for the partially hidden objects
2. Looks for completely hidden objects
13-18 months

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1. Can tell whether something is hot or cold

2. Hands over 1 object whend asked
19-24 months
1. Can tell which is shorter of 2 items
2. Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
3. Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
4. Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES
(CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS)
Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Acts on an object to achieve an objective (e.g., shakes rattle)
7-12 months
1. Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.g., spoon to reach an object)
19-24 months
1. Asks “Why?” questions
2. Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.g., washing hands before meals)
3. Understands reasons behinde safety rules and practices at home (e.g., why one must not
play matches)
4. Knows where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he/she has met, events, and places he/she
has been to.

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Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Child reacts like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met several times but who
does not live in his/her home
13-18 months
1. Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides his/her home
19-24 months
1. Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there before
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEGE: SEMANTIC MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short and long-term mermory.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
19-24 months
1. Hums a recognizable tune
2. Memorizes some gestures of action songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (LOGICAL REASONING)
Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why these happen)
and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to him/her
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
19-24 months
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (PLANNING AND ORANIZING)
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?

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19-24 months
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)
Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, or new associatios
between existing ideas or concepts.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed
by a child on the specified age?
19-24 months
1. Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g., blocks, clay, sand,
paper)
2. Uses toys or objects or symbols in play (e.g., pretends empty milk can is a drum)
3. Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g., big empty box as house)

What Infants and Toddlers can do Cognitively?

Domain: Cognitive development
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at age-expected
levels.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by
a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g., rattle, dangling toy)
7-12 months
1. Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these (e.g., pulling apart)
2. Looks with interest at picture books
3. Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13-18 months

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1. May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus

2. Resists interruption while engaged in play
Assessment:
Come up with a graphic presentation of the milestones of the various aspects of
physical development (proximodistal and cephalocaudal patterns, height and weight
during infancy and toddlerhood). For details, refer to the Philippine Early Learning and
Development Standards. Cite Implication/s of each milestone to parenting.
Enrichment Activity:
1. Having learned the physical development of infants and toddlers and Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, as a future parent or as caregiver of children, reflect on:
a. What should you do more often for infants and toddlers;
b. What you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and
development.
References/Attributions:
https://www.google.com/search?q=cephalocaudal+and+proximodistal+patterns+of+development
&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiP94-QrKTrAhUJYZQKHVkgDwsQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=cephalocaudal&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQARgDMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyA
ggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADoHCCMQ6gIQJzoECCMQJzoECAAQQzoFCAAQsQM6BwgAELEDEEN
Qi8ElWL2iJmDGwyZoAXAAeAOAAWmIAaYbkgEENDUuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEKwAE
B&sclient=img&ei=n5I7X8-
rBYnC0QTZwLxY&bih=568&biw=1226&hl=en&hl=en#imgrc=awE_lUTEnBuNSM; Date Retrieved, August
12, 2020

Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

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Module 16: Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
✓ Trace the cognitive development of infants and toddlers.
✓ Identify factors that enhance/impede the cognitive development of infants and
toddlers
✓ Draw implications of cognitive development concepts to child care, education and
parenting.

Getting Started (Optional):

Cognitive development infancy refers to development

in the way a baby thinks. This includes his/her language,
communication and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive
activities include paying attention, remembering’ learning to
talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces.

https://www.google.com/search?q=cognitive+development&authuser=1&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiIwNzRxazrAhWTZt4KH
bhpDKQQ_AUoAXoECBcQAw&biw=1242&bih=568#imgrc=U5DQB28J1-46cM

Discussion:
Sensorimotor Stage
An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s cognitive
development shows that development begins from reflexive behaviors to more refined and
more coordinated activities. Cognitive development of infants evolves in orientation from
becoming focused on themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is

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action-based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not involve much of
coordination of schemes to one involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a
thinking that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.

On the other hand, Piaget's theory suggests that children progress through a series of
four different stages of cognitive development. These stages encompass numerous aspects
of mental development including that of reasoning, language, morals, and memory. Piaget
believed that kids take an active role in this cognitive development, building knowledge as
they interact with the world.

The sensorimotor stage is the earliest in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. He

described this period as a time of tremendous growth and change.

Substages

As any parent or caregiver can attest, a great deal of learning and development happens
during the first two years of a child's life. The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six
separate sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a new skill:1

Reflexes (0-1 month)

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes
such as sucking and looking.

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)

This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may
suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These
actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)

During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to
intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example,
a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.

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Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)

During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also
combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring the
environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The
understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain
objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make
a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For
example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a
caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months)

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final
sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the
world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

Object Permanence

According to Piaget, developing object permanence is one of the most important

accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development.

Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe that the other
person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled when the object
reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will realize that the person or
object continues to exist even when unseen.

This is a classic example of how, during this stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is
limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities and how behaviors are limited
to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.

https://www.verywellmind.com/sensorimotor-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795462

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Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic
environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have remarkably
acute language learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus, Vijayan,. Bandi rao and
Vishton, 1999; Pinker, 1997, 1999, cited by Sternberg, Robert, 2003).
Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through the following stages in
producing language (Sternberg, 2003):
1. Cooing which comprises largely vowel sounds
2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most people’s
ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from different language
groups sounds very similar
3. One-word utterances are limited in both the vowels and the consonants they
utilize (Ingram, 1999 cited by Sternberg, 2003)
4. Teo-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentences structure (present by about age 4 years) with continuing
vocabulary acquisition.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that humans have an innate
language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a “metaphorical organ that is responsible for
language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this language acquisition device
is preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the language community children
themselves in.”
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready to
acquire language. Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit
understanding of the many rules of language structure, as well as for applying those rules to
new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly explain why children are said to learn
language fast.
Application:
1. Observe one 0-6 months infants, 7-12 months infants,18 months infant, and 19-24
month old infant. Describe and compare what they can utter.

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Summary of the Lesson:

A Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Socio-emotionally
Domain: Social and Emotional Development

SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION)

Standards 1.1: The child expresses different basic emotions.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Cries in different ways to express different needs (e.g., hungry, sleepy, wet)
2. Shows excitement or pleasure by moving arms, kicking, moving the entire body and
the face lighting up
3. Smiles or laughs in response to a pleasant experience (e.g., caregiver singing to
him/her)
4. Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements without objects (e.g., rolling back
and forth)
5. Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movements with objects (e.g., shaking, rattle)
6. Likes playing with water
7. Enjoys going to the park
8. Shows fear and hesitation towards unfamiliar persons
7-12 months
1. Has a favorite toy
13-18 months
1. Smiles/laughs when happy or amused
2. Cries when sad, angry or scared
3. Shows varying degrees or intensities of various emotions
Standards 1.2: The child demonstrates ability to self-regulate feelings/emotions and follows
schedules as well as rules and regulations
0-6 months
1. Stops crying almost immediately when need is met
2. Eventually gets used to an irritating experience (e.g., honking horn) and calms down
13-18 months
1. Able to stop an undesirable behavior or activity when instructed to do so (e.g., going
out to street)
2. Can calm down or stop tantruming with help from adults
3. Can follow simple rules
19-24 months
1. Can wait his/her turn

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2. Shows Ability to contain his/her expression of anger or frustration when source is

removed
3. Shows ability to contain one’s expression of anger or frustration in a public place when
asked by parent/caregiver
4. Tries to control his tears when in pain or scared
Standards 1.3: The child comprehends and displays self-appraisal emotions (shame, pride,
guilt)

7-12 months
1. Smiles or claps his hands when he/she displays a learned behavior (e.g., close-open)
13-18 months
1. Recognizes and is able to label self appraisal emotions such as shame, pride, guilt,
envy, jealous
2. Will do something that gets him/her praised (e.g., doing a task properly, singing, etc.)
19-24 months
1. Shows interest in doing things that are his/her own creation
2. says “Sorry” when he/she has made a mistake or has hurt someone

SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (RECEPTIVITY TO OTHER’S EMOTIONS)

Standards 1: The child is receptive to the different emotions of other people and shows
empathy.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
7-12 months
1. Can mimic people’s facial expressions
13-18 months
1. Demonstrates appropriate/acceptable responses to other people’s emotions (e.g.,
does not laugh at someone who is crying)
19-24 months
1. Identifies feelings in others
2. Shows respect for rights and properties of others (e.g., asks permission, does not
deliberately destroy other’s things)
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (EMERGING SENSE OF SELF)
Standards 1: The child expresses knowledge of self and basic roles of people in his/her
immediate environment
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Explores own body (e.g., observes hands and toes), often smiles and vocalizes

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2. Looks at self in the mirror

3. Responds to own my name by turning to look or reaching to be picked up when
called
7-12 months
1. Identifies self in the mirror or photograph via pattingg or pointing his/her image
13-18 months
1. Identifies what part of his/her body hurts by pointing to this
2. Refers to self by first or nickname
3. Calls family members by their name/role (mama, papa ,ate ,kuya)
4. Asks for what he/she needs without hesitation
5. Expresses dislike or disagreement (e.g., no, ayaw) but in a manner that remains
respectful and polite

19-24 months
1. Identifies self by first and last name
2. Identifies what part of his/her body hurts by naming this
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (FORMING ATTACHMENTS)
Standards 1: The child forms healthy attachments to primary caregivers and other significant
adults and children in his/her life.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Looks for caregiver during times of distress or discomfort
2. Shows distress (e.g., inability to eat or sleep, crying) if primary caregiver is absent
13-18 months
1. Is affectionate towards primary caregivers and other family members
2. Goes to primary caregivers for help
3. Is comfortable in the company of strangers if primary caregiver is present
4. May play alone but likes to be near familiar adults or siblings
5. Hugs or cuddles toys
6. Enjoys playing regularly with significant adults and children
19-24 months
1. Eventually moves away from primary caregiver when plying with unfamiliar children or
adults, but may look occasionally in his/her direction
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHILDREN)
Standards 1: The child plays and has positive interactions with other children.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?

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0-6 months
1. Plays with toys by him/herself (e.g., mouths, examines, swipe toys)
2. Smiles in response to the facial expressions of other children
3. Looks at other children with interest; watches them play
4. Displays amusement interacting with other children (e.g., cooing, flailing armas and
legs)
7-12 months
1. Engages in play alongside but not necessarily with other children (I.e., parallel play)
13-18 months
1. Plays cooperatively with other children
2. May hug/kiss or hold hands with other children
3. Shows or shares foods, books, and toys with other children
4. Asks to play with other children or invites them to play with him/her
19-24 months
1. Talks to other children, asks them questions
2. Shows preference for some children and interacts more with them

SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH ADULTS)

Standards 1: The child has positive relations and interactions with adults.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Is shy or more quiet with strangers
2. Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or objects
13-18 months
1. Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her
2. Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people around
him/her
19-24 months
1. If he/she needs something, can wait quietly as told, until caregiver is able to attend to
him
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSITY)
Standards 1: The child recognizes and respects similarities and differences in people/
language, culture.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?

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19-24 months
Able to differentiate between boys and girls Sub-domain: Social (Pakiramdam-Sensitivity)
Standards 1: The child takes social cues from the environment and adjusts his/her behavior
accordingly
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
1. Is shy or more with strangers
2. Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or objects
13-18 months
1. Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her
2. Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people around
him/her
19-24 months
1. If he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until caregiver is able to attend to
him/her
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSITY)
Standards 1: The child recognizes and respects similarities and differences in people,
language, culture.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or
performed by a child on the specified age?
19-24 months
1. Treats house helper or those less fortunate with respect (e.g., talking to them in a polite
manner)

Assessment:
1. Which practice can enhance cognitive development among toddlers? Why? –
Application
a. Shared reading
b. Early enrolment in found school
c. Making child compete with other toddlers
d. Buying expensive toys for the toddlers.

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Enrichment Activity:
Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage and the first year of pre-operational stage of
cognitive development, reflect on how you, as a future mother or nursery teacher can:
1. Enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development or
2. Impede infants and toddlers’ cognitive development

References/Attributions:
https://www.google.com/search?q=cognitive+development&authuser=1&source=lnms&tb
m=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiIwNzRxazrAhWTZt4KHbhpDKQQ_AUoAXoECBcQAw&biw
=1242&bih=568#imgrc=U5DQB28J1-46cM; Date Retrieved, July 31, 2020
https://www.verywellmind.com/sensorimotor-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795462;
Date Retrived, July 31, 2020

Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

Module 17: Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
✓ Describe the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.
✓ Identify factors that enhance/impede the socio-emotional development of infants
and toddlers.
✓ Draw implications of socio-emotional development concepts to child care, education
and parenting.
Getting Started (Optional):

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Simply put, socio-emotional development has something to do with the development

of a person’s ability to master one’s emotions and the ability to relate to others. It necessarily
includes temperament, attachments and social skills.
Discussion:
Attachment
For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish and enduring
bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific figure,
particulary suring stressful situation. This is social phenomenon of attachment.

According to Dr. john Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in signals that
baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into her mother’s eyes,
smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develops in her degree of attachment to her
parents. She smiles more freely at them than at any stranger whom she seldom sees.

Temperament

A child’s temperament describes the way in which she

approaches and reacts to the world. It is her personal“style.”
Temperament influences a child’s behavior and the way she
interacts with others . While temperament does not clearly define or predict behavior,
understanding a child’s temperament can help providers and families better understand how
young children react and relate tothe world around them. Information about
temperamentcan also guide parents and caregivers to identifychildren’s strengths and the
supports they need to succeed in their relationships and environments.

Researchers have described young children’s temperament by depicting several

different traits. These traits address an infant’s level of activity, her adaptability to daily routines,
how she responds to new situations,her mood, the intensity of her reactions, her sensitivityto
what’s going on around her, how quickly she adapts to changes, and how distractible and

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persistent she mightbe when engaging in an activity . Based on these traits,researchers

generally categorize children into three temperament types:

Easy or flexible children tend to be happy, regular in sleeping and eating habits,
adaptable, calm, and noteasily upset.

Active or feisty children may be fussy, irregular in feeding and sleeping habits, fearful of
new peopleand situations, easily upset by noise and stimulation,and intense in their reactions.

Slow to warm or cautious children may be lessactive or tend to be fussy, and may
withdraw or react negatively to new situations; but over time they maybecome more
positive with repeated exposure to anew person, object, or situation.

http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/wwb/wwb23.html

Erikson’s Psychosocial theory

The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial development) apply at
the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage
begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is
uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for
stability and consistency of care.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial
development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal
control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

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3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through
directing play and other social interaction.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during
childhood between the ages of five and twelve.

Application:
Observe one 0-6 months infant, 7-12 months infant, 13-18 months infant and 19-24 month old
infant. Describe and compare how they socialize with their family or loved ones.

Summary of the Lesson:

Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers:
1. Attachment pertains to the bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain
closeness to a specific figure, particulary suring stressful situation.
2. Temperament pertains to the way in which she approaches and reacts to the world. It
is her personal “style.” Temperament influences a child’s behavior and the way she
interacts with others.
Erikson’s Psychosocial theory

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Assessment:

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What does the social phenomenon of attachment mean in an infant’s and toddlers healthy
socio-emotional development? -Understanding
The Infant/toddler.
A. Wants to interact with people and the world
B. Understands that mother continues to exist even if she is not seen
C. Needs to establish an enduring emotional bond manifested in a tendency to
maintain closeness to a specific figure
D. Thrives on social interaction
Enrichment Activity:
Based on stories you have heard from your parents and grandparents about your two years
in the word, reflect on the kind of socialization you had and the factors which you think
affected you on what you are now.
References/Attributions:
http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/wwb/wwb23.html; Date Retrieved, August 1, 2020

Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

Module 18: Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
✓ Describe preschool children’s physical growth.
✓ Identify the different gross and fine motor skills.

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✓ Draw implications of these concepts on the physical development on teaching

preschoolers.

Getting Started (Optional):

The preschooler years is commonly known as “the years before formal schooling
begins.” It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the years before formal
school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years. The preschool years is very
important as it lays foundation to later development. At this stage , the preschoolers achieve
many developmental milestones. As such, pre-service teachers who might be interested to
teach and care for preschoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly an
intentional and effective teacher.
Discussion:
Big ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
1. There are significant changes in physical
growth of preschoolers.
2. The preschoolers physical development is
marked by the acquisition of gross and fine
motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves
artistically at a very young age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of
sleep are very important for the preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in
maximizing the growth and development of
preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive well with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classrooms materials and activities.
Between the ages of 3 – 4 years, your toddler should:
• Run around obstacles
• Walk on a line

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• Balance on one foot for 5 – 10 seconds

• Hop on her preferred foot
• Ride a tricycle
• Walk up and down stairs with alternating feet, without support
• Jump from 12 inches with feet together
• Use a slide independently
• Climb well (not including ladders)
• Skip, leading with 1 leg
Between the ages of 4 – 5 years, your preschooler should:
• Walk a balance beam forwards & backwards
• Perform somersaults
• Balance on 1 foot for 8 – 10 seconds
• Skip, alternating feet
• Begin to jump rope
• Throw a ball to hit a target
• Jump back
• Pump and maintain momentum while on a swing (may be started with a forward push)
• Hop 5 times on 1 foot
• Climb the rungs of a playground slide ladder

Fine Motor Skills

Fine Motor Skills (colouring, cutting, beading, lego, drawing)
“Fine motor” refers to the movements we make with the small muscles of the hands. Children
start to use their hands right at birth to explore their own bodies and the world around
them. Their fine motor skills develop as their whole body starts to move and become more
stable. They also learn to do more things with their hands as their cognitive and
social/emotional skills improve.

Below are some of the typical developmental milestones for fine motor skills. After each age
group, you can find some “red flags” that might indicate a problem.

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Between the ages of 3-4 years, your child will:

• Build a tower of 9-10 small blocks
• Use playdough to make balls, snakes, cookies, etc.
• Build things with large linking blocks, such as Megablocks or Duplo
• Draw a circle by herself
• Copy a cross (+)
• Imitate you drawing a square
• Start to hold a crayon or pencil with a mature grasp (like an adult)
• Cut across a piece of paper
• Start to cut along a straight line
• Manage buttons
• Put on most items of clothing by herself, but may still need help with shirts and jackets
• Feed himself well with a spoon and fork
Red Flags for Fine Motor Development (4 years)
If you notice some of the following things about your child by the time he is 4 years old, you
may want to talk to your doctor, or to another health professional such as an occupational
therapist.
• His movements seem shaky or stiff
• Her arms and hands seem very weak
• She is not able to cut across a piece of paper with scissors
• He cannot copy a cross (+)
• She is not able to draw a circle and straight lines by herself
• She cannot string ½ inch beads onto a lace
• He cannot use a fork and spoon well
• She is not able to put on her own pants, loose socks and shoes
Between the ages of 4-5 years, your child will:
• Start to use one hand consistently for fine motor tasks
• Cut along a straight line with scissors
• Start to cut along a curved line, like a circle
• Draw a cross by herself (+)
• Copy a square
• Begin to draw diagonal lines, like in a triangle

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• Start to colour inside the lines of a picture

• Start to draw pictures that are recognizable
• Build things with smaller linking blocks, such as Duplo or Lego
• Put on his own clothing, but may still need help with fasteners like buttons/zippers
• Start to spread butter or cut soft foods with a small table knife (with supervision)
• Start to learn to print some capital letters
Red Flags for Fine Motor Development (5 years)
If you notice some of the following things about your child by the time she is 5 years old, you
may want to talk to your doctor, or to another health professional such as an occupational
therapist.
• His movements seem shaky or stiff
• Her arms and hands seem very weak
• He is not able to cut along a straight line
• She is not holding her crayons or pencils with her thumb and fingers
• He is not able to draw a circle, square and cross (+)
• She is not able to put on her own shirts, pants, socks, and shoes (with some help with
fasteners)
• He is not able to feed himself well with a spoon and fork

http://www.kamloopschildrenstherapy.org/fine-motor-skills-preschool-milestones

Preschoolers’ Artistic Development as studied by Viktor Lowenfield

1. SCRIBBLE (2 to 4 years)

The Scribble stage is made up of four sub-stages. (a) Disordered - uncontrolled markings
that could be bold or light depending upon the personality of the child. At this age the child
has little or no control over motor activity. (b)Longitudinal - controlled repetitions of motions.
Demonstrates visually an awareness and enjoyment of kinesthetic movements. Circular -
further exploring of controlled motions demonstrating the ability to do more complex
forms. Naming - the child tells stories about the scribble. There is a change from a kinesthetic
thinking in terms of motion to imaginative thinking in terms of pictures. This is one of the great
occasions in the life of a human. It is the development of the ability to visualize in pictures.

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2. PRESCHEMATIC(4 to 6 years)

The preschematic stage is announced by the appearance of circular images with lines
which seem to suggest a human or animal figure. During this stage the schema (the visual
idea) is developed. The drawings show what the child perceives as most important about the
subject. There is little understanding of space - objects are placed in a haphazard way
throughout the picture. The use of color is more emotional than logical.

3. SCHEMATIC (7 to 9 years)

This stage is easily recognized by the demonstrated awareness of the concept of space.
Objects in the drawing have a relationship to what is up and what is down. A definite base
and sky line is apparent. Items in the drawing are all spatially related. Colors are reflected as
they appear in nature. Shapes and objects are easily definable. Exaggeration between figures
(humans taller than a house, flowers bigger than humans, family members large and small) is
often used to express strong feelings about a subject. Another technique sometimes used is
called "folding over" this is demonstrated when objects are drawn perpendicular to the base
line. Sometimes the objects appear to be drawn upside down. Another Phenomenon is called
"X-ray". In an x-ray picture the subject is depicted as being seen form the inside as well as the
outside.

4. DAWNING REALISM(9 to 11 years)

Dawining realism is also known as the gang age. Group friendships of the same sex are
most common. This is a period of self awareness to the point of being extremely self critical.
The attempts at realism need to be looked at from the child's point of view. Realism is not
meant to be real in the photographic sense rather than an experience with a particular
object. In this regard this stage is the first time that the child becomes aware of a lack of ability
to show objects the way they appear in the surrounding environment. The human is shown as
girl, boy, woman, man clearly defined with a feeling for details often resulting in a "stiffness" of
representation. Perspective is another characteristic of this stage. There is an awareness of the
space between the base line and sky line. Overlapping of objects, types of point perspective
and use of small to large objects are evident in this stage. Objects no longer stand on a base

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line. Three dimensional effects are achieved along with shading and use of subtle color
combinations. Because of an awareness of lack of ability drawings often appear less
spontaneous than in previous stages.

5.THE PSEUDOREALISTIC STAGE (ll to 13 years)

In the previous stages the process in making the visual art was of great importance. In
this stage the product becomes most important to the child. This stage is marked by two
psychological differences. In the first, called Visual, the individual's art work has the
appearance of looking at a stage presentation. The work is inspired by visual stimuli. The
second is based on subjective experiences. This type of Nonvisual individual's art work is based
on subjective interpretations emphasizing emotional relationships to the external world as it
relates to them. Visual types feel as spectators looking at their work form the outside.
Nonvisually minded individuals feel involved in their work as it relates to them in a personal
way. The visually minded child has a visual concept of how color changes under different
external conditions. The nonvisually minded child sees color as a tool to be used to reflect
emotional reaction to the subject at hand.

Application:
Observe a preschooler you know, describe the motor skills he/she can as his/her
physical development.

Summary of the Lesson:

Significant Changes in Physical Growth
Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in pace
than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move, from the
remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a more slender appearance of a child.
The trunk, arms and legs become longer.

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Gross Motor Skills (walking, running, jumping, climbing, balance, strength)

Gross Motor development involves the larger, stronger muscle groups of the body. In early
childhood, it is the development of these muscles that enable the baby to hold his/her head
up, sit, crawl and eventually walk, run and skip.

Assessment:
Make your own photo essay about the physical development of preschoolers. Observe
preschoolers in action and take their pictures. Describe the gross and fine motor skills that
you saw them do.

Physical Domain Skills Proposed Learning Activities

Cognitive Domain Skill Socio-emotional Domain Skill

Enrichment Activity:
From this topic on the Physical Development of Preschoolers, I realized that…
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

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__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
References/Attributions:
http://www.kamloopschildrenstherapy.org/fine-motor-skills-preschool-milestones;Date
Retrieved, August 1, 2020

Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

Module 19: Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
✓ Describe the cognitive development that takes place among preschoolers
✓ Apply concepts on preschoolers’ cognitive development in preschool teaching and in
child care.
✓ Take an informed stand/position on current preschool teaching practices.
Getting Started (Optional):
Someone one wrote in his journal: “Childhood is a word of miracle and wonder; as if
creation rose, bathed in lightly, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing. The end of
childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the world seems familiar, when on has
got used to existence, one has become an adult.”

Discussion:
Preschoolers’ Symbolic and intuitive Thinking
Symbolic Thinking

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According to Piaget, young children go through two distinct phases or sub-stages in

cognitive development during this stage. First, they develop Symbolic Function between the
ages of 2 and 4. During the Symbolic Function sub-stage, children master the ability to picture,
remember, understand, and replicate objects in their minds that are not immediately in front
of them. In other words, children can create mental images of objects and store them in their
minds for later use.

Before this period, during the Sensorimotor stage, infants and toddlers understood their
world as containing only what they were immediately experiencing and nothing else.
According to Piaget, if a toddler was playing with a kitten and it left his line of vision, the child
would be unable to create a mental picture of that kitten. To the toddler, the idea of the kitten
(and therefore the kitten itself) would no longer exist. Young children who have developed
Symbolic Function can draw a picture of or pretend to play with a kitten that is no longer there.

These new cognitive abilities are helpful to young children's everyday experience. For
example, children can talk about people who are traveling, or who live somewhere else, like
Grandma in Florida. They can also talk about or draw places they visited, as well as create
new scenes and creatures from their imagination. Children can also use their mental images
of things to "play school" or to "play house."

Even though children in the Preoperational Stage have gained new cognitive skills,
Piaget suggests that their thinking is rather rigid, limited to one aspect of a situation at a time,
and strongly influenced by a item's appearance. This style of thinking, according to Piaget,
leads to characteristic errors. For example, Preoperational children have not developed the
mental abilities of Conservation and Transformation.

Conservation is a person's ability to understand that certain physical characteristics of

objects remain the same, even if their appearance has changed. To demonstrate the
concept of Conservation, Piaget showed young children two identical cups filled with
identical volumes of water (reaching to the same measuring line). Preoperational youth
agreed the cups had the same amount of liquid in them. Piaget proceeded to pour the liquid
from one of the original cups into a wide, short cup. Then, he poured the liquid from the second
original cup into a tall, narrow cup. When he asked Preoperational kids which cup had more
liquid, they chose the taller cup. To these children, the taller cup looked like it had more
volume even though the same amount of fluid filled both cups.

The concept of conservation can apply to number as well. For example, according to
Piaget, a Preoperational child will not understand that rearranging six keys to make a different

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formation (e.g., spreading them out or moving them closer together) does not change the
number of items present.

Transformation is a person's ability to understand how certain physical characteristics

change while others remain the same in a logical, cause and effect sequence. According to
Piaget, Preoperational Children do not readily understand how things can change from one
form to another. To demonstrate this concept, Piaget first showed young children two 1-inch
round balls of clay. Then, he presented the children with one 1-inch round ball of clay and one
1-inch ball of clay squished flat. A young person in the Preoperational stage would not
understand that the flat ball had been round before and was squished to make its new shape.

Piaget also believed that Preoperational children have a style of thinking characterized
by Egocentrism, or the inability to see the world someone else's point of view. According to
Piaget, children with Egocentrism explain situations from their own perspective and
understanding. Preoperational children also have a hard time understanding why banging on
pots and pans or playing with a musical toy could increase their mother's headache when
they're having so much fun.

According to Piaget, children in the Preoperational stage also believe that things are
alive or have human characteristics because they grow or move, a style of thinking called
Animism. For example, children may talk about cars like animals, as if they're growling or that
they're hungry. Similarly, young children may blame chairs or toys for causing them to fall or
trip. Finally, Piaget believes that children under the age of 4 don't have the ability to organize
things into hierarchical categories. In other words, young children are unable to group items
in larger sub-groups and smaller sub-groups based on similarities and differences.

Contemporary developmental psychologists now believe that most children in Western

cultures achieve conservation of number, length, mass and liquid between 6 and 7 years,
even though conservation of weight may not occur until ages 8 through 10. Preoperational
children often display egocentric thought, but, particularly toward the end of this stage, this
style of thinking is not universal across all times and situations. Psychologists also think that
animism is a way that children express their imagination and process how objects really work
in a fashion that's easy for them to understand. Most children know that inanimate objects
really aren't alive.

Intuitive Thinking

The next sub-stage in Piaget's Preoperational cognitive development stage is the

Intuitive Thought sub-stage, which spans ages 4-7 years. Children in this substage of

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development learn by asking questions such as, "Why?" and "How come?" Piaget labeled this
"intuitive thought" because he believed that children at this stage tend to be so certain of their
knowledge and understanding that they are unaware of how they gained this knowledge in
the first place (i.e., knowing by intuition).

https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child-development-parenting-early-3-7/article/12758-early-childhood-cognitive-
development-symbolic-function

Language Development of Preschoolers

Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech.
As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases
(morphology, semantics, pragmatics).

Ages 3-5 years

*Content supplied by raisingchildren.net.au.

Speech is the ability to produce the sounds that form words. Language is the words that your
child understands and uses as well as how they uses them.

Stages of speech and language development

In their fourth year, your child might:

• begin to use more complex sentences that include words like ‘because’, ‘so’, ‘if’ and ‘when’
– for example, ‘I don’t like that because it’s yucky’
• be able to name basic emotions like ‘happy’, ‘sad’ and ‘angry’
• know one or more colours
• be able to use contrasting concepts like ‘longer’ and ‘bigger’.
By five years, your child might:

• begin to use many different sentence types – for example, they’ll be able to say both ‘The
dog was chasing the cat’ and ‘The cat was chased by the dog’

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• be able to use long sentences – for example, nine words

• talk about things that have happened in the past or will happen in the future, rather than just
things that are happening right now
• use words to explain things going on in their brain, like ‘don’t know’ and ‘remember’
• use words that explain where things are, like ‘between’, ‘above’, ‘below’ and ‘top’.

Understanding and language development

Your child will understand instructions that have more than two steps, as long as they’re
about familiar things – for example, ‘Turn off the TV, put on your pyjamas and get into bed’
or ‘When I open the gate, take my hand, then we’ll walk down to the corner’.

When your child doesn’t understand what you say, they might ask you to explain or ask you
what specific words mean.

Play, communication and language development

Your child will begin to use language to tease and tell jokes. They might laugh at silly or
made-up words. And at this age, your child will begin to use language in role play. For
example, they can pretend to be ‘mummy’ and copy their mother’s tone and words.

By now, your child will be able to do some simple negotiation with other children. For
example, they’ll be able to talk about who can play with a toy first. Their requests might also
be less direct and obvious. For example, they might say, ‘That smells good!’ when they wants
something to eat.

Ideas to help your preschooler’s speech and language development

The best way to encourage your child’s language skills is to focus on fun activities, rather
than getting pronunciation or grammar right. Here are some ideas:

• When you talk with your child, respond to your child’s interests. If your preschooler is
interested a cat they sees on the footpath, take a moment to talk about it.
• Read aloud together. You could also try taking your child to story time at your local library
where they can listen to stories being read.

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• Tell stories together: your child will enjoy hearing stories. They’ll also like remembering and
telling you simple stories. Leaving out words in stories and asking your preschooler to fill in the
words is fun too.
• Sing songs together.
• Play stories and songs in the car.
• Tell simple jokes and riddles. Preschoolers usually enjoy simple word games like finding
rhyming words and even making up words.

https://www.education.vic.gov.au/parents/child-development/Pages/preschoolers-speech-
language.aspx#:~:text=Ideas%20to%20help%20your%20preschooler's,getting%20pronunciation%20or%20grammar%20right.&text=Leaving%20
out%20words%20in%20stories,Sing%20songs%20together.

Application:
Explain: “There are children playing in the street who could solve some of my top problems in
physics, because they have modes of sensory perception that I lost long ago”
– J. Robert Oppenheimer
Summary of the Lesson:

Piaget suggested that Intuitive Thinking children show a style of thinking he called
"Centration". These children typically hone in on one characteristic of someone or something,
and base their decisions or judgment on that one characteristic (rather than considering
multiple characteristics). For example, a 4 yr. old who was asked to put blocks into groups
might focus his or her attention on the color of the blocks instead of the shape or the material
from which they are constructed. De-centering, combined with the concept of conservation
(described above) are prerequisites to more sophisticated logical thinking abilities.

Children in the Intuitive Thought substage also show many advances in cognitive skills.
For example, young children shift from depending on magical beliefs to using rational beliefs
to explain situations or events that they haven't encountered before. Very young children may
explain that a new house "grew out of the ground," while older children understand that
human beings put boards, bricks, and other materials together to build it.
Another large gain during this sub-stage is the ability to comprehend dual relationships.
Children now understand that something can be both an object itself as well as a symbol for
something else. For example, a stuffed toy dog is a fun, furry toy as well as a representation of
living and toy dogs in general.

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Assessment:
Describe the behaviors to illustrate the preschooler’s:
1. Animism
2. Egocentrism
3. Centration
4. Lack of conservation
5. Irreversibility
6. Transductive reasoning

Enrichment Activity:
Defend your stand:
Does preschooler matter? Doesn’t preschool rob the child of his irretrievable childhood?
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing
https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child-development-parenting-early-3-
7/article/12758-early-childhood-cognitive-development-symbolic-function;Date
Retrieved, August 2, 2020
https://www.education.vic.gov.au/parents/child-development/Pages/preschoolers-speech-
language.aspx#:~:text=Ideas%20to%20help%20your%20preschooler's,getting%20pronu
nciation%20or%20grammar%20right.&text=Leaving%20out%20words%20in%20stories,Sin
g%20songs%20together.;Date Retrieved, August 2, 2020

Module 20: Socio-Emotional Development of the Preschooler

Lesson Objectives:

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At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:

✓ Explain Erikson’s “crisis” of early childhood, initiative versus guilt.
✓ Describe the stages of play and how it impacts socio-emotional development.
Getting Started (Optional):
Question:
Were the children playing on their own or alone even when they were with others?
Discussion:
Big Ideas on Preschoolers’ Socio-Emotional Development
• The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.
• A heathy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with others.
• Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
• Preschoolers’ social development is shown through the stages of play.
• The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers’ socio-
emotional development.
• Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.

Preschoolers’ Initiative
Erikson’s view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes that happen
during the preschool years. Preschoolers deal with the psychological conflict of initiative vs.
guilt. Erikson believed that healthy preschoolers develop initiative, the tendency of
preschoolers to want to take action and assert themselves. They will learn to create, invent,
pretend, take risks and engage in lively and imaginative activities with peers. When parents,
teachers and other adult support these attempts and provide a stimulating environment., the
preschoolers’ sense of initiative will grow. On the other hand, if the adults show overprotection,
extreme restriction and criticisms, the preschooler will develop guilt.

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Parents’ Stages of Play

Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As the
preschoolers develop, social interactions with playmates increases. Mildred Parten, in the
1930’s did a study in children’s play behavior which led to Parten’s stages of play. The stages
describe the stages of play development of children and the gradual increase of social
interaction as they go through these stages.

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https://www.google.com/search?q=parten%27s+stages+of+play&sxsrf=ALeKk01lvn6N7pQdCU3LBNwxBsCCAbcuPA:15982823
53699&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj6pcXfkbTrAhVJeXAKHbTmAGkQ_AUoAXoECA4QAw&biw=1242&bih=568
#imgrc=S7DqsNBJnzzvdM

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Application:
Choose one idea from big ideas, explain and expound.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of the Lesson:
Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of
parents and teachers and preschool administrators say that attending preschool is more
“socialization” than for formal academic learning.
Preschooler discover their new roles outside their home. They become interested to
assert themselves as they relate with other people. A lot of very important social skills they will
learn during the preschool years will help them throughout life as adults. These skills can even
determine the individual’s later social adjustment and consequent quality of relationships in
adult life.
Assessment:
As a future teacher, how can you manage to interact with the preschoolers? What can you
contribute to their development socio-emotionally?
Enrichment Activity:
From the topic on the Socio-Emotional of the preschoolers, I realized
that______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Explain
why______________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

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https://www.google.com/search?q=parten%27s+stages+of+play&sxsrf=ALeKk01lvn6N7pQdC
U3LBNwxBsCCAbcuPA:1598282353699&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj6
pcXfkbTrAhVJeXAKHbTmAGkQ_AUoAXoECA4QAw&biw=1242&bih=568#imgrc=S7Dqs
NBJnzzvdM;Date Retrieved, August 3, 2020

Module 21: Middle Childhood (The primary Schooler)

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the student will be able to,
✓ Describe the different physical characteristics of early school-aged children in your
own words.
✓ Enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this module in the teaching-
learning process.
✓ Discuss several ways on how encourage an age-appropriate active physical lifestyle
to primary school children.

Getting Started (Optional):

Physical development involves many different factors: height, weight, appearance,
visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children undergo many different changes
as they go through this stage of development. This could be by different factors, both natural
and environmental.

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Discussion:
Growth and Physical Development

Middle childhood's slow, steady growth occurs until the onset of puberty, which occurs
late in middle childhood or in early adolescence. Children gain an average of 7 pounds in
weight, and 2 1/2 inches in height, per year. They have growth spurts, which are usually
accompanied by an increase in appetite and food intake. Conversely, a child's appetite and
food intake decrease during periods of slower growth.

Body composition and body shape remain relatively constant during middle childhood.
During preadolescence and early adolescence (9 to 11 years in girls; 10 to 12 years in boys),
the percentage of body fat increases in preparation for the growth spurt that occurs during
adolescence. This body fat increase occurs earlier in girls than in boys, and the amount of
increase is greater in girls. Preadolescents, especially girls, may appear to be "chunky," but this
is part of normal growth and development. During middle childhood, boys have more lean
body mass per inch of height than girls. These differences in body composition become more
significant during adolescence.

During middle childhood, children may become overly concerned about their physical
appearance. Girls especially may become concerned that they are overweight and may
begin to eat less. Parents should reassure their daughters that an increase in body fat during
middle childhood is part of normal growth and development and is probably not permanent.
Boys may become concerned about their stature and muscle size and strength.

During middle childhood, children's muscle strength, motor skills, and stamina increase.
Children acquire the motor skills necessary to perform complex movements, allowing them to
participate in a variety of physical activities.

A temporary decline in coordination and balance may occur during puberty because
of rapid growth. Some children may be unable to perform a physical activity as well as they
did the previous year. This can be frustrating for children, parents, and teachers, particularly if
they misinterpret this decline as a lack of skill or effort.

Early-maturing boys have a temporary physical advantage over other boys their age
because they are taller, heavier, and stronger. These boys usually achieve the most success in
physical activity programs (e.g., hockey, football, basketball), which may lead to unrealistic
expectations that they will continue to be outstanding athletes. Conversely, late-maturing
boys have a temporary physical disadvantage. These boys may achieve the most success in

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physical activities in which size is not important (e.g., racquet sports, martial arts, running,
wrestling).

For girls, the onset of puberty is associated with an increase in body fat that may result
in a decline in physical activity performance. Girls, parents, and teachers need to understand,
and girls need to accept, the physical changes of puberty, because attempts to prevent
these changes can lead to dieting or eating disorders. In addition, the increase in body fat
and decrease in muscle flex may result in less fluid movements during the growth spurt and
may increase the risk of overuse injuries in girls. Girls entering puberty are at particularly high
risk for dropping out of physical activities, making anticipatory guidance particularly important
to encourage continued participation.

https://www.brightfutures.org/physicalactivity/mc/1.html

Gross Motor Skills Development

During middle childhood, children continue to build on and improve gross motor skills;
the large-scale body movement skills such as walking and running that they first learned during
earlier developmental stages. In general, boys develop these skills slightly faster than do girls,
except for skills involving balance and precise movements such as skipping, jumping and
hopping.

At this age, children run faster than previously possible, often clocking more than
eighteen feet per second. They can also jump higher (on average between four and twelve
inches off the ground) and farther (on average, three to five feet or more). These figures are
average for children of this age range and will not apply to individual children. No two children
will develop physical skills in exactly the same pattern or time frame. Caregivers who have
concerns about how their children's gross motor skills are developing should consult with their
pediatrician.

Middle-Childhood-aged children also refine their control over gross motor skills, learning
to master where they hop, skip, throw, and jump. They are able to gain this improved control
and coordination due to increases in their flexibility (e.g., their range of movement in joints and
muscles), balance, and agility (e.g., their ability to change their body's position, which requires
a combination of balance, coordination, speed, reflexes, and strength) Kids at this age also
learn how to synchronize the movement of their body's various parts, allowing for the
development of smoother, more coordinated whole-body movement routines such as are
needed for participating in organized sports (e.g., throwing a football, batting a baseball, or

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dribbling a basketball). Due to their progress with regard to the growth and maturity of motor,
cognitive, and social skills, many children will now become capable and competitive
participants on sports teams.

Fine Motor Skills Development

Children in middle childhood also continue to hone their fine motor skills which can be
distinguish from gross motor skills in that they require hand-eye coordination. In contrast to how
gross motor skills develop, girls tend to develop fine motor skills slightly faster than do boys.

Specifically, middle-childhood-aged children show dramatic improvements with regard

to their printed handwriting and ability to write in cursive letters (e.g., "script" forms of
handwriting). They also develop the ability to draw complex and detailed pictures that for the
first time begin to incorporate depth cues (i.e., such as drawing farther away objects smaller)
and 3D elements. Often, children's artistic ability can truly begin to shine during this stage as
improved fine motor skills and imagination combine.

During this stage, children also learn how to use their hands to successfully accomplish
manual activities other than drawing or writing. For instance, they become capable of
executing complex detail-oriented craft projects involving beading, sewing, scrap booking,
building models, and good at using simple tools such a hammer or a hand mixer (both under
adult supervision, we hope!). Learning to touch type becomes a serious possibility at this time.
Children also commonly become quite skillful at playing complicated games involving hand-
eye coordination, including video and computer games.

Children's easy use of communications tools such as cell phones and computers, which
becomes possible as they master increasingly complex fine motor skills, exposes them to a
world much larger and more complicated than they can possibly imagine. Parents need to
be aware of both the positive and negative potential effects of allowing children of this age
to play video games and access the Internet. Please refer to our article on Children and
Media for further discussion of this serious issue, including a clear explanation of the dangers
and opportunities associated with children's use of media and strategies for protecting them
from media's worst influences.

https://www.gracepointwellness.org/1272-child-development-theory-middle-childhood-8-11/article/37676-physical-development-motor-
development#:~:text=During%20middle%20childhood%2C%20children%20continue,learned%20during%20earlier%20developmental%20st
ages.

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Application:
What are the general physical characteristics of children in the primary school-age?
1._______________________________________________________________________________
2._______________________________________________________________________________
3._______________________________________________________________________________

Summary of the Lesson:

For females, most physical growth is completed by 2 years after menarche. (The mean
age of menarche is 12 1/2 years.) Males begin puberty about 2 years later than females.
Before puberty, there are no significant differences between boys and girls in height, weight,
strength, endurance, and motor skill development. Therefore, throughout middle childhood,
boys and girls can participate in physical activity on an equal basis. Late-maturing children,
who have a prolonged period of prepubertal growth, usually have longer limbs than other
children and often attain greater height.

Assessment:
What are the factors affecting physical development?

Enrichment Activity:
Compare the motor skills of a preschooler child with a primary school-age child.

Preschool Child Primary School-Age Child

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Fine Motor Skills

Gross Motor Skills
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

https://www.brightfutures.org/physicalactivity/mc/1.html; Date Retrieved, August 4, 2020

https://www.gracepointwellness.org/1272-child-development-theory-middle-childhood-8-
11/article/37676-physical-development-motor-
development#:~:text=During%20middle%20childhood%2C%20children%20continue,learned%2
0during%20earlier%20developmental%20stages., Date Retrieved, August 4, 2020

Module 21: Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:
✓ Describe the characteristics of children in the concrete operational stage.
✓ Explain the importance of information-processing skills and how they affect the child’s
cognitive development.
✓ State the different cognitive milestones in primary schoolers.

Discussion:
Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage

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Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It

spans from age 7 to approximately 11 years old. During this time, children have better
understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically about concrete events,
particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem solving.
✓ Logic
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use
of inductive logic. Inductive logic, involves thinking from a specific experience to
a general principle. But at this stage, children have great difficulty including
deductive logic or beginning with a general principle leading to specific event.
✓ Reversibility
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding
of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is
being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. (for
example in arithmetic, 3 + 4 =7 and 7 – 4 =3)

Cognitive Milestones

Problem-solving skills and thinking skills develop a lot at this age. Kids may also start to pay
more attention to decision making and to organizing ideas, time, and things.

Middle-schoolers often:

• Start to understand concepts like power and influence

• Question things and don’t take everything at face value
• Think about how current actions affect the future and may worry about things like
climate change and war
• Memorize information more easily
• Use flexible thinking, like checking work and changing approaches as needed
• Begin developing a worldview and a basic set of values
• Want to contribute and make their own money

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Language Milestones
In middle school, language skills typically develop much more quickly than they did the past
few years. You might notice that your child can better understand what people
communicate—with or without words.

In middle school, kids often:

• Use metaphors, slang, text speak, and other ways of talking

• Are interested in having discussions, debates, and arguments (sometimes just for the
sake of it)
• Start to “get” and pay more attention to body language, tone of voice, and
other nonverbal language cues
• Go through “what if” scenarios and talk through other ways of problem solving
• Continue to build grammar knowledge and vocabulary
• Start to use writing to describe personal experiences

Application:
Observe a primary schooler and take down notes on the following areas of cognitive
development.
a. Language and speech
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
b. Reasoning
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
c. Creativity
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of the Lesson:

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Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist on cognitive development. According to him,

intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations between the person
and the environment. Everything that a person experience is a continuous process of
assimilations and accommodations. Piaget described four main periods in cognitive
development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is not the same at different stages.

Assessment:
Analysis: Jacob loves reading comic book series of superheroes. Which cognitive
characteristics is shown here?
a. They can read more words or combination of words.
b. Their attention span is longer, hence, they are more involved in serial stories.
c. Their reading orientation is correct-starting from left to right; up to down.
d. Jacob is an emergent reader.
Enrichment Activity:
To ensure that you are promoting your students’ cognitive well-being, ask your self the
following questions:
1. Do I acknowledge that my students have different levels of intelligence?
2. Do I prepare properly for my lessons to accommodate these different levels of
intelligence?
3. Do I motivate my students enough to read every day to improve their vocabulary and
language?
4. Do I offer my students different activities for different intelligence?

References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

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https://www.google.com/search?q=Jean+Piaget&sxsrf=ALeKk00HVYIuIvcYzd98L18X4rubN4d
gVg:1598365523329&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjV1_TJx7brAhWB-
2EKHYT-
BngQ_AUoAXoECCAQAw&biw=1242&bih=568#imgrc=SQ2OXTGuy1Y8qM;Date
Retrieved, August 4, 2020

Lesson 22: Socio-Emotional Development of Primary Schoolers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
✓ Identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged children in this stage of
development.
✓ Discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional growth of the primary-
schoolers.

Getting Started (Optional):

The developmental theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of man’s
“psychosocial crisis” which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be
achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages. Here,
children have to resolve the issue on Industry vs. Inferiority.

Discussion:
Erik Erikson’s fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development

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Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in this
stage. Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long, patient work is
demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a feeling of
failure when they cannot finish or master their school work.
In this stage, children mist likely, have begun going to school. School experiences
become the priority, with children so busy doing school work. The encouragement of parents
and caring educators helps to build a child’s sense of self-esteem, confidence and ability to
interact positively in the world.

Understanding the Self

One’s self-concept is the knowledge about the self, such as beliefs regarding
personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles.
It also involves a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good and a sense of
being capable of doing good.
Having a healthy self -concept does not mean that a child thinks he/she is better than
others. It means that he/she likes himself/herself, feels accepted by his/her family and friends
and believe that she/he can do well.
School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become
increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social interactions. They are not
focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of others. The
issues of fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for people
who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and reliability are being
considered as well as responsibility and kindness.

Building Friendships
Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children’s social and emotional
growth. As soon as they are able to walk and talk, they will tend to show natural inclination
to be around the other children.

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Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group. Peer groups are
characterized by children are belong approximately to the same age group. It is found
along same age group. It is found along the stages of childhood through adolescence. But
for children, until the age of seven or eight, they think of themselves more than others. They
may play well with groups but may need some time to play alone.
Self Control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability to do thing
and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive feedback from their parents
and teachers. This becomes a great opportunity for parents and teachers to encourage
positive emotional responses from children by acknowledging their mature, compassionate
behaviors.
Application:
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will you help these learners
cope with their socio-emotional difficulties?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Dear Teacher,
I am really heart-broken. My 8 year old daughter is feeling lonely, isolated and
friendless. It seems that she ha s felt this way for quite a while. She says that she mostly
spends time alone-that she has no friends because no one wants to play with her.
She tags along, but is usually left out eventually. She can become angry if things
don’t know where to turn to help her the thought that she finds school so painful is
heartbreaking.

Sincerely,
Worried Mother

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Summary of the Lesson:

A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do

(From the Philippine Early Learning Standards, ECCD Council, 2010)

Emotional Expressions

Expression of Basic Emotions

37-48 months
1. Expresses what he/she likes
2. Expresses what he/she dislikes
3. Can talk about difficult feelings (e.g., anger, sadness, worry) he/she experiences
Self-regulation of feelins/emotion
1. Willing to try something in order to learn more even if unsure of a successful outcome.
2. Persevers when faced with challenging or new tasks
4. Accepts defeat well; is not a sore loser
5. May have some fears but is not overly fearful, anxious or nervous
6. May feel sad at times but no to the point where he/she is depressed
Display of Self-Appraisal Emotions (shame, pride, guilt)
1. Plays to learn a game
2. Plays to gain mastery of a game
3. Shows pleasure and enjoyment over his/her successful attempts or efforts
4. Confidently joins small groups especially if situation is competitive
5. Seeks assistance from an adult or child to solve a problem

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Receptivity to Other’s emotion Receptivity to emotions and having empathy

37-48 months
1. feels other’s distress and acts appropriately (e.g., helps, comforts, gives, suggestions, etc.)
Emerging sense of self
Knowledge of Self and Basic Roles of People in his/her Environment
Talks about parts of the body and their functions
1. Talks about own specific abilities and characteristics (e.g., sings, dances, is helpful,
studious, etc.)
2. Describes what primary caregiver can do, what they like and don’t like
3. Defends possessions with determinations
4. Can give reasons or justify why he/she acted the way he/she did
Forming Attachments
1. Shows preferences for the company of significant adults and children (other than the
primary caregiver) over unfamiliar adults and children
Interactions with Other Children
1. Plays with 2 or 3 children using the same play equipment
2. Participates in games with other children but plays in his own way
3. Chats/converses with other children
4. Takes turns and shares toys with others
5. Actively participates in classroom and group routines
6. Plays organized group games fairly
Interaction with Adults
36-48 months
1. Verbalizes feelings related to events that arise in classroom, home, and environment in a
positive way

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2. Speaks respectfully with adults using “po” and “opo” and/or appropriate titles
3. Recognizes the importance of adult’s ideas and experiences by listening and asking
questions when they share these
4. Clarifies rules and routines before abiding them
5. Shares personal perspective when he/she does not agree with or see the value of a rule or
routine
6. Can take on another person’s viewpoint
Pakiramdam (Sensitivity)
1. Knows when to stop asking questions or when he/she is being “makulit”
2. Cooperates to minimize conflicts or tension
Appreciating Diversity
1. Asks questions that indicate he/she notices differences in socio-emotional status
2. Asks questions about new/different words (dialects) and practices in the community
3. Talks about gender differences and roles
4. Regards everyone respectfully, using proper titles/labels, and does not resort to name-
calling
5.Willing to make friends with other children and adults in different situations and locations
(e.g., schools, neighborhood)

The Role of Caregivers in the Socio-emotional development of the Preschooler

From the discussion above one can see the very important role that parents and teachers
play in the socio-emotional development of the preschooler. The following tips are given to
caregivers (Parents and Teachers):
1. Greet each child with his or her names each day. Be sincere and respectful to each child.
2. Read storybooks that deal about friendships and different feelings.

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
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3. Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working together and getting
along
4. Help children learn to make rules play simple games by providing opportunities for them to
play in small groups.
5. Play games that involve social interaction and team work.
6. Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him/her to request, bargain,
negotiate, and apologize.
7. Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving them words that they
can use to express how they feel. “ I can see you are SAD about your pet, ANGRY at your
sister ….”
8. Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express feelings
appropriately
9. Acknowledge how the child feels. For example. One can say, “Nalulungkot ka dahil hindi
ka makakasama sa party.” (You seem sad that you did not go to the party). When we do
this, we are able to model to the preschooler that it is important to listen and that having
feelings, even negative ones, are okay.
10. Catch children doing good. Affirm the efforts they make to accomplish something. Be
specific in your praise. Do not just say, “Good job” or “Very Good.” Instead say, “When I saw
you pack-away your toys, I felt really happy. Remember to always pack-away.”
11. Read storybooks that deals about friendship
12. For teachers, develop routines that encourage working together and getting along.

Assessment:
Application and Explain you answer- In Erik Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial
development, children will have to balance industry vs. inferiority so they can achieve the
virtue of competency. What can parents do to help them attain this?
a. Allow the children to explore what they want and provide them with
opportunities.

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
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b. Make them busy with school work even when they are at home.
c. Enroll the children in several after school enrichment classes.
d. Demand excellent performance from children.
Enrichment Activity:
Analysis – Which results when children have a strong sense of their personality traits/
a. They become more successful than others.
b. They think they are better than others.
c. They like and believe in themselves and feel accepted.
d. They will always be winners.
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

Learning Module on [The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles]
The Child and Adolescent learners
and Learning Principles
Learning Module No. 3
#

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:

PROFESSOR
Name: NEIL PEREZ-ALIGAM
Academic Department: DASTE
Consultation Schedule:
Email Address: [email protected]
Contact Number: 09354800002

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 LEARNING MODULE INFORMATION
I. Course Code EDUC101
II. Course Title The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
III. Module Number 03
IV. Module Title Revisiting the 14-Learner-Centered Psychological Principles in
Relation to the Learner's Developmental Stage
V. Overview of the Module The 14-Learner-Centered Psychological Principles are
revisited in relation to the learner’s developmental stage

VI. Module Outcomes • Apply pedagogical principles in the development

process during pre-natal period
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for infants and toddlers
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for preschoolers.
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for primary school children
• Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching
appropriate for intermediate school children
Apply pedagogies of learning and teaching appropriate for high
school learners
VII. General Instructions • You must allot the necessary time to complete the
lessons each week. If you choose not to complete the
lesson using the schedule provided, you must
understand that it is your full responsibility to complete
them by the last day of completion. Time is of the
essence.
The module is designed to assess student understanding of the
assigned lessons found within the associated content of the prelim,
midterm, and final period of the course.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 1

Lesson 21: Physical Development of the Intermediate Schoolers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:
✓ Identify the different physical characteristics of intermediate schoolers.
✓ Discuss ways and practices which will and children in successfully developing
physically.

Getting Started (Optional):

Late childhood is generally defined as ages 9 through 12. Others, may call this stage as
preteens. Physical changes during this stage is fairly unpredictable among children in this
age group.
The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage, especially with
their increasing familiarity with school work and other possible activities provide them with a
greater opportunity to develop their motor skill functioning.

Discussion:
Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they have when they
were in primary school. They become more active and have greater liberty to choose the
hobbies or sports that they want to get involved in.
Early Puberty
On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in terms of
physical maturity, although these developments may be determined by how close a child is
to puberty. Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for girls -which is the initial sign of
puberty. Some girls may also start with their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late
as 13.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Height, weight and Muscle Development

During the late childhood, a child’s weight on average, may be 2.3 to 3.2 kilograms
per year. Weight increases was mainly due to the increase in size of skeletal and mascular
systems as well as several organs. An average of 2 ½ inches in height and an average of an
inch in head circumference each year. Children during this stage may experience growth
spurts – sudden boosts in height and weight, which are usually accompanied by increase in
appetite and food intake.

Girls appear to be “chubby” while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch
Of height than girls. These are all normal part of development. These differences in body
composition become more significant during adolescence.
Motor Skills
During this age, movements or the muscles and bones become more coordinated. At
the age of 10 or 11 years, most children will have learned to play sports like swimming,
basketball, volleyball and running. These physical skills become a source of pleasure and great
achievement to the children. In activities that use large muscle activities, boys tend to be more
active than girls.
Although a significant increase in physical activity may occur in this stage, children in
their late childhood is far from being physically mature. They become overwhelmed when
sitting or standing too long than when running, jumping or playing actively. This is because
they need time to refine their skills so they prefer active than passive movements.
Application:
Choose and Explain your answer: Children in the intermediate school age may experience
early signs of puberty. How can parents best handle a simulation like this?
a. Encourage them to mingle with the opposite sex.
b. Be on the look-out for physical changes and report them to their
children’s pediatrician.
c. Connect with their friends and ask them to tell you what changes are
happening to their children.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 3

d. Provide children with accurate resources that they need to be able to

gain information about sex, drugs, and changes that they experience.
Summary of the Lesson:

For girls

• Her breasts begin to develop.

• She gets hair in her armpits, on her legs, and on her pubic area.
• She has her first menstrual period.

• She may develop acne.

For boys

• His testicles and penis increase in size.

• He gets hair in his armpits, on his face, and on his pubic area.

• He develops a small amount of breast tissue.

• His voice deepens.

• His muscles strengthen.

• He may develop acne.

Assessment:
To ensure that you are promoting your students’ physical well-being, ask yourself the
following questions: Do I understand that each child undergoes physical development at
different stages?
1. Do I appreciate the different physical changes in both girls and boys?
2. Do I maintain a healthy body that my students can get inspiration from?

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Enrichment Activity:
As a future teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate school children
develop physically?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

https://familydoctor.org/for-parents-what-to-expect-when-your-child-goes-through-
puberty/;Date Retreived, August 4, 2020

Lesson 22: Cognitive Development of the Intermediate Schoolers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
✓ Examine the cognitive characteristics of intermediate school children.
✓ Discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development of intermediate
school children.
✓ Enumerate ways on how teachers can promote creativity in the learning environment,
learning activities and instructional materials.

Getting Started (Optional):

Since children in this stage are already in their late childhood, rapid development of
mental skills is evident. According to jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now
organize thoughts effectively. Although, they can only logically perceive the intermediate

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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situation. They can apply what they have learned to situations and events that they can
manipulate.
Thus, their reasoning and logical thinking are is still very limited. But with their proper
guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the community, these
children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavors.

Discussion:
Reading Development
Children in this stage is marked by wide application of “Word Attack” .
Word Attack Strategies
Word-attack strategies help students decode, pronounce, and understand unfamiliar
words. They help students attack words piece by piece or from a different angle. Model
and instruct students:

Use Picture Clues

• Look at the pictures.
• Are there people, objects, or actions in the picture that might make sense in the
sentence?
Sound out the Word
• Start with the first letter, and say each letter-sound out loud.
• Blend the sounds together and try to say the word. Does the word make sense in
the sentence?
Look for Chunks in the Word
• Look for familiar letter chunks. They may be sound/symbols, prefixes, suffixes,
endings, whole words, or base words.
• Read each chunk by itself. Then blend the chunks together and sound out the
word. Does the word make sense in the sentence?

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Connect to a Word You Know

• Think of a word that looks like the unfamiliar word.
• Compare the familiar word to the unfamiliar word. Decide if the familiar word is
a chunk or form of the unfamiliar word.
• Use the known word in the sentence to see if it makes sense. If so, the meaning of
the two words are close enough for understanding.
Reread the Sentence
• Read the sentence more than once.
• Think about what word might make sense in the sentence. Try the word and see
if the sentence make sense.
Keep Reading
• Read past the unfamiliar ward and look for clues.
• If the word is repeated, compare the second sentence to the first. What word
might make sense in both?
Use Prior Knowledge
• Think about what you know about the subject of the book, paragraph, or sentence.
• Do you know anything that might make sense in the sentence? read the sentence
with the word to see if it makes sense.

http://www.dps.k12.oh.us/content/documents/wordattack1.pdf

Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to younger
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required y the given task. In
terms of school work, older children can concentrate and focus more long periods of hours
especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Creativity
Children at this stage is open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in children, they
just need a little guidance and support from parents, teachers and people around them.
They are usually at their best when the work is done in small pieces.
The Impact of media
It was considered as one of the first advancement in school. The impact of the use of
television and computer has gained popularity because the students are given more
opportunity to:
• Communicate effectively in speech and in writing;
• Work collaboratively;
• Use technological tools’
• Analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for achieving those goals; and
• Seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals.
Application:
Write the definitions of the following words based on how you understood them.
1. “reading to Learn” stage in reading development
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Attention span
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Creativity
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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Summary of the Lesson:

Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now
utilize more effectively as compared to their thinking skills during their primary years. Their
school work are now more complicated, reading texts have become longer, problem solving
has become an everyday part of their lives.
Children now is more on connecting themselves with their environment. They explore in
such a way that they are also enjoying it. In this way, each of them can easily show off and
even discover their own strengths and weaknesses.
Assessment:
Choose your answer and analyze: When children tell you what they want to be in the future,
which is the appropriate to response?
a. “Don’t be ambitious, be realistic”.
b. “Don’t you think it’s still too early for you too plan your future?”
c. “That’s nice. But I want you to become someone better.”
d. “I’m so happy to hear that. I will support you all the way.”
Enrichment Activity:
Ask the questions to your self and reflect (Imagine that you are already a teacher):
1. Do I provide concrete experiences for my students learning?
2. Do I use technology wisely to engage my students in practicing their skills?
3. Do I recognize that the students at this age will sometimes test the rules, regulations
and authority?

References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 9

http://www.dps.k12.oh.us/content/documents/wordattack1.pdf;Date Retrieved, August 5,

2020

Lesson 23: Socio-Emotional Development of the Intermediate Schoolers

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:
✓ Identify the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late childhood stage.
✓ Determine the qualities of family life that affect older children’s development including
changes in family interactions.

Getting Started (Optional):

At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending less time in the
home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or with other children.
They are already familiarized themselves with other children. They are already used to
interacting with different ages and gender. For many of them, these social networks are not
sources of social support but also different forms of learning.

Discussion:
Understanding Self Competence, Self-Identity and Self-Concept
Self-Competence
Self-competence, self-concept, and self-efficacy are all constructs used to study self-
perceptions. Although the terms are often used interchangeably in the literature, the formal
distinctions lie in how specific the ability is that the students are supposed to rate themselves
on. Self-concept, a term associated with Rosenberg (1965), Shavelson (1976), and Marsh

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 10

(1990), is the most global of the three terms. When rating self-concept, a student might be
asked to describe his academic ability in general. Self-concept includes feelings of
competence, feelings of difficulty, and affect. This construct has often been criticized for being
too global to be directly related to actual achievement (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003). In response
to this, self-concept has moved from a more global construct to one that is domain specific
(e.g. reading, math, art, and science self-concepts) in recent years.
Self-competence is a term developed by Susan Harter (1982). It generally refers to
perceptions of ability in broad academic areas, such as how good of a student one is in
general. Self-competence may also refer to perceived ability in subject areas as a whole. This
makes the definition very similar to self-concept. However, while self-concept also addresses
students’ beliefs about academic difficulties and student affect, self-competence refers only
to their perceptions related to success.
Self-Identity
Self-identity refers to stable and prominent aspects of one’s self-perception (e.g., ‘I think
of myself as a green consumer’; Sparks & Shepherd, 1992). Researchers have added the
concept of self-identity to the theory of planned behaviour in studies that explain organic food
consumption choices. One of the first studies in this area found that people who more strongly
identified as green consumers had stronger intentions to buy organic vegetables (Sparks &
Shepherd, 1992). The self-identity concept added significantly to the prediction of intentions,
over and above attitudes, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control.
Self-Concept
Self-concept is generally thought of as our individual perceptions of our behavior,
abilities, and unique characteristics—a mental picture of who you are as a person.1 For
example, beliefs such as "I am a good friend" or "I am a kind person" are part of an overall self-
concept.
Self-concept tends to be more malleable when people are younger and still going
through the process of self-discovery and identity formation. As people age, self-perceptions
become much more detailed and organized as people form a better idea of who they are
and what is important to them.
According to the book Essential Social Psychology by Richard Crisp and Rhiannon
Turner:

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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The individual self consists of attributes and personality traits that differentiate us from
other individuals. Examples include introversion or extroversion.
The relational self is defined by our relationships with significant others. Examples include
siblings, friends, and spouses.
The collective self reflects our membership in social groups. Examples include British,
Republican, African-American, or gay.

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-concept-
2795865#:~:text=Self%2Dconcept%20is%20generally%20thought,of%20an%20overall%20self%2Dconcept.

School-Age Children and Social-Emotional Development

As a school-age staff member, part of your role is to observe and assess the children in
your care. You will accomplish this using a variety of developmental guidelines to support
children and their families. Because having a solid foundation of social-emotional
development is crucial for a child’s success in school and in life, it is important to observe
children in their learning environment.
When assessing a child’s social-emotional development, we will look at a variety of
components such as:
1. The Ability to Establish and Maintain Relationships
Relationships are the core of social-emotional development. A child’s ability to establish
and keep relationships is a very important aspect of their development. This is primarily seen in
a child’s ability to make and keep friends. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics,
friendships allow children to “broaden their horizons beyond the family unit, begin to
experience the outside world, form a self-image, and develop a social support system.”
Because relationships are so vital to a child’s social-emotional development, a lesson will be
dedicated to the topic later in this course.

2. The Ability to Manage Emotions

As children grow, they learn how to regulate their emotions and feelings. The emotional
surges we see in young children, such as crying when separating from their family or hitting
when they become frustrated, will begin to lessen as the children age. School-age children

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 12

will begin to have a better understanding of what emotions are and will be able to discuss
how they are feeling. Feeling of sympathy and empathy for others will also begin to develop.
3. The Ability to Cope with Stress
As adults, we know that stress can come from a variety of circumstances and can be
overwhelming if we don’t find a way to cope with it. You might cope with stress by going for
a walk, spending some time with friends, exercising, or taking some time for your favorite
hobby. Other ways adults cope with stress are deep breathing, meditation exercises, or visiting
a therapist or counselor. As adults, we know when a situation is causing too much stress and
can decide to use one of these methods to help alleviate the stressor. School-age children
are just learning how to identify and deal with stress in their lives. According to the American
Academy of Pediatrics, the following are the most common circumstances that cause school-
age children to worry:

Bucket of Stress
• Feeling sick
• Having nothing to do
• Not having enough money
• Feeling pressure to get good grades
• Feeling left out of a group of peers
• Not spending enough time with parents
• Not having homework done
• Not being good enough at sports
• Not being able to dress as desired
• Experiencing body changes
• Being late for school
• Being smaller than other children of the same age
• Having parents argue in front of them

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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• Not getting along with teachers

• Being overweight or bigger than other children of the same age
• Moving
• Changing schools
• Arguing with parents about rules in the family
• Adjusting to parents separating or divorcing
• Being pressured to try something they didn’t really want to (e.g., smoking)

https://www.virtuallabschool.org/school-age/social-emotional/lesson-2

Application:
Think that you are a parent now, what do you think are the factors which can affect
your daughter/son’s socio-emotional development? And how it can affect them.
a. ________________________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________________________
c. ________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of the Lesson:
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of development is the
acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to when he
described the developmental task of middle childhood – the social crisis industry versus
inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and meaningful “work”.
Assessment:
Choose your answer and explain your reason: How can parents ensure when it comes
to homework?
a. Assign a homework time and work on their homework together.
b. Let the children be responsible for their homework and just make corrections when
necessary.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 14

c. Do the homework for them and let them figure out why the answers are correct.
Enrichment:
Research on one of the topics below and find out how intermediate school-aged
children respond to one of the following events in life:
a. Death
b. Parents’ separation
c. Rejection from peers
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-concept-
2795865#:~:text=Self%2Dconcept%20is%20generally%20thought,of%20an%20overall%2
0self%2Dconcept.Date Retrieved, August 6, 2020

https://www.virtuallabschool.org/school-age/social-emotional/lesson-2; date retrieved,

August 6, 2020

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 15

Lesson 24: Physical Development of High School Learners

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic the students will be able to:
✓ Describe the physical and sexual changes accompanying puberty.
✓ Identify the psychological consequences of early and late physical maturation in
adolescence.
✓ Identify causes of possible habit disorders and ways of coping with them.

Getting Started (Optional):

Adolescence is a stage of human development that considers with puberty, a
biological development occurring at the average age of 11 for girls and 12 for boys. There
are factors which contribute to early puberty and delayed puberty. These factors include
heredity, diet, exercise and socio-environmental influence.

Discussion:
Defining Adolescence
Adolescence can be a time of both disorientation and discovery. The transitional period
can raise questions of independence and identity; as adolescents cultivate their sense of self,
they may face difficult choices about academics, friendship, sexuality, gender identity, drugs,
and alcohol.

Most teens have a relatively egocentric perspective on life; a state of mind that usually
abates with age. They often focus on themselves and believe that everyone else—from a best
friend to a distant crush—is focused on them too. They may grapple with insecurities and

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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feelings of being judged. Relationships with family members often take a backseat to peer
groups, romantic interests, and appearance, which teens perceive as increasingly important
during this time.
The transition can naturally lead to anxiety about physical development, evolving
relationships with others, and one's place in the larger world. Mild anxiety and other challenges
are typical, but serious mental health conditions also emerge during adolescence. Addressing
a disorder early on can help ensure the best possible outcome.

https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/basics/adolescence

Puberty Stages
First signs of puberty in girls
• The first sign of puberty in girls is usually that their breasts begin to develop.
• It's normal for breast buds to sometimes be very tender or for one breast to start to
develop several months before the other one.
• Pubic hair also starts to grow, and some girls may notice more hair on their legs and
arms.
Later signs of puberty in girls
After a year or so of puberty beginning, and for the next couple of years:
• girls' breasts continue to grow and become fuller
• around 2 years after beginning puberty, girls usually have their first period
• pubic hair becomes coarser and curlier
• underarm hair begins to grow – some girls also have hair in other parts of their body,
such as their top lip, and this is completely normal
• girls start to sweat more
• girls often get acne – a skin condition that shows up as different types of spots, including
whiteheads, blackheads and pus-filled spots called pustules
• girls have a white vaginal discharge

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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• girls go through a growth spurt – from the time their periods start, girls grow 5 to 7.5cm (2
to 3 inches) annually over the next year or two, then reach their adult height
• most girls gain weight (which is normal) as their body shape changes – girls develop
more body fat along their upper arms, thighs and upper back; their hips grow rounder
and their waist gets narrower
After about 4 years of puberty in girls
• breasts becomes adult-like
• pubic hair has spread to the inner thigh
• genitals should now be fully developed
• girls stop growing taller
First signs of puberty in boys
• the first sign of puberty in boys is usually that their testicles get bigger and the scrotum
begins to thin and redden
• pubic hair also starts to appear at the base of the penis
• Later signs of puberty in boys

After a year or so of puberty starting, and for the next couple of years:
• the penis and testicles grow and the scrotum gradually becomes darker (read more
about penis health)
• pubic hair becomes thicker and curlier
• underarm hair starts to grow
• boys start to sweat more
• breasts can swell slightly temporarily – this is normal and not the same as "man-boobs"
• boys may have "wet dreams" (involuntary ejaculations of semen as they sleep)
• their voice "breaks" and gets permanently deeper – for a while, a boy might find his
voice goes very deep one minute and very high the next

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
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• boys often develop acne – a skin condition that shows up as different types of spots,
including whiteheads, blackheads and pus-filled spots called pustules
• boys go through a growth spurt and become taller by an average of 7 to 8cms, or
around 3 inches a year, and more muscular
After about 4 years of puberty in boys
• genitals look like an adult's and pubic hair has spread to the inner thighs
• facial hair begins to grow and boys may start shaving
• boys get taller at a slower rate and stop growing completely at around 16 years of age
(but may continue to get more muscular)
• most boys will have reached full adult maturity by the age of 18.

https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/sexual-health/stages-of-puberty-what-happens-to-boys-and-girls/

Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is a part of our personality and in order or raise it we need to have a sense
of personal worth coming from those life challenges that demonstrate our success. Self-
esteem has two elements – self-knowledge and self-awareness.
It included the individual’s perceptions about their own strengths and weaknesses,
abilities, attitudes and values. Its development starts at birth and is constantly developing
under the influence of experience.
During different periods of human age the child realizes one or other side of their own
self. The child becomes aware of their skills and practical abilities first – motor skills, artistic
abilities, performing skills. Children start becoming aware of their personal traits at a
significantly later stage in life. The process starts when all moral and social benchmarks
for assessment have been acquired. That can be explained with the complexity and
ambiguity of results from the manifestation of personal qualities. Children become aware
of their personal peculiarities and traits in the communication process with adults and
peers. This process of self-awareness is the most active in adolescence.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326944270_Self-esteem_in_adolescents

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 19

Application:
Cite 5 big ideas from this topic, then give a reason why each of these ideas is important for
the positive growth or development of an adolescent.

Big Ideas Reasons

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Assessment:
As an adolescent person, write your own observation on the physical development of
yourself. And explain how it affects you.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of the Lesson:
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and socio-emotional
changes. The period of adolescence begins with the biological changes of puberty. The
specific ages for this period vary from person-to-person but a.) early adolescence
characterized by puberty may come within at the ages of 11 to 12 b.) middle adolescence
may meet identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16, and c.) late adolescence marks the
transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 20

Enrichment Activity:
Make a graphic or visual concept which shows the proper hygiene in caring oneself as
a person grows.

References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing
https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/basics/adolescence;Date Retrieved, August 6, 2020
https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/sexual-health/stages-of-puberty-what-happens-to-boys-and-
girls/; Date Retrieved, August 6, 2020
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326944270_Self-esteem_in_adolescents; Date
Retrieved, August 6, 2020

Lesson 25: Cognitive Development of High School Learners

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
✓ describe the cognitive development of adolescents in the light of Piaget’s and
Siegler’s cognitive development theories.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 21

✓ Explain the consequences of the adolescents’ cognitive development on their

behavior.

Getting Started (Optional):

Adolescence Is a time for rapid cognitive development. At this stage of the
development, there is a decrease in egocentric thoughts, while the individual’s thinking takes
more of an abstract form. This allows the individual think and reason in a wider perspective.
Behavioral studies also show the development of executive functions comprised by cognitive
functions that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior. Adolescence is
therefore a period of human development that has a great influence on the individual’s future
life through character and personality formation.

Discussion:
Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker
The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve and lasts into
adulthood. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an abstract
manner by manipulating ideas in their head, without any dependence on concrete
manipulation (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
Formal Operationinal thinking consists of:
1. Propositional Thinking – making assertions outside visual evidence, and stating what may
be possible in things not seen by the eyes.
2. Relativistic Thinking – subjectively making an opinion on facts – involving one’s own bias,
prejudice of distortion of facts – which may be either right or wrong.
3. Real versus possible – examining a situation and exploring the possible in terms of
situations or solutions.
For Piaget one indication of the presence of formal operational thinking is the ability of the
adolescent thinker for combinational analysis, which is his taking stock of the effects of several
variables in a situation, testing one variable at a time, and not randomly. An application of a
situation which requires combinational analysis is the school laboratory experiment where high

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 22

school students test chemical elements singly and in combination, resulting in an

understanding of chemical changes.

Siegler’s Information Processing Skills

In this regard, Siegler provides a broad perspective on thinking. He says that when
children perceive, encode, represent, and store information from the world, they are
en-gaging in thinking. Siegler believes that thinking is highly flexible, which allows individ-uals
to adapt and adjust to many changes in circumstances, task requirements, and goals.
However, there are some limits on the human's remarkable thinking abilities. Individuals can
pay attention to only a limited amount of information at any one moment, and there are limits
on how fast we can process information.
Change Mechanisms Siegler argues that in information processing the main focus
should be on the role of mechanisms of change in development. He believes that four main
mechanisms work together to create changes in children's cognitive skills; encoding,
automatization. strategy construction, and generalization (Siegler & Alibali, 2005).
Encoding is the process by which information gets into memory. Siegler states that a key
aspect of solving problems is to encode the relevant information and ignore the ir-relevant
parts. Because it often takes time and effort to construct new strategies, children must practice
them in order to eventually execute them automatically and maximize their effectiveness. The
term automaticity refers to the ability to process information with little or no effort. With age
and experience, information processing becomes in-creasingly automatic on many tasks,
allowing children to detect new connections among ideas and events that they otherwise
would miss (Kail, 2002).

The third change mechanism is strategy construction, which involves the discovery of
new procedures for processing information. Siegler (2001) says that children need to encode
key information about a problem and coordinate the information with relevant prior
knowledge to solve the problem.

http://psychologicalresources.blogspot.com/2015/01/nature-of-information-
processing.html#:~:text=Siegler's%20View,a%20broad%20perspective%20on%20thinking.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 23

Metacognition
Among cognitive advances in adolescence is metacognition which is the ability to
identify one’s own thinking processes and strategies inclusive of perception, memory,
understanding, application, analysis, assessment and innovation. The adolescent is able to
state “I know that” among the memory data stored in his mind; also able to state “I know how”
referring to procedural processes that improves memory recall through the use of a mnemonic
device.
Another important development is the ability of the adolescent for information
processing. Information theorist Robert Siegler sees a sequential acquisition of specific
knowledge and strategies for problem solving. He observes the quality of information
processes that faces tasks at hand through strategies and rule. Rules relate to balance, weight,
distance, conflict weight, conflict distance and conflict balance problems. Thereupon the
adolescent shows (1) speed information processing coupled with awareness and control (2)
complexity by way of considering longer-term implications and possibilities beyond here and
now. (3) increased volume of information processing, coupled with longer memory span along
many areas or domains of knowledge. The adolescent thus transforms from being a novice to
becoming a near-expert.

Application:
Comment on Piaget’s and Siegler’s theories by identifying situations where their
insights were applicable to you.

Application which proved the theories to be

Theories
applicable
Piaget’s operational thinker:
• Thinking the possible but unseen
• Thinking out your bias
• Exploring solutions
Siegler’s information processing skills:
• Increased thinking speed
• Increased complexity
• Increased volume

Assessment:

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 24

Read and discuss the cognitive competence of highly known intelligent leaders,
among others:
• Dr. Jose Rizal
• Albert Einstein
• Bill gates
Enrichment Activity:
Share your thoughts;
• What were your improvements on your thought patterns during adolescence
comparing these with those of your elementary school days?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing
http://psychologicalresources.blogspot.com/2015/01/nature-of-information-
processing.html#:~:text=Siegler's%20View,a%20broad%20perspective%20on%20thinkin
g.;Date Retrieved, August 7, 2020

Lesson 26: Socio-Emotional development of High School Learners

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
✓ Describe the socio-emotional changes in adolescence.
✓ Describe how self-image develops among teens.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 25

Getting Started (Optional):

During adolescence the teen develops social cognition in the content of family
structure, the school, the community, and media. He also manifests emotions which need to
be regulated for success in school as well as for his/her own emotional well-being. In the
classroom, the teacher has the mandate for creating a positive learning environment, while
facilitating the students’ sound moral judgment.

Discussion:
Human Emotions
Generally emotions are commonly known as human feelings that are manifested by
varied conscious or unconscious moods. A more accurate description is that is a subjective
reaction to internal or external stimulus that involves physical change, action or appraisal. Thus
the child reacts to inner hunger for food or comfort from surrounding environment. The unique
pattern of emotions are: a.) event that is strong or important b.) physiological changes in heart
pulse rate, brain activity, hormone levels and body temperature c.) readiness for action often
described as “fight or fight” d.) dependence of the emotion on how the stimulus is appraised
or interpreted.
Social Emotion
Social Emotions start to emerge as early as the toddler years (15-24 months) comprised
by such feelings as envy, embarrassment, shame, guilt and pride. Observable emotions
during these years may not be accurate, but they can be a problem if not controlled. Even
among early learners, emotions affect learning, since learners pay more attention to things
with emotional significance. Emotions can also organize recall, such that learners tend to
remember details of emotionally strong experiences. In time, emotional competence can be
developed by the child and this means he/she gains the ability to regulate emotions and
understand the emotions of other people.
Girls are more skilled in regulating emotions, but they are move likely than boys to be
anxious, and twice as likely to be depressed. Adolescent girls are more likely than boys to
have both negative and positive interactions with family and friends.

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 26

The Adolescent and Social Media

There are positive aspects of social media, but also potential risks. It is important for
parents to help their teens use these sites responsibly.
Potential benefits of social media include:
• Staying connected to friends
• Meeting new friends with shared interests
• Finding community and support for specific activities
• Sharing art work or music
• Exploring and expressing themselves
Potential risks of social media include:
• Exposure to harmful or inappropriate content (e.g., sex, drugs, violence, etc.)
• Exposure to dangerous people
• Cyber bullying, a risk factor for depression and suicide
• Oversharing personal information
• Exposure to excessive advertisements
• Privacy concerns including the collection of data about teen users
• Identity theft or being hacked
• Interference with sleep, exercise, homework, or family activities

https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Social-Media-and-Teens-100.aspx

Application:
Explain your answer: Are girls more skilled in regulating emotions than boys? Yes or No?

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles
 27

__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary of the Lesson:
Adolescence is a time for rapid cognitive development. At this stage of development,
there is a decrease in egocentric thoughts, while the individual’s thinking takes more of an
abstract form. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective. Behavioral
studies also shows the development of executive functions comprised by cognitive functions
that enable the control and coordination of thoughts that has great influence on the
individual’s future life through character and personality formation.
Assessment:
How has the physical environment at home or school affected your emotions? Positively or
negatively?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Enrichment Activity:
As a teen, how do you make friends? And how do you make your friendship last long?
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
References/Attributions:
Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, D. R, Borabo, HG., Lucido, P. I., 2018; The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles; LoriMar Publishing

https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Social-
Media-and-Teens-100.aspx;Date Retrieved, August 8, 2020

Learning Module on The Child and Adolescent learners and Learning Principles