SANSKARGOEL

Bt
echECEA91
005
119028

ES202-
Bas
icEl
ect
roni
csLabRepor
t

Ex
per
iment1
Dat
e:1
9.08.
2020

Ai
moft
heex
per
iment
:St
udyt
heV-
Ich
arac
ter
ist
icsofap-
njunc
tiondi
ode.

Sc
hemat
icDi
agr
am:

Si
mul
ati
onRes
ult
:

Gr
aph1
:V-
ICh
arac
ter
ist
icGr
aphofp-
njunc
tiondi
ode
 Gr
aph2

Ci
rcui
tOper
ati
on:

 For,0<V1<
2.5V(approx.
),t
heexter
nalvol
tag
eiscreati
ngaelectr
icfi
eldi na
dir
ec t
ionoppos i
tetothatofth
edepleti
onreg
ionelect
ricf
iel
d,butisnothigh
enoughtoc ompletelyov
ercomeit
.Hencenocurr
entfl
owsthroughth
edi ode.

 For,V1>2.
5V(approx.
),th
eex t
ernalvol
tagenowcreatesanelec
tricf
ieldt
hati
s
capableofov erc
omi ngthedeplet
ionreg
ionelec
tricfi
eldandthusall
owi
ngdiode
topas scurr
entth r
oughit.
Anal
ysi
s:
TheGr aph1abov edepi ct
stheV- Ic h
ar acterist
icsofap- nj uncti
ondiode.Thegraph
showst hath owt h
ec ur
rentac rossthedi odei szeroi nit
iall
yandt henwhent h
eapplied
volt
ag ei nc reasesfurtherafterac ertainv olt
age,t hec urrentacrossthediodenow
incr
eas esr apidly
.Likei ntheg raphabov et hisincreasei nc urr
enttakesplaceatan
externalv oltageof2. 5V appr oxi
mately.Af tert h
isv oltage,anyf urt
herincreas
ei n
externalv oltagewi l
lcausear apidincreas eincurrent .
TheGr aph2abovedepic
tsth
ecurrentacr
os sthediodeandal sothecurr
entac r
ossthe
resi
storR7,inser
ieswit
hthediode.It
’sverymuc hclearfrom th
eg raphthatboththe
curr
ent sar
eex act
lysame,t
hatconfi
rmst hev er
yc onceptthatduri
ngaf orwardbias
condi
tion,adiodeoff
ersanalmostzeror esi
stanceandt husallowsenti
rec ur
rentto
passthroughit
.
Conc
lus
ion:
Vol
t-ampere(V-
I)c
harac
teri
sti
csofapnjunc
t i
onors emic
onduc
tordi
odeist
hec ur
ve
bet
weenv ol
tageac
ros
st hej
uncti
onandt
hec urrentt
hrought
hecir
cui
t.Wh
enanodeis
positiv
ewi t
hrespec tt
oc athode,diodeiss aidtobef or
war dbiasedandwithincr
eas e
ofth esourc
ev ol
tageVs  
fromz er
ovalue,initi
allydi
odec urrenti
szero.f
rom 
Vs=0toc ut
-i
nv oltage,th
ef orwardcurrentisverysmall.cut-
involt
ag eisalsoknownas t
hreshold
voltageort ur
n-onv ol
tage. 
beyondcut-i
nv olt
ag e,th
edi odec urr
entrisesr
apidlyand
diodei ssai
dtoc onduct
.
 Ex
per
iment2

Dat
e:1
9.08.
2020

Ai
moft
heex
per
iment
:Tos
tudyt
hewor
kingofas
impl
enon-
li
nearf
unc
tiong
ener
ator
.

Sc
hemat
icDi
agr
am:

Si
mul
ati
onRes
ult
:

Ci
rcui
tOper
ati
on:
AD.C.
vol
tageof20Visputi
nseri
eswi
thar
esi
storofr
esi
stanc
e2kandt
hewh
ole
combi
nat
ionisi
nparall
elwi
th:
-

 1
.Res
ist
orofr
esi
stanc
e1ki
nser
ieswi
thadi
odei
nfor
war
dbi
asedc
ondi
ti
on.
  2.
Res
ist
orofr
esi
stanc
e1ki
nser
ieswi
thadi
odei
nrev
ers
ebi
asedc
ondi
ti
on.

Anal
ysi
s:
Th
egr
aphh
asbeenpl
ott
edasCur
rentac
ros
sres
ist
anc
eR6,
agai
nstt
hei
nputv
olt
age.

 Th
egraphishavi
nganexponent
ialr
isei
ncur
rentf
rom -
500mVt
o-
36
0mV(approxi
matel
y)

 Th
egr
aphi
sas
trai
ghtl
inef
rom-
360mVt
o340mV(
appr
oxi
mat
ely

 Th
egr
aphi
sag
ainh
avi
nganex
ponent
ialc
urv
efr
om340mV

Conc
lus
ion:
Af unct
iongener
atorisanel ec
tronicc i
rcuitelementth
atprovidesanoutput
proporti
onaltosomemat hematic
alf unctionsuchasthesquarerootofit
sinput
;suc
h
dev i
cesareusedin 
feedbackcontrol
 systemsandi n 
analogcomputers
.
 Ex
per
iment3
Dat
e:1
6.09.
2020
Ai
moft h
eex per
iment
::Tos
tudyt
hewor
kingofas
impl
enon-
li
nearf
unc
tiong
ener
ator
wi
thbi
asing
.
Sc
hemat
icDi
agr
am:

Si
mul
ati
onRes
ult
:

Ci
rcui
tOper
ati
on:
AD.
C.v
olt
ages
our
ceof20Vi
sinpar
all
elwi
th
1
.Ar
esi
storofr
esi
stanc
e1k
2.
Ar esi
storofr
esi
stanc
e2ki
nser
ieswi
thVdc
=30Vwi
thadi
odei
nrev
ers
ebi
as
condit
ion.
3.
Ares
ist
orofr
esi
stanc
e2ki
nser
ieswi
thVdc
=10Vwi
thadi
odei
nfor
war
dbi
as
c
ondi
ti
on

Anal
ysi
s:
Thegraphhasbeenpl
ott
edasCur
rentacr
ossres
ist
anc
eR14,
ag ai
nstth
evol
tag
esour
ce
of20V.Thegraphc
omesoutt
obeas t
rai
ghtl
inewit
haneg
ativeslopeandh
avi
ngay-
int
erceptof0.5
mA.
Conc
lus
ion:
Af unct
iongener
atorisanel ec
tronicc i
rcuitelementth
atprovidesanoutput
proporti
onaltosomemat hematic
alf unctionsuchasthesquarerootofit
sinput
;suc
h
dev i
cesareusedin 
feedbackcontrol
 systemsandi n 
analogcomputers
.

Ex
per
iment4
Dat
e:23.
09.
2020
Ai
moft
heex
per
iment
:St
udyoft
heh
alfwav
erec
tif
ier
Sc
hemat
icDi
agr
am:

Si
mul
ati
onRes
ult
:
Ci
rcui
tOper
ati
on:
Therearetwocircui
tswit
hthesamecomponentswit
ht h
eonlydif
fer
encebei
ngth
e
capacit
ancevaluesineachofth
em.Acapaci
torisalsoconnec
tedinpar
all
eltot
he
resi
stor,wh
ichactsasthefi
lt
er.

 Forthepositi
veh alfcycleoftheinputvol
tag
e,thedi
odeisinforwardbias
condit
ion,t
husi tofferszeroresi
stanceandhenceal
lowstheentir
ec ur
rentto
passthroughit
.Th i
si sthereasonwhythevol
tageacr
ossthediodeandt heinput
volt
agei st
hes amei nt h
iscase.

 Fortheneg ati
veh alfcyc
leoftheinputvol
tage,t
hediodeisinrevers
ebias
condit
ion,thusitoffersinf
ini
teresi
stanceandhenc
eal l
owsz erocurr
enttopas
s
thr
oughi t
.Thi
sisth ereasonwhythevoltag
eac r
osst
hedi odeiszerointh
is
parti
cularcase.
Anal
ysi
s:
Analysi
soft heenti
reexperi
mentandi t
’ssimulati
onclearlydepi
ctsth
ec onceptthatin
forwardbiascondit
ion,t
hediodeoffer
salmos tzeror
es i
stanceanddtherebyallowing
theentir
ec urrentt
opassthroughi
t.Whil
einc aseofr
ev ersebias,
thediodeoffers
i
nfinit
eres i
stance,t
husall
owingzer
oc urr
entt ofl
owthroughit.
Oncetherecti
fi
err eachesthepos i
ti
veh alfcycle,t
hent h
edi odeac qui
resf orward
bi
ased&allowst h
ef l
owofc urrenttomaket h
ec apaci
torchar
geag ain.Thecapac it
or
fi
lt
erth
roughahug edis
charg
ewi llgenerat
eanex t
remelysmoot
hDCv olt
age.Therefore,
asmoothDCvoltagecanbeat t
ainedwi t
hthisfi
lter.

Conc
lus
ion:
Ah alfwaverecti
fierisatypeofrecti
fi
erwh i
chall
owsonlyhalfcy
cle(ei
therpositi
ve
halfcycl
eorneg ativehal
fc y
cle)oft
heinputACs i
gnalwhil
etheanotherhalfcy
cleis
blocked.Wec angetanalmos tpureDCs i
gnalbyusinghi
gherval
uesofCapac i
tanceas
thech ar
ginganddi s
charg
ingg et
sreducedforit
.Thus,t
hehalf
-waverect
ifi
ercircui
tis
analyzed.
 Ex
per
iment5
Dat
e:23.
09.
2020

Ai
moft
heex
per
iment
:St
udyoft
hec
lipperc
irc
uit
Sc
hemat
icDi
agr
am:
Si
mul
ati
onRes
ult
:

Ci
rcui
tOper
ati
on:

 Int
hev
eryfi
rstcir
cui
t,t
hediodeisi
nrever
sebiasdur
ingt
heposi
ti
vehal
fcycl
e
oft
hei
nputvolt
ageandinforwar
dbiasc
ondit
ionduri
ngth
enegat
iveh
alfcy
cle.

 I
nth
esecondci
rcui
t,t
hedi
odeisi
nforwar
dbi asduringth
eposi
ti
vehalfcycl
eof
t
hei
nputvol
tag
eandinrev
ersebi
ascondi
tionduringtheneg
ati
vehal
fc y
cle.

 Inthet hi
rdcir
cuithowever,t
herearetwodi odes,eachwi t
habi asi
ngD.Cvol
tag
e
source.Botht
hesedi odesaresuchplacedthatonei sinforwardbiasandthe
otherisinnegati
v ebiascondi
tionatallti
mes .Thuscurrentpassesthr
ough
eit
h erofthem,bothinthenegativeandthepos it
ivehalfcycl
esoft hei
nput
voltage.

Anal
ysi
s:

 Thefirs
tg r
aphobtainedabove,showshowthemaxi
mumv olt
ageacros
stheload
resi
stanceisdecreasedtoac er
tainval
uebothi
ntheposi
ti
veandnegativ
ehalf
cyc
les.Thusitcl
ipssmallreg
ions,inbotht
hepos
iti
veandnegat
iveport
ionofth
e
 out
putv
olt
age.
Thi
sci
rcui
tist
ermedasac
ombi
nedc
lipperc
irc
uit
.

 Thesecondgraph,sh
owshowonlytheposi
ti
veporti
onsoftheinputv
oltageis
obtai
nedac r
osstheloadr
esi
stance,t
husthenegati
vepor
tionsareallcl
ipped.
Thi
scircui
tister
medasaNeg ativ
eCl i
pperCi
rcuit
.

 Thethi
rdg r
aph,s
howshowonl
yt henegati
veport
ionsoft
heinputvol
tag
ei s
obtai
nedacrosst
heloadr
esis
tance,thusthepos
iti
veport
ionsareal
lcli
pped.
Thi
scirc
uitist
ermedasaPositi
veClipperCir
cui
t.

Conc
lus
ion:
DiodeClippi
ngCircui
ts 
canbeus edav ari
etyofappli
cat
ionst
omodi f
yaninput
waveformusingsi
gnalandSch ott
kydiodesortoprovi
deover-
vol
tageprot
ecti
onusing
zenerdiodestoensurethatt
heout putvol
tageneverexc
eedsacertai
nlevelpr
otecti
ng
thecir
cuitfr
omh i
ghvoltagespikes.Th
endiodecli
ppingci
rcui
tscanbeusedinvol
tage
li
miti
ngappl i
cat
ions.

Ex
per
iment6
Dat
e:30.
09.
2020
Ai
moft
heex
per
iment
:St
udyoft
hepeakdet
ect
orc
irc
uit
.
Sc
hemat
icDi
agr
am:
Si
mul
ati
onRes
ult
:

Ci
rcui
tOper
ati
on:
Inth eposit
iveh alfcycle,diodeDi sf orwardbi asedandc apacit
orCs tart
sch arging.
Wh eninputreac hesi t
speakv aluec apac i
torgetsc har
g edt oposit
ivepeakv alue.
Inneg ati
veh alfc ycle,asinputdec r
eas es,diodeDi srev ersedbiasedandc apac itoris
i
s olatedandh oldst hepeakv alueofpr eviousc y
c l
e.Henc ec al
ledaspeakdet ector.
Buti npracti
c e, outputist akenac rosss omel oadRL, sowh eninputvoltagedec reas es
capac it
ordisc hargest hroughl oadRL. Toav oidthisselectRLofv erylargevalues othat
capac it
ordisc hargesv erys l
owl yhenceal mos tholdsthec harge.Whateverchargei tlost
throughRLg et sbac kinnex th alfcycl
e.

Anal
ysi
s:
Graph1isofth
ecirc
uitofaPeakDet ec
tor,
thathasar es
ist
anceattac
hedtoiti
ns h
unt,
whereasGraph2isforthePeakDetect
orcir
cuitwi
thoutanyres
ist
anceinshunt
.Both
th
eg raphs
howsth
att heoutputv
olt
agefromthePeakDet ect
orfol
lowsexac
tlysi
milar
tothatoftheinputvol
tag
e,unt
ilthei nputvolt
agereachesi
t ’
sveryfi
rs tpeakvol
tage.
Thispeakisdetectedbyt
hePeakDet ectorandthentheoutputvolt
ag eremainsthe
sameandal lowsnoc h
angei
nit’
sv alue.Thi
sisthereasonwhytheOut putVolatag
ein
boththecasesisalmostast
rai
g h
tl i
neaf terencount
eringt
h efi
rstpeakv olt
ageas
inputvol
tage.
Conc
lus
ion:
Peakdetector
sareus
edtoover
cometh
edis
advantageofacvolt
meter
.Asth
epeakof
asquar
e, s
awtoot
horanyr
andomwavef
ormisnotmeasuredusi
ngacvol
tmeter
.

Ex
per
iment7
Dat
e:30.
09.
2020
Ai
moft
heex
per
iment
:St
udyofReg
ulat
edPowerSuppl
yCi
rcui
t.
Sc
hemat
icDi
agr
am:

Si
mul
ati
onRes
ult
:
Ci
rcui
tOper
ati
on:
Ar egulatedpowers uppl yisanembeddedc ir
cui tthatconvertsunregul
at edACvoltag
e
toc onstantDC. I
tisus edtoens ur
ethattheout putr emainsconstanteveni ft
heinput
chang es.Here,theinputisanACv ol
tage.Th
er ec t
ificati
onisdonebyus ingaBr i
dge
Rec ti
fier.Ingeneral,attheinputofregulat
edpowers upply
,thereispres entabridge
rectifi
erf orr
ec t
ifi
cat i
on,thenthefi
lterc
apac i
t orandl ast
lytheregulatortoprovi
de
thec onstantDCv oltage.

Anal
ysi
s:
Theoutputoft
herecti
fierisanuni di
recti
onalpulsati
ngDC. TheoutputoftheRecti
fi
er
isapulsat
ingDCwithveryhighripplecontentinit
.So,Capacit
orfil
terisusedalong
wit
htheoutputoft
herec ti
fiertogetr i
pplefreeDCwav efor
m. LM7805Cisusedasa
regul
atorwhi
chwil
lprovidet h
ec onstantoutputevenift
heinputoranyot h
erchange
occur
s.

Conc
lus
ion:
Thepowers upplyi
susedasav ar
iabl
eone.Inlaborator
yappli
cati
on,vari
ablev
olt
ages
isneededindiffer
entlev
el.
Hence,th
isci
rcuiti
sv erymuchhel
pful
,forgaini
nga
constantr
eg ul
atedvol
tagesuppl
y.