Loads and Synchronous Generator Modeling

Robert Pliszczak
Wroclaw University of Technology

Abstract-- This paper survey of different accurate models of

II. LOAD MODELING
load and synchronous generator model. I would like to described
one out of two basic types of load modeling. One is component- Load modeling is a very important issue in power system
based load modeling which contain ‘ZIP’ (polynomial) model, analysis and control. Accurate load models have significant
exponential model, combination of this two called exponential- impact on the operations flexibility and exploitation costs in
‘ZIP’ model and ETMSP & EPRI model as an example of
power systems. Exploitation costs can be reduced because of
combination of fundamental models. Second one is measurement-
based load modeling, however, this is not on my consideration.
there is possible to test new solution and change power system
The second part survey consists synchronous generator modeling configuration without any disturbances of normal power
by electrical circuits. Moreover, there are dc generators, but this system work. The operations flexibility is also very important
model is not covered in this paper. regarding to beater fit power system modeling into real power
system. That is why both power industry and academia are
looking for now, and more accurate loads representation. We
I. INTRODUCTION
can distinguish two approaches for load models developing:

T here are two general issues to consider modeling of power

systems. One of them is loads modeling as well as
generators modeling. Loads and generators modeling are very
component-based and measurement-based. “The component-
based approach builds a load model using detailed information
about all the individual components at each load bus. The
important in determining the stability of power systems. measurement-based approach involves placing measurement
Moreover there are valuable tools in the stability studies. systems at the load buses for which load models are to be
Load modeling application can be distinguished into static developed.”[3] The measurement-based approach gives us
and dynamic models. First of all I would like to shortly actual load behaviors at any given moment. In the power
describe static load model. The static models were discovered industry is also used on-line data recording system. This tool
to investigate steady-state power systems. In this models gives important information about actual load behaviors during
system disturbances. Dynamic load models regarding to
occurs constant voltage magnitude, but on the other hand there
possible disturbances response are highly recommended for a
is variation of load frequency. Lastly the static load models
lot of power system models representations, moreover this
feature is voltage-dependent characteristic. Second of all it is
models are commonly used in power industry for transient
mentioned in the technical literature about dynamic load stability analysis. On the other hand, it increases of system
modeling. This load model is in time-domain and contains representation for simulation. [3]
loads electromechanical behavior. Phasors method is the load Loads modeling has always been a difficult issue because:
steady-state representation. The dynamic load model is based
many different types of load are connected to the
on time variation frequency. Moreover, the dynamic load power system at any period of time,
model is describe by dynamic voltage and frequency
level of complication and quantity of data is very
characteristics.[1] high at any given moment,
The second part of this paper is to survey generators
it is hard to predict loads response (behavior), [4]
modeling. The Generators can be classified as a electrical We can distinguish three main load models:
motors. There are dc generators, synchronous generators and  ‘ZIP’ (polynomial) model,
inductor generators. The dc generators are rarely used in power  exponential model and
systems. The most popular and common use in the industrial  exponential – ‘ZIP’ model - combination of this two
applications is synchronous generator. There have been above [1]
developed big number of synchronous generators. The
generators are the heart of power systems. ” With the A. Polynomial-‘ZIP’ Model
increasing cost of detailed prototyping of electrical machine, it
is becoming necessary to replace or supplement it with One of the oldest load representation is polynomial model.
mathematical methods and computer simulation.”[2] However, It is essentially combination of constant impedance (Z),
constant current (I) and constant power (P), that is why it is
the inductor generators are used in power systems, but mostly
commonly called ‘ZIP’ model. This model is not accurate
in wind turbines. The number of wind turbines connected to the
representation of the system, because of high number of
grid increase every year. Papers [8], [9], [10] are contained
inductor motor loads in the system. Nowadays there are more
more information`s about double fed induction generators complex and accurate load models which capture both the
modeling. static and dynamic load, such as induction motors.[4]
 C. Exponential-‘ZIP’ Model
This is the combination of both exponential and ‘ZIP’
models which are shown above. Diagram can be the same as in


previous model.

 1    !     " 



 
#$
 
 !   
% 1   ∆
 
#$
  
1   ∆


 
 1    !     " 

 
#$
Fig.1. The structure of ‘ZIP’ load model. [5]

   
 !   
% 1   ∆

 
  
  
   1   ∆  
 
#$
  
1   ∆
  
    
  
   1   ∆
   and  are the constant current parts of the total load,
! and ! are the constant power parts of the total load,
 and  are the constant impedance load parameters,
 ,  , &'1,  ,  , &'2,  ,  , &'1,  ,  ,
 and  are the constant current load parameters,
 and  are the constant power load parameters, &'2 are the parameters of exponential part of the total load.[3]
 and  are the frequency sensitivity parameters,
and       1,       1 when   . [2]
D. ETMSP & EPRI Model
Scheme is shown in Fig.2. However, there are some more
B. Exponential Model models discoverd by the companies. The companies which
have made distribution system computers programs (software).
They have used this three types of load modeling and modify
them. EPRI’s LOADSYN and ETMSP packages are one of the
most commonly used software for dynamic studies. This two
packages based on load models presented above with little
changes. Below the result of this changes is shown:

,- ,1

 
 *
+ 
1   ∆  .1 /
+ 0 
2
 

,-
 
 *+ 
1   ∆

 ,1
Fig.2. The structure of any static load models.[6]

  / +

1   ∆2

 
This scheme can be used for any static load modeling. So, it fit
for every presented in this paper load model.



 
 
1   ∆
+ is the frequency dependent fraction of real load,
where,

+ is the reactive load coefficient of uncompensated reactive

   
1   ∆ $ and $ are the voltage exponents for frequency-
load to real power load,


$ and $ the voltage exponents for the uncompensated
dependent and frequency-independent real power load,
 -voltage-dependent parameter of real power,
 -voltage-dependent parameter of reactive power,  and  are the frequency sensitivity coefficients for
and compensated reactive power load,

 and  are the frequency sensitivity parameters.[3]

 is the frequency sensitivity coefficient for reactive
real and uncompensated reactive power load
Comparing of ‘ZIP’ and exponential load modeling the second
one is more accurate. compensation [3].
We have showed this load model as a example of one A. Synchronous Generators Modeling by Electrical
combination of this fundamental models. Circuit
III. GENERATORS MODELING From figure above the machine equations in three axis

7
framework is shown below:
'+3!  /45 6+3!  Ψ+3!
78
Generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.

7
There are three possible types of generators: dc generators,

'  4 6  Ψ
78
induction generators and synchronous generators. The first one

7
are useless because all the power systems around the world are

0  4; 6;  Ψ;
78
AC. So there are two main types of generators: one of them is

7
synchronous generator and second is induction generator. The

0  4< 6<  Ψ<

78
inductor generators mostly occur in the wind mills. The
synchronous generators are common use in most types of

6; and 6< are the direct and transverse dumpers` currents,

power plants.

6 is the exciter current,

First of all the synchronous machines work with constant

Ψ; and Ψ< are the direct and transverse dumpers` total flux,
speed what means constant frequency. The speed of the
synchronous generator linearly depends on the frequency and
Ψ+3! is the stator total flux,
numbers of poles. The constant frequency is very good feature
Ψ is the main field total flux,
because one of the power systems requirements is to keep
frequency in one specified level. Another advantage comes
from reactive power compensation in the grid. The The Park`s matrix can be written as:

2E 2E
2 BCD.=> 0 BCD => /
BCD => 

synchronous generators produce active power and reactive

.=> 0  ? A 3 3 F
power. The last important feature is high efficiency of

3 2E 2E
/D6&.=> 0 /D6& => /
/D6& => 

synchronous generators.

3 3
The inductor generators are less popular then the
synchronous generators. However, they have some advantages.
'+
'K
One of them is that inductor generators are simplified in

.=> 0 · '+3! 
.=> 0 H'3 I  J ' L

construction. Furthermore, they are lighter and cheaper than
'! 
any others. However the frequency cannot be adjusted as
simple as in the synchronous generator and the reactive power
cannot be compensated. When one would like to use inductor
7
We can rewrite first equations as:
'K  /45 6K  ΨK / M> Ψ
generator it should also have special control system. The speed

78
controllers are going to be cheaper and cheaper and inductor
7
'  /45 6K  Ψ / M> ΨK
generators are commonly used in the wind mills.

78
7
I would like to present synchronous generator modeling by

'  4 6  Ψ
electrical circuits. There are more synchronous generators

78
7
models in papers [7],[11], [12], [13].

0  4; 6;  Ψ;
78
7
0  4< 6<  Ψ<
78

Then the following relationships can be written considering the

generator convention for stator

ΨK  Ψ+K  ΨR5K  ΨRK 

Q
O S+K /6K  6;  6  / SR5K 6K  SRK 6 / 6K 
O Ψ  Ψ+  ΨR5 
O  S+ /6  6<  / SR5 6
O
Ψ  Ψ+K  ΨR  ΨRK 
T
P  S+K /6K  6;  6   SR 6  SRK 6 / 6K 
O Ψ;  Ψ+K  ΨR; 
Fig.3. Synchronous generator winding with dampers.

O  S+K /6K  6;  6   SR; 6;

D and Q represent d-axis and q-axis dampers. The three
O
Ψ<  Ψ+  ΨR< 
synchronous generator modeling methods presented below are
O
 S+ /6  6<  / SR< 6<
based on this scheme.[2]
N
From all this equations we can draw the synchronous machine measurement-based models are required. ‘ZIP’ model gives
electrical scheme as follows: only approximate results of real power behavior. Exponential
model is more accurate and has only two parameters to be
estimated. Exponential-‘ZIP’ model is also very promising but
it is a little bit more complex what can give unwanted
confusion [3]. “With continued expansion of power grid, it
becomes more and more important that the model used in
simulation programs consist with the actual characteristics of
electric apparatus. Up to now, the model of generators,
transformers and power lines have been established perfectly,
as for the model of load, due to its randomness, time-varying
and distribution property, it could barely describe the whole
characteristics exactly by one or more groups of equations.
Accurate load modeling has become one of the most difficult
problems in power system research fields.”[5]
Second part of the survey consists synchronous generator
model by electrical circuit. This model consists the global
electrical scheme of the generator by flux equations. Paper [2]
contains tests of the three synchronous generator models which
Fig.4. d-axis and q-axis electrical equivalent circuits. [2] can be distinguished into: synchronous generator modeling by
electrical circuits, by state equations using an inside load and
ΨR is the rotor leakage flux, by state equations using an outside load.
ΨR; and ΨR< are direct and transverse dampers leakage flux, V. REFERENCES
ΨR5K and ΨR5 are direct and transverse stator dampers
[1] Prabha Kundur, “Power System Stability and Control”, 2007
leakage flux, [2] Emile MOUNI, Slim TNANI and Gérard CHAMPENOIS,
ΨRK is the linkage flux between main field and stator d-axis, “Comparative study of three modeling methods of synchronous
Ψ+K and Ψ+ are direct and transverse main flux,
SR5K and SR5 are direct and transverse stator leakage
generator.”, IEEE, 2006
[3] Y. Li, H.-D. Chiang, B.-K. Choi, Y.-T. Chen, D.-H. Huang and
M.G. Lauby, “Representative static load models for transient

SR is the rotor main field leakage inductance,

inductances, stability analysis: development and examination”, IET Gener.

S+K and S+ are the direct and transverse stator main
Transm. Distrib., 2007, 1, (3), pp. 422–431
[4] A. Maitra, A. Gaikwad, P. Pourbeik, D. Brooks, “Load Model
Parameter Derivation Using an Automated Algorithm and

SR; and SR< are dampers leakage inductances,

inductances, Measured Data”, IEEE, 2008

SRK is the linkage inductance between the rotor main field and
[5] Jingchao Zhang Anhe Yan Zhuoya Chen and Kun Gao, “Dynamic
Synthesis Load Modeling Approach Based on Load Survey and
Load Curves Analysis”, IEEE, DRPT2008 6-9 April 2008 Nanjing
the stator d-axis, China
[6] Dmitry Kosterev, Anatoliy Meklin, “Load Modeling in WECC”,
In these scheme the linkage inductance between d-axis stator IEEE, 2006
and direct damper is neglected. “In the Fig.4. the blocks "d- [7] Emile Mouni, Slim Tnani and Gérard Champenois, “Synchronous
load" and "q-load" represent the equivalent loads in Park`s generator output voltage control via a generalized predictive R S T
framework of the real power factor load. This last is star- controller.”, IEEE, 2008
[8] E. Spahic', J. Morren', G. Balzer and G. Michalke, “Mathematical
connected and an inverse Park`s transformation is needed to Model of the Double Fed Induction Generator for Wind Turbines
elaborate "d-load" and "q-load". This is useful because all and its Control Quality”, IEEE, POWERENG 2007, April 12-14,
equations involved in the simulation are given in Park`s 2007, Setubal, Portugal
framework” [2] [9] Srinivas R. Chellapilla, Badml H. Chowdhury, “A Dynamic model
of Induction Generators for Wind Power Studies”, IEEE, 2003
IV. CONCLUSIONS [10] José Cidrás and Andrés Elías Feijóo, “A Linear Dynamic Model for
Asynchronous Wind Turbines With Mechanical Fluctuations”,
In this paper, different accurate models of load and IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 17, NO.
generation were examined. As a load models component-based 3, AUGUST 2002
[11] J. R. Marti and K. W. Louie, “A Phase-Domain Synchronous
load modeling were shown which contain ‘ZIP’ (polynomial) Generator Model Including Saturation Effects, IEEE Transactions
model, exponential model, exponential-‘ZIP’ model and on Power Systems, Vol. 12, No. 1, February 1997
ETMSP & EPRI model as a example of combination of [12] E. Lu, G. Bronner, A. Ilk, C. Neumeyer, S. Ramakrishnan,
fundamental models. All models examined in this paper are “MODEL for TFTR Motor-Generator (MG)”, IEEE, Princeton,
New Jersey, 1995
static load models. The static load models can be used for [13] Zhijun Li and Lijuan Cui, “The Building and Analyzing of the
approximation of the dynamic behavior of the power system. Fifth-Order Model of the Synchronous Generator in Stand-Alone
Moreover static nonlinear load models can be used for transient Infinite System”, IEEE, 2005
stability analysis. However this model is not appropriate for
capturing true load response and for industrial applications