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Course: English-II (6465)

Semester: Spring, 2020
Level: B. Ed (2.5 & 4 Years)
ASSIGNMENT No.2

Q. 1 Discuss uses of Comma & Hyphen in Technical writing?

Answer:

Commas

Punctuation is a good example of this effort to use clearly defined rules in technical writing.
In journalistic punctuation style, you punctuate according to what you feel are the needs for
clarity. But this is likely to be viewed differently by different people. Therefore, punctuation
style in technical writing is based on the structure of the sentence.

Use comma after all introductory elements. Any element, regardless of the length, coming

before the main clause should be punctuated with a comma. (The main clause is that core
part of a sentence that makes it a complete sentence; that is, it expresses a complete
thought.) Here are some examples:

When an atom acquires enough energy to leave its orbit, the

atom is positively charged.

As for the energy required to produce plastic automobile parts,

the auto makers view the additional cost as justified by the savings in
petroleum by a lighter car during its lifetime.

Because the high-pressure turbopumps rotate at speeds of 30,000

rpm, the weight distribution on the turbine blades must be balanced
with great accuracy.

Because there is no belt of doldrums in the Atlantic south of the

equator, hurricanes do not usually occur there.

Between 40 and 50 degrees west and just south of 10 degrees north

in the western end of the doldrums belt, calms do occur with
frequency, and hurricanes originate there with great frequency.

In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that if a magnet was moved

in the vicinity of a coil, a current could be induced in the coil.
(Punctuate even short introductory phrases like this and the next
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two sentences.)

Using this concept, Faraday arrived at a relation between the

changing flux and the induced electromagnetic field.

Today, the computer consortium of IBM, Mototrola, and Apple is

announcing its new PowerPC chip.

Hyphens

A wise writer once said, “If you take hyphens seriously you will surely go mad.” Hyphens
belong to that category of punctuation marks that will hurt your brain if you think about
them too hard, and, like commas, people disagree about their use in certain situations.
Nevertheless, if you learn to use hyphens properly, they help you to write efficiently and
concretely, and you will have to use them regularly because of the nature of technical writing.
Because concepts in science and engineering frequently rely on word blends and complex
word relationships, the best writers in these fields master the use of the hyphen.

The Hyphen’s Function

Fundamentally, the hyphen is a joiner. It joins:

 two nouns to make one complete word (kilogram-meter);
 an adjective and a noun to make a compound word (accident-prone);
 two words that, when linked, describe a noun (agreed-upon sum, two-dimensional
object);
 a prefix with a noun (un-American);
 double numbers (twenty-four);
 numbers and units describing a noun (1000-foot face; a 10-meter difference)
 “self” and “well” words (self-employed, well-known);
 ethnic labels (Irish-American);
 new word blends (cancer-causing, cost-effective);
 prefixes and suffixes to words, in particular when the writer wants to avoid doubling a
vowel or tripling a consonant (anti-inflammatory; shell-like).
The rule of thumb I apply when using the hyphen is that the resulting word must act as one
unit; therefore, the hyphen creates a new word—either a noun or a modifier—that has a
single meaning. Usually, you can tell whether a hyphen is necessary by applying common
sense and mentally excluding one of the words in question, testing how the words would
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work together without the hyphen. For example, the phrases “high-pressure system,” “water-
repellent surface,” and “fuel-efficient car” would not make sense without hyphens, because
you would not refer to a “high system,” a “water surface,” or a “fuel car.” As your ears and
eyes become attuned to proper hyphenation practices, you will recognize that both meaning
and convention dictate where hyphens fit best.

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Q. 2 How can you job application good and effective?
Answer:

In my current position, I had the opportunity to hire a new R&D scientist to join the team. I
was excited at being able to build my team and take my time to find the perfect fit for our
company. My experience in the process of hiring gave me a new perspective on all the
reasons why people fail in interviews, or even to get them at all, and what is the recipe for a
successful job application. I thought I would share with you some of these new insights and
maybe I can spare you from making some of the common mistakes people made in applying
for my job.

Here’s my advice:

1. Read the job description and write a cover letter that is specific to that job

Common sense, right? Not as far as I’ve seen.

Many applicants sent us an apparently generic cover letter that was presumably used to blast
numerous hiring managers. Often, nothing in the cover letter mentioned any of the key
words from our ad.

And even worse, many applicants had absolutely no experience all in the area of research we
asked for. It was obvious they never visited our web page or even read the ad.

The best cover letter tells why they are the best candidate based on the specific qualifications
– make sure yours fits the bill.

2. Visit the website before applying and make sure you have an understanding of what
the company does.
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If you don’t thoroughly read the website, you won’t really understand the job you are
applying for and, worst of all, you demonstrate a lack of interest in the company.

This lack of knowledge will be apparent in your application, or glaringly obvious in the
interview if you are called for one and kill your chances of getting the job.

Make sure you read the web page, understand the company; what it does, where it came
from and where it’s going. Don’t just scan it, get as much information as you can and make
sure you can impress the hiring manager every step of the way.

3. Know why you want to work for that company

One question we always ask is: why do you want to work for us?

Is it because you need something local? Is it because you want to get the hell out of
wherever you are now? Is it because you love our products and love our culture?

You need to have an answer to this question and the answer needs to be positive and needs
to tell the hiring managers that you believe in our mission and want to be a part of it.

Surprisingly, some people could not answer this question, or answered it in a way that made
us feel that we were something to hold them over until a better position came along.

I’ll let you guess whether or not they got the job.

4. Make it clear: “I want to work for you”

What the hiring people and your new colleagues want is someone that really wants to be
part of the team. They want someone who is as passionate about the same things they are.

Are you a person who will fit in and get along with others? You need to show it.

The key is that if you think the job you are interviewing for is the perfect position for you,
then say so, and say why.

Make it clear that you really want this job above all others you have applied to and want to
be on this team.

5. Be positive about yourself and your abilities

No candidate actually matches every qualification on the list – employers don’t expect you to.
If they list 10 “nice-to-have” qualities and you have 5 of them, apply.
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For example, if you have experience searching for and writing patents but no experience in
presenting at conferences, let them know your strengths. Do not focus on the qualifications
you don’t have or any other weaknesses for that matter.

In fact you should never mention your weaknesses unless and until they are specifically
brought up in the interview. If you have a specific weakness that you know may be a problem
for the job, come to the interview armed with good suggestions on how you could overcome
it and examples of how you have overcome similar (or other) hurdles in the past.

This is the attitude that a hiring manager wants to see: someone who is not afraid to try new
things and willing to learn and push themselves past their comfort zone.

6. Be friendly and energetic… and make eye contact

Especially in small research groups or companies a major emphasis is (and should) be placed
on how well any new employee would fit with the personalities and culture in the group.

It is impossible to predict exactly what different groups are looking for in this regard as all are
different but something virtually everyone will be attracted to is a friendly and energetic
approach.

So if you get an interview, be friendly; look people in the eye, smile where appropriate and
show that you have an enthusiasm for life that you will bring to the job.

Of course you are likely to be nervous so you should give yourself a pep-talk before you go
to the interview to get yourself in the right frame of mind and having something as simple as
being friendly to focus on can help you get over your nerves.

7. Salary negotiation- a tricky area

It was shocking to me the amount of salary some post-docs wanted for their first job. Salary
can range depending on the size of the company and the position. Beginning PhD scientist
positions with no industry experience will range between $65,000-85,000 US. [Nick’s note: it’s
way less in the UK – you can probably expect something like 20-25K, depending on subject and
geographical area]
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For a small company with less than 100 people, it will be on the low end and for a large
company with >1000 people, it will likely be on the high end. Some start-ups with venture
capital can also offer attractive salaries.

Your salary will depend on your degree, experience, and whether you have specific expertise
in a technique or area that is highly valued, and if you have previous industry experience, you
can negotiate a higher salary.

A person coming from academia to industry has a big adjustment to make in their mindset
toward their research so hiring company knows there is going to be more training around a
company mindset and a slower learning curve.

The company is taking a big risk in hiring someone with no experience in an industrial lab
just as you are taking a risk in making the jump out of academia in exchange for the big
salary.

When asked for your salary requirements, say instead “the going rate” and then see what is
proposed to you.  It is ok to counter-offer if you amount is below your expectation but keep
it within $5000-$10,000.

Asking for too much more gives the impression that you will not be happy with your salary
and will consider leaving the first chance you get.

Summary

The job interview process is a stressful experience. It’s normal to not have much practice at it
since you want to stay as long as possible at any position you have. The most important thing
to remember is to be confident in yourself. You would not be applying if you didn’t feel you
could handle the job and that is what the interviewers want to see. A person who is a team
player, a fast learner, and a hard worker can get almost any position they set their sights on.

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Q. 3 Discuss process of proposal writing in detail?
Answer:
You may find yourself needing to write a proposal in order to gain support. Maybe you’re a
businessman or woman looking to solve a problem at work, or a vendor hoping to add a
client. Or, maybe you’re a teacher hoping to receive a grant to purchase much-needed
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supplies for your classroom. Whatever the case may be, knowing how to write a proposal will
help you write engaging copy, and help you get the results you want. To do this, here are 8
steps you should follow.

Step 1: Hold a Brainstorm Session

In order to get the support that you need and the results that you want, it’s vital to address
the correct people. So, start by brainstorming who the recipient of your proposal should be.
Depending on the purpose of your proposal, your audience may be easy to define. If it is,
you’re ready to start analyzing your audience. If you’re presenting it to a board, think about
how familiar they already are with the topic. Based on this answer, you may need to provide
more background information or details. On the other hand, you may be able to skip this part
and focus on the solution to the problem instead.

As you consider your audience, you should also think about what you can do to make your
writing engaging. Consider the audience’s hobbies and interests as you come up with a way
to capture their attention right from the beginning. By doing this, you can increase the
chances that your proposal will get more than a quick scan.

Step 2: Research

Before you sit down to write your proposal, you need to do some research. Research is one
of the best ways to build your credibility on the topic. It also helps you prove that there is a
problem and you have the best solution for it.

You can find examples, facts, figures, charts, graphs, and other data to include. Since you
want to avoid using only your opinion to support your proposal, you need to find the best
information to back up your points and gain support from your intended audience. In some
cases, you may need to gather the data on your own. You may need to get out and conduct
surveys, gathering your own data to prove your point.

Step 3: Hook the Reader

As previously stated, it’s important to capture your reader’s attention from the beginning.
Your introduction should do two things: engage the reader, and set yourself up as a credible
source. On top of hooking the reader, you need to provide background information on the
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topic. Remember that you should consider your audience as you determine how much
background information is necessary. As you do this, you don’t want to ramble on and on.
Instead, think about interesting facts that could get your audience thinking about the topic.

If you’re introducing your business to your audience, this would be a great time to deliver
your company’s mission statement. Give a little information about your company’s history
and your professional background, too.

Step 4: Present the Problem

In the next section, you need to define the problem. What is the issue that you hope to
resolve? Address the cause of the problem and the side effects that have occurred because of
it. Most importantly, don’t forget to discuss why this is a problem worth addressing.

This is the time to demonstrate your knowledge. Discuss the problem using your own
experience; however, don’t forget to include the facts and figures that you found during your
research. And as mentioned before, think about your audience as you decide how in-depth
you need to go on the topic.

Step 5: State Your Solution

Now that your audience is well aware of the problem, it’s time to discuss your proposed
solution to it. How will you solve the problem? Why should they follow this solution over
another? You may want to discuss some of the other solutions that others may propose and
discuss why these aren’t viable options. If they are viable, then discuss why your solution is
better. Will it cost less or have a greater impact?

Since you’re writing this proposal to gain support, this document should be persuasive in
nature. Remember this as you discuss the solution. Not only do you need to convince your
audience that this is the best solution to the problem, you want them to get behind you. As
you write out the solution, think about what you could include to support your ideas, and
convince others that they should support them too. Include case studies, examples of people
who used a similar approach, facts, and statistics to show why your approach is the right one.
You could even try the solution on a smaller scale to show the results.

Step 6: Outline the Project

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While you state the solution, take some time to discuss the feasibility of your project. Discuss
the plan as if you already got the greenlight for it. Have a schedule laid out with the start and
end date. Let them know how the steps should happen and whether or not anything can
happen simultaneously.

As you plan the schedule, multiply the time you think it will take by 1.5. So, if you think it will
take 10 hours to complete the first step, plan for 15 hours instead (10 x 1.5 =15 hours).
Overestimating will account for any unexpected issues that arise. Besides, clients probably
prefer getting the results ahead of schedule rather than behind schedule.

It’s also important to talk about the budget. How much will it cost to implement your
solution? Break it down as much as possible, itemizing at each step of the way. If you’re
looking for financial backing, it’s important to know your numbers and share them with your
audience. Make sure that you have a realistic budget that will clearly show your audience
what everything will cost and how much you’ll need to make it happen.

Step 7: Bring It All Together

The final part of your proposal is the conclusion. How will you bring everything together?
What ideas do you want your audience to remember? In the conclusion, emphasize the most
important parts. You’ll probably want to briefly restate the problem and the solution. You
could also reiterate interesting facts that will help your proposal stand out to others.

At the end of the conclusion, include a call to action. What do you want your audience to do
after reading your proposal? Should they cut you a check? Would you like them to hire your
company? Whatever the case may be, let your audience know what they can do once they’ve
decided to support you.

Step 8: Proofread Your Proposal

Knowing how to write a proposal wouldn’t be complete without this step! Before sending any
document out, you need to take time to proofread it. Your writing will make an impression
on your audience. Minor errors in spelling, grammar, or punctuation could leave a negative
impression, and impact the support for your proposal. Once you’ve spent time correcting it,
send it to someone you trust to look it over again. The more people who can check for errors,
the better!
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Q. 4 Explain APA style of writing?
Answer:

APA is the style of documentation of sources used by the American Psychological

Association. This form of writing research papers is used mainly in the social sciences, like
psychology, anthropology, sociology, as well as education and other fields.

How Does APA Style Work?

When working with APA there are two things to keep in mind: in-text citations and the
reference page. In-text citations will use the author’s name and the date within your research
paper. These citations will refer back to the reference page at the end, which lists all the
sources that you may have used in your research paper.

Note: If you are assigned a research paper in APA style for one of your courses, it’s a good
idea to ask your instructor the questions below. He or she will be able to explain details
about the requirements for the paper. For now, we will go over the basic instructions of how
to use in-text citations and how to set up the reference page.
When Would I Have to Cite a Source in APA?

Anytime you summarize, paraphrase, or quote information from another source, like
passages from books or articles in an academic journal, you are required to list within your
text the author’s name and the year the article was published. There are a couple of ways this
can be arranged. Here are a few examples.

 Another theory came from the idea of the “matching hypothesis.” This was presented
by Goffman (1952), who believed that men had the tendency to choose spouses who
were of similar social status. The sums of these attributes include are social skills,
wealth, power, intelligence, attractiveness, and other skills that are valued in society.
With the example above, the writer puts the author’s last name in the text and immediately
after it puts the date in parentheses.

 In 1971 Berscheid, Dion, Walster, and Walster conducted another “computer date”
dance. This time they paired similar attractive persons together for the date. An
independent panel of judges assessed the attractiveness of each of the subjects.
Here, the authors’ names and the date of publication are both put into the body of the text,
without using parentheses.
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Citing a Journal Article

If I cite a journal article in the body of my text does it mean that the authors of that journal
article agree with the arguments in my paper?

No, not necessarily. Dr. Sadler, a professor in the psychology department at IUP, states that
you can cite articles that will agree or disagree with your ideas. He goes on to say:

 The agreement or disagreement should be conveyed by your wording. For example,

“This interpretation is consistent with findings by Smith and Jones (1999) . . . .” Or, you
might say, “If my prediction is confirmed, it would falsify the theory of episodic
memory proposed by Tulving (1984)” Or, “A number of researchers do not agree with
this view (e.g., Brown, 1993; Stevens, 1992; Treisman, 1994).”
So, not only can you use journal articles to support your ideas, but you can also use them to
show that some authors do not agree with your ideas or have ideas different from yours.

Preparing to Cite A Source

How do I let the reader know that I am about to cite a source?

To let the reader know that a journal article is about to be cited in the body of your paper,
you can use signal phrases that are appropriate for the ideas you want to express. These
words include: adds, argues, claims, denies, illustrates, grants, notes, observes, suggests, etc.
You could also use the standard “said.”

This is expressed in the sample below:

 In an influential article, Terrace, Petitto, Sanders and Bever (1979) argued that the apes
in the language experiments were not using language spontaneously but were merely
imitating their trainers, responding to conscious or unconscious cues.

References Page

What is the References page and how is it put together?

The References page lists all the sources you have cited in your paper. The entry for a journal
article should look like this:

 Berscheid, E., Dion, K. K., Walster, E., and Walster, G. W. (1971). Physical attractiveness
and dating choice: A test of the matching hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 7, 173-189.
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As you can see in the example above, the authors’ names appear first (last name, first name).
Then the year of publication is given in parentheses. Then the title is listed (with only the first
word of the title, the first word after the colon, and proper nouns capitalized). Then the name
of the journal (in italics) is listed, the volume number, and finally, the pages of the article. For
a book, the entry looks like this:

 Schaller, G. B. (1993). The Last Panda. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

In the example above, the author’s name is listed (last name, first name), then the date,
followed by the title with only the first word capitalized, the city of publication, and then the
name of the publisher.

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Q. 5 How will you cope with the problems in writing technically?

Answer:

Most of us are technical writers at some point or other, even if we don’t realise it.

You may be quite happy with the label if you write test reports or standard operating
procedures. But you can have a very different role and still sometimes need to write technical
things: a design brief, an employee handbook or even guidance on how to use the new office
photocopier. If your document is complex, and someone needs to be able to follow and act
on it, then it’s technical writing.

The fact that many people don’t realise that what they’re writing is technical may partly
explain why so many of these types of documents fall short. Fortunately, those shortcomings
tend to fall into just a few categories, and they’re easy to fix. So let’s look at some of the most
common difficulties technical writers (and their readers) face – and how to fix them.

1. Messy structure

Many technical documents confuse readers and fail to achieve their aims because they were
not planned properly to begin with. This lack of planning means that documents, especially
longer ones, end up structured in an illogical fashion. Things are hard to find in the text,
sections don’t follow naturally from each other, cross-references are a mess, and so on. At
best, this frustrates readers; at worst, it makes the document virtually unusable.
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How to fix it:

Before you begin writing at all, think carefully about the overall layout of the document.
Creating a simple outline will help you structure it appropriately and optimally. So when
you’ve written the text, but before you publish it, have it carefully reviewed – preferably by an
editor or by a colleague who will read it closely. They may suggest improvements to the
document’s structure, especially if you ask them to keep this in mind. The structure of the
finished document should seem logical and intuitive to its intended readers.

2. Too much jargon

Who your readers are will inform the content and style of your text. So it’s important to keep
them in mind throughout the writing process. If you’re writing something for specialist
readers, some jargon and technical language is fine; it may even be essential. If you’re writing
for a general audience or people who actually specialise in a different area, be careful –
what’s familiar and self-evident to you may not be so to them. One manager
who commissioned a technical-writing course from Emphasis described how different
specialists may ‘talk different languages’. You need to ensure that nothing gets lost in
translation.

How to fix it:

Take a few moments to identify and visualise your readers. Then consider what level and type
of technicality in the writing will be appropriate for them – and what won’t be. Those
acronyms that roll off your tongue because you use them every day – are they well known
elsewhere? Unless you’re sure your readers will know all the technical terms you plan to use,
it’s a good idea to include a glossary or a list of abbreviations, or both, at the start of a text.
Another strategy is to explain those items in parentheses or footnotes when they first appear.
But if you find yourself doing this a lot, you should probably just add a glossary instead.

3. Poor punctuation

All writers have a passing knowledge of the main set of punctuation marks. Very few,
however, outside of professional authors and editors, have a thorough grasp of how each
one works. The use of full stops and question marks is painless enough, but beyond that
there is widespread difficulty with getting the details right. When exactly are commas
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required? Which dashes go where? When should you use hyphens? What’s going on with
colons and semicolons?

How to fix it:

Find a good, modern guide to punctuation and read it carefully until you have a firm grasp of
each mark’s use and misuse. Pay particular attention to any area you have trouble with. If
certain mistakes or difficulties crop up repeatedly in your company’s documents, address
them in your style guide (see next item below).

4. Inconsistency

Technical writing should convey coherent ideas and trains of thought. Unfortunately, this
doesn’t always happen. And that’s especially true when a document is written over a period
of time, created by multiple authors, or updated piecemeal without due regard for overall
consistency and readability. These circumstances are common and can result in choppiness in
the document’s style, layout, tone, point of view, and so on. For example, the text may
address readers as ‘you’ in one paragraph and as ‘designers’ in the next. The tone may switch
abruptly from warm and chatty to scientific. This can be disconcerting, if not downright
confusing.

How to fix it:

If you’re making changes to an existing document, get a sense of the surrounding context –
including things like tone and tense. Try to align your changes with these, so that new
material is incorporated seamlessly (or, if necessary, signposted appropriately). Jumps in tone
or tense can be overlooked even more easily than typos and grammatical errors. The sense is
clear to the writer (or writers), so they don’t notice things that will jar for the reader. These
jumps must therefore be looked for specifically.

Create a company style guide and make sure all your writers have easy access to it and are
encouraged to consult it. This will do wonders for the consistency of your documents, both
internal and external. Ensure that the guide not only includes vocabulary items but also
addresses things like readership, typography, company aims, and brand voice and identity. A
style guide is a living document, so put a system in place for proposing and incorporating
additions and revisions to it.
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5. Too much abstraction

People writing in a formal or semi-formal context often go overboard in an effort to make

their prose sound proper and elevated. Their writing, as a result, can end up very abstract and
noun-heavy. ‘The achievement of good performance’ may sound fancy, but it’s a mouthful
compared to ‘performing well’, and it’s really no more impressive than the plain-language
option. It’s also less clear. Abstractions like this are unnecessary and, as they accumulate,
make your prose turgid, verbose, and tiring to read. They can also make it ambiguous: if you
describe a system as having ‘enhanced functionality’, do you mean it has more functions or
that it works better?

How to fix it:

Try to replace abstract, noun-heavy phrases with strong, straightforward verbs. This will make
your points more concise and intelligible. ‘The carrying out of tests’ can become ‘carrying out
tests’, or, better still, ‘testing’ or ‘tests’. Watch out for phrases like took place, which often
point to gratuitous nouning and buried verbs: ‘Analysis of the figures took place’ really just
means ‘The figures were analysed.’ A related issue is redundancy: ‘blue in colour’ means blue,
‘robust in nature’ means ‘robust’, and so on.

6. Unclear antecedents

An antecedent is a word, phrase, or clause referred to by another word, which is usually a

pronoun like it, they, or who. For example, in ‘Observe the results and add these to a
worksheet’, results is the antecedent of these. Ambiguity can occur when there is more than
one possible antecedent. Take the following: ‘Trainees should mark their schedules in the
notebooks provided, then in the group calendars. The manager is responsible for them.’
Whoever wrote this knew what the manager was responsible for, but readers may reasonably
wonder if them referred to the trainees, the schedules, the notebooks, or the calendars.

How to fix it:

This is a common blind spot for writers, and it shows why we are our own worst editors.
When we review the text, we see only what we meant – we miss the potential for uncertainty.
Have someone else look over the text, if possible, because a fresh pair of eyes will be more
likely to notice problems like this. It’s better to choose someone who is less familiar with what
is being described, since they are less liable to fall into the same trap of overfamiliarity.
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7. Dense presentation
Technical writing can be very … technical. Unavoidably so. Applying plain language as much
as possible will help, though you still probably won’t win awards for literature. But even
allowing for its stylistic limitations, technical writing can be made much worse through poor
presentation. Long, unbroken chunks of text, for example, are visually off-putting and hard to
follow. They can make a reader’s brain shut down out of sheer effort and frustration. The
prevalence of jargon and complex concepts add further cognitive loads, and it all adds up.
How to fix it:
There are several ways to tackle the issue of dense presentation. Short words, sentences, and
paragraphs are generally preferable, though they’re no guarantee of lucidity – it’s more
important to use the most appropriate words in the best possible manner. Some passages
can be broken up with bullet points, which makes them far easier to digest. Bullets also allow
you to simplify the grammar, since they don’t need to be full sentences.
Parallelism can lend grace, polish, and clarity, and is a grammatical device worth attention
and practice if you want to improve your writing. It can take various forms, but essentially it
means using matching grammatical structures in words, phrases or clauses that should work
in parallel.
For example, consider the sentence: For breakfast we like eggs and to grill bacon. Here, eggs is
a noun but to grill is a verb. Better to write: For breakfast we like eggs and bacon, or: For
breakfast we like to fry eggs and grill bacon.
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