Crystal Structures and Symmetries

G. Roth

This document has been published in

Manuel Angst, Thomas Brückel, Dieter Richter, Reiner Zorn (Eds.):
Scattering Methods for Condensed Matter Research: Towards Novel Applications at
Future Sources
Lecture Notes of the 43rd IFF Spring School 2012
Schriften des Forschungszentrums Jülich / Reihe Schlüsseltechnologien / Key Tech-
nologies, Vol. 33
JCNS, PGI, ICS, IAS
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, JCNS, PGI, ICS, IAS, 2012
ISBN: 978-3-89336-759-7
All rights reserved.
B1 Crystal Structures and Symmetries
G. Roth
Institute of Crystallography
RWTH Aachen University

Contents
B 1  Crystal Structures and Symmetries ................................................1 

1.1  Crystal lattices ...................................................................................2 

1.2  Crystallographic coordinate systems ..............................................4 

1.3  Symmetry-operations and -elements...............................................7 

1.4  Crystallographic point groups and space groups ........................10 

1.5  Quasicrystals....................................................................................13 

1.6  Application: Structure description of YBa2Cu3O7-δ ....................14 

________________________
Lecture Notes of the 43rd IFF Spring School "Scattering Methods for Condensed Matter Research:
Towards Novel Applications at Future Sources" (Forschungszentrum Jülich, 2012). All rights reserved.
B1.2 G. Roth

Introduction
The term “crystal” derives from the Greek κρύσταλλος , which was first used as
description of ice and later - in a more general meaning - for transparent minerals with
regular morphology (regular crystal faces and edges).
Crystalline solids are thermodynamically stable in contrast to amorphous solids and
are characterised by a regular three-dimensional periodic arrangement of atoms
(ions, molecules) in space. This periodic arrangement makes it possible to determine
their structure (atomic positions in 3D space) by diffraction methods, using the crystal
lattice as a three-dimensional diffraction grating.

MONOCHROMATOR

SOURCE CRYSTAL DETECTOR

Fig. 1.1: Sketch of a typical constant wavelength single crystal diffraction experiment.
The first such experiment has been conducted by Laue et al. in 1912 (Nobel
Prize in Physics 1914).

The purpose of this chapter is to give a brief introduction into the symmetry concept
underlying the description of the crystalline state.

1.1 Crystal lattices

The three-dimensional periodicity of crystals can be represented by the so-called crystal
lattice. The repeat unit in form of a parallelepiped - known as the unit cell – is defined
by 3 non-coplanar basis vectors a1, a2, and a3, whose directions form the reference axes
of the corresponding right-handed crystallographic coordinate system. The 6 lattice
parameters are given as the lengths of the basis vectors a = ⎪a1⎪, b = ⎪a2⎪, c = ⎪a3⎪
and the angles between the basis vectors: angle (a1,a2) = γ, angle (a2,a3) = α, angle
(a3,a1) = β. The faces of the unit cell are named as face (a1,a2) = C, face (a2,a3) = A,
face (a3,a1) = B.
If the vertices of all repeat units (unit cells) are replaced by points, the result is the
crystal lattice in the form of a point lattice. Each lattice point is given by a vector a =
ua1+va2+wa3, with u, v, w being integers. As a symmetry operation of parallel
displacement, a – also known as translation vector – maps the atomic arrangement of
the crystal (crystal structure) onto itself.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.3

Fig. 1.2: Notation for a unit cell (basis vectors a1, a2, a3, or a, b, c) and a point lattice.

A lattice point is labelled “uvw”, according to the coefficients (integers) of the

translation vector
a = u a1 + v a2 + w a3 1.1
from the origin to the lattice point. A lattice direction - given by the symbol [uvw] - is
defined by the direction of the corresponding translation vector.
A plane passing through three lattice points is known as a lattice plane. Since all lattice
points are equivalent (by translation symmetry) there will be infinitely many parallel
planes passing through all the other points of the lattice. Such a set of equally spaced
planes is known as a set of lattice planes. If the first plane from the origin of a set of
lattice planes makes intercepts a1/h, a2/k, a3/l on the axes, where h, k, l are integers, then
the Miller indices of this set of lattice planes are (hkl), the three coefficients h, k, l are
conventionally enclosed in parentheses.
The equation of lattice planes can be written in intercept form as
(hx/a1) + (ky/a2) + (lz/a3) = n, 1.2
where n is an integer. If n = 0 the lattice plane passes through the origin; if n = 1 the
plane makes intercepts a1/h, a2/k, a3/l on the axes; if n = 2 the intercepts are 2a1/h,
2a2/k, 2a3/l; and so on.
Complementary to the crystal lattice, the so-called reciprocal lattice may be constructed,
which is a useful tool for understanding the geometry of diffraction experiments. The
reciprocal lattice can be thought of as the result of diffraction (of X-rays, neutrons,
electrons etc.) from the crystal lattice (‘direct lattice’). The points on the diffraction
pattern in Fig. 1.1 (right) are actually points of the reciprocal lattice recorded during the
diffraction experiment. Their nodes are indexed by the Miller-indices hkl in the same
way as the nodes of the direct lattice are indexed by uvw:
τ = h τ1 + k τ 2 + l τ3 . 1.3
The basis vectors τ of the reciprocal lattice can be calculated from those of the direct
cell by:
B1.4 G. Roth

τi = (aj ×ak)/Vc, 1.4

where × means the cross product, and Vc = a1⋅(a2×a3) is the volume of the unit cell.
Here is a compilation of some properties of the reciprocal lattice:
• Each reciprocal lattice vector is perpendicular to two real space vectors: τi ⊥ aj and ak
(for i ≠ j, k)
• The lengths of the reciprocal lattice vectors are |τi| = 1/Vc⋅|aj|⋅|ak|⋅sin∠(aj,ak).
• Each point hkl in the reciprocal lattice refers to a set of planes (hkl) in real space.
• The direction of the reciprocal lattice vector τ is normal to the (hkl) planes and its
length is reciprocal to the interplanar spacing dhkl: |τ| = 1/dhkl.
• Duality principle: The reciprocal lattice of the reciprocal lattice is the direct lattice.

Fig. 1.3: Direct and corresponding reciprocal unit cell.

1.2 Crystallographic coordinate systems

The description of a crystal structure consists first of the choice of a unit cell as the
smallest repeat unit of the crystal with its basis vectors. In this way a crystal-specific
coordinate system is defined which is used to localize all the atoms in the unit cell.
While - in physics and chemistry - Cartesian coordinate systems are frequently used,
crystallographers often use non-orthogonal and non-orthonormal coordinate systems.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.5

The conventional crystallographic coordinate systems are based on the symmetry of the
crystals. In three dimensions there are 7 different crystal systems and hence 7
crystallographic coordinate systems:

Crystal system Minimum symmetry Conventional unit cell

triclinic 1 or 1 a ≠ b ≠ c; α ≠ β ≠ γ

monoclinic
one diad – 2 or m (‖Y) a ≠ b ≠ c; α=γ=90°, β>90°
(unique axis b)

three mutually perpendicular

orthorhombic a ≠ b ≠ c; α=β=γ=90°
diads – 2 or m (‖X, Y and Z)

tetragonal one tetrad – 4 or 4 (‖Z) a = b ≠ c; α=β=γ=90°

trigonal
one triad – 3 or 3 (‖Z) a = b ≠ c; α=β=90°,
(hexagonal cell)
γ=120°

hexagonal one hexad – 6 or 6 (‖Z) a = b ≠ c; α=β=90°,

γ=120°

cubic four triads – 3 or 3 a = b = c; α=β=γ=90°

(‖space diagonals of cube)

The choice of the origin of the coordinate system is free in principle, but for
convenience it is usually chosen at a centre of symmetry (inversion centre), if present,
otherwise in a point of high symmetry.
In order to complete the symmetry conventions of the coordinate systems it is necessary
to add to the 7 so-called primitive unit cells of the crystal systems (primitive lattice
types with only one lattice point per unit cell) 7 centred unit cells with two, three or four
lattice points per unit cell (centred lattice types). These centred unit cells are
consequently two, three or four times larger than the smallest repeat units of the
crystals. The resulting 14 Bravais lattice types with their centering conditions are
collected in Fig. 1.4.
B1.6 G. Roth

triclinic P monoclinic P monoclinic A orthorhombic P

monoclinic axis‖c (0,0,0 + 0, ½, ½)

orthorhombic I orthorhombic C orthorhombic F tetragonal P

(0,0,0 + ½, ½, ½) (0,0,0 + ½, ½,0) (0,0,0 + ½, ½,0
½,0, ½ + 0, ½, ½)

tetragonal I hexagonal P hexagonal/ cubic P

rhombohedral R

cubic I cubic F

Fig. 1.4: The 14 Bravais lattices consisting of the 7 primitive lattices P for the 7 crystal
systems with only one lattice point per unit cell + the 7 centred (multiple)
lattices A, B, C, I, R and F with 2, 3 and 4 lattice points per unit cell.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.7

1.3 Symmetry-operations and -elements

The symmetry operations of a crystal are isometric transformations or motions, i.e.

mappings which preserve distances and, hence, also angles and volumes. An object and
its transformed object superimpose in a perfect manner, they are indistinguishable.
The simplest crystallographic symmetry operation is the translation, which is a parallel
displacement of the crystal by a translation vector a (see chapter 1.1). There is no fixed
point, the entire lattice is shifted and therefore, theoretically, the crystal lattice is
considered to be infinite.
Crystallographic rotations n around an axis by an angle ϕ = 360°/n (n-fold rotations)
and rotoinversions (combination of rotations and inversions)⎯n are called point
symmetry operations because they leave at least one point of space invariant (at least
one fixed point). An important fact of crystallographic symmetry is the restriction of the
rotation angles by the three-dimensional crystal lattice to ϕ = 360° (n = 1), 180° (n = 2),
120° (n = 3), 90° (n = 4), 60° (n = 6). Only for these crystallographic rotations the space
can be covered completely without gaps and overlaps. The rotoinversion⎯n =⎯1 is an
inversion in a point,⎯n =⎯2 ≡ m (mirror) describes a reflection across a plane.
The combination of n-fold rotations with (m/n)⋅a translation components (m < n) ‖ to
the rotation axis leads to the so-called screw rotations nm, e.g. 21, 32, 42, 65. These
symmetry operations have no fixed points.
The combination of a reflection through a plane (glide plane) with translation
components (glide vectors) of a1/2, a2/2, a3/2, (a1+a2)/2, … ‖ to this plane are known as
glide reflections a, b, c, n, …, d. Again no fixed points exist for these symmetry
operations.
In addition to the symmetry operations which represent isometric motions of an object,
symmetry can also be described in (static) geometrical terms by symmetry elements.
They form the geometrical locus, oriented in space, on which a symmetry operation is
performed (line for a rotation, plane for a reflection, and point for an inversion) together
with a description of this operation. Symmetry elements are mirror planes, glide planes,
rotation axes, screw axes, rotoinversion axes and inversion centres. The geometrical
descriptions of the crystallographic symmetry operations are illustrated in Figs. 1.5-1.7.
A symmetry operation transforms a point X with coordinates x, y, z (according to a
position vector X = xa1 + ya2 + za3) into a symmetrically equivalent point X’ with
coordinates x’, y’, z’ mathematically by the linear equations

x’ = W11x + W12y + W13z + w1

y’ = W21x + W22y + W23z + w2 1.5
z’ = W31x + W32y + W33z + w3

with w1, w2, w3 constituting the translational part of the symmetry operation.
B1.8 G. Roth

Point symmetry operations

rotations rotoinversions

1=identity inversion

2-fold rotation combined

2-fold = 180°-rotation with inversion = reflection

5
1
3
6
4
2

Fig. 1.5: Rotations: n=1 (identity), n=2 (rot. angle 180°), n=3 (120°), n=4 (90°), n=6
(60°). Rotoinversions:⎯1 (inversion),⎯2 ≡ m (reflection), 3=3+1,⎯4,⎯6 = 3/m.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.9

120°

1/3τ
a
a
60°

2/6τ

31 = 3 + 1/3 τ 62 = 6 + 2/6 τ

60°
a

4/6τ

+ 42, 43 and 65 64 = 6 + 4/6 τ

Fig. 1.6: Screw rotations nm: combination of rotations n and translation components
(m/n)⋅a ‖ to the rotation axis.

a
m

reflection: mirror plane m ⊥ image plane (plane of the paper)

a
a
a/2

glide reflection: glide plane a ⊥ with glide vector a/2

Fig. 1.7: Examples of reflections and glide reflections.

B1.10 G. Roth

The above equation, re-written in matrix notation:

⎛ x' ⎞ ⎛ W11 W12 W13 ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ w 1 ⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ y'⎟ = ⎜ W21 W22 W23 ⎟ D ⎜ y ⎟ + ⎜ w 2 ⎟ ; X’ = W°X + w = (W, w)°X 1.6
⎜ z' ⎟ ⎜ W
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 31 W32 W33 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ z ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ w 3 ⎟⎠

The (3×3) matrix W is the rotational part and the (3×1) column matrix w the
translational part of the symmetry operation. The two parts W and w can be assembled
into an augmented (4×4) matrix W according to
⎛ x' ⎞ ⎛ W11 W12 W13 w1 ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ y'⎟ ⎜ W21 W22 W23 w2 ⎟ ⎜ y⎟
⎜ z' ⎟ = ⎜ W W32 W33
D
w3 ⎟ ⎜ z ⎟
= W°X 1.7
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 31 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜1⎟ ⎜ 0 0 0 1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝
Since every symmetry transformation is a “rigid-body” motion, the determinant of all
matrices W and W is det W = det W = ± 1 (+ 1: preservation of handedness; - 1: change
of handedness of the object).
The sequence of two symmetry operations (successive application) is given by the
product of their matrices W1 and W2:

W3 = W1°W2 1.8
where W3 is again a symmetry operation.

1.4 Crystallographic point groups and space groups

The symmetry of a crystal and of its crystal structure can be described by mathematical
group theory. The symmetry operations are the group elements of a crystallographic
group G and the combination of group elements is the successive execution of
symmetry operations. All possible combinations of crystallographic point-symmetry
operations in three-dimensional space lead to exactly 32 crystallographic point groups
(≡ crystal classes) which all are of finite order (the maximum order is 48 for the cubic
crystal class m 3 m ). For the different crystal systems they are represented by
stereographic projections in Fig. 1.8. There are two types of group symbols in use: For
each crystal class the corresponding Schoenflies symbol is given at the bottom left and
the Hermann-Mauguin (international) symbol at the bottom right. A maximum of 3
independent main symmetry directions (“Blickrichtungen”) is sufficient to describe the
complete symmetry of a crystal. These symmetry directions are specifically defined for
the 7 crystal systems (Hermann-Mauguin symbols). As an example, the symmetry
directions of the cubic system are shown in Fig. 1.9.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.11

Fig. 1.8: The 32 crystallographic point groups (crystal classes) in three-dimensional

space represented by their stereographic projections. The group symbols are
given according to Schoenflies (bottom left) and to Hermann-Mauguin (bottom
right).
B1.12 G. Roth

z z z

y y y
x x x
[100] [111] [110]
4 2
3
m m

Fig. 1.9: Symmetry directions (“Blickrichtungen”) of the cubic lattice (a=b=c,

α=β=γ=90°). Along [100]: 4/m, along [111]:⎯3, along [110]: 2/m.
In three dimensions all possible combinations of the point symmetries of the 32
crystallographic point groups with the lattice translations of the 14 Bravais lattices lead
to exactly 230 space groups, all of infinite order. As already mentioned, the addition of
translations to the point symmetries results in new symmetry operations: Screw
rotations and glide reflections. The conventional graphical symbols for the symmetry
elements according to the International Tables for Crystallography Vol. A (2002) [1] are
shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10: Conventional graphical symbols for symmetry elements:

- symmetry axes: (a) perpendicular, (b) parallel, and (c) inclined to the plane;
- symmetry planes: (d) perpendicular and (e) parallel to the image plane.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.13

1.5 Quasicrystals
Since the pioneering work of Shechtman et al [2] published in 1984 and honoured by
the 2011 Nobel-Prize in Physics it is accepted that the crystalline state with its 3D
periodic arrangement of atoms in a lattice is not the only long-range ordered ground
state of matter. This quasi crystalline state also follows strict construction rules and
exhibits long range order, but the rules are no longer based on the lattice concept.

Fig. 1.11: 2D-analogues of a crystalline (left) and a quasi-crystalline structure (center)

[3], Penrose tiling of a plane by two different rhombs (right) [4].

The description of quasicrystals is closely related to the so called Penrose-tilings which

are a way to cover the plane completely and without overlap by a long range ordered,
non-periodic arrangement of (in the case shown in Fig. 1.11) two different geometric
shapes (here: rhombs). As a result of the lack of translation symmetry, the
“crystallographically forbidden” rotation axes (5-fold, 8-fold, 10-fold etc., more
precisely: forbidden as part of a 3D-space group symmetry) may occur in quasi crystals
and also show up as symmetries of the outer shape (Fig. 1.12 left) and diffraction
patterns of quasi crystals (center).

Fig. 1.12: Icosahedral quasi crystal HoMgZn (left) [5], electron diffraction pattern
taken along the -5 rotoinversion axis (center) [5] and stereographic projection
of the icosahedral point symmetry group m-3-5 [2]
B1.14 G. Roth

1.6 Application: Structure description of YBa2Cu3O7-δ

The crystal structure determination with atomic resolution is achieved by diffraction

experiments with X-rays, electron or neutron radiation. As an example, the results of a
structure analysis by neutron diffraction on a single crystal of the ceramic high-TC
superconductor YBa2Cu3O7-δ with TC = 92 K are presented [6]. The atomic arrangement
of the orthorhombic structure, space group P m m m, and the temperature-dependent
electrical resistivity are shown in Fig. 1.13.

TC
YBa2Cu3O7- δ

Fig. 1.13: Crystal structure (unit cell) of YBa2Cu3O7-δ with the CuOx-polyhedra (left)
and the electrical resistivity as a function of temperature ‖ and ⊥ to the
[001] direction (right).

The crystal structure contains two different Cu-O polyhedra (green): CuO5-tetragonal
pyramids and CuO4-squares. The pyramids share corners in 2D and form double layers,
the charge carriers responsible for superconductivity are supposed to be located in these
double layers.

Information from the international tables on the relative locations and orientations of the
symmetry elements (symmetry operations 1, 2z, 2y, 2x,⎯1, mz, my, mx) of the
orthorhombic space group P m m m, together with the choice of the origin (in an
inversion centre), is shown in Fig. 1.14. The general position (site symmetry 1) of
multiplicity 8 and all special positions with their site symmetries are listed in Fig. 1.15.
There are no special reflection conditions for this space group.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.15

b c

a a

Fig. 1.14: Description of the orthorhombic space group P m m m in [1].

B1.16 G. Roth

YBa2Cu3O7- δ

Fig. 1.15: General and special positions (coordinates of all symmetrically

equivalent positions) of space group P m m m with their site symmetries and
multiplicities [1]. The special positions occupied by atoms of the YBa2Cu3O7-δ
structure are highlighted by frames.
Crystal Structures and Symmetries B1.17

The atomic parameters of the structure refinement of YBa2Cu3O6.96 at room temperature

[6] are given in the following Table:

Atomic positions of YBa2Cu3O6.96

orthorhombic, space group type P 2/m 2/m 2/m
a = 3.858 Å, b = 3.846 Å, c = 11.680 Å (at room temperature)

atom/ion multiplicity site symmetry x y z

Cu1/Cu2+ 1 2/m 2/m 2/m 0 0 0

Cu2/Cu2+ 2 mm2 0 0 0.35513(4)

Y/Y3+ 1 2/m 2/m 2/m ½ ½ ½

Ba/Ba2+ 2 mm2 ½ ½ 0.18420(6)

O1/O2- 2 mm2 0 0 0.15863(5)

O2/O2- 2 mm2 0 ½ 0.37831(2)

O3/O2- 2 mm2 ½ 0 0.37631(2)

O4/O2- 1 2/m 2/m 2/m 0 ½ 0

References

[1] International Tables for Crystallography Vol. A, Space-group Symmetry, edited

by Th. Hahn, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers (5. Edition, 2002)
[2] D. Shechtman, I. Blech, D. Gratias, J. Cahn: "Metallic Phase with Long-Range
Orientational Order and No Translational Symmetry". Physical Review Letters
53, 1951 (1984)
[3] S. Curtarolo, Duke University, http://today.duke.edu/2005/09/quasicrystals.html
[4] Image: Inductiveload/Wikimedia Commons
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penrose_tiling
[5] I.R. Fisher, Z. Islam, A.F. Panchula, K.O. Cheon, M.J. Kramer,
P.C. Canfield, A.I. Goldman: Philos. Mag. B 77 1601–1615 (1998)
Images: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zn-Mg-HoDiffraction.JPG
[6] P. Schweiss, W. Reichardt, M. Braden, G. Collin, G. Heger, H. Claus, A. Erb:
Phys. Rev. B 49, 1387 – 1396 (1994)