NETWORK PROTCOLS

FTP: File transfer protocol

HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

PPP: Pint-to-point Protocol

RIP: Routing Information Protocol

EIGRP: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

BANDWIDTH

 Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a network connection
in a given period of time
 In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (BPS)

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second Bps 1 bps= fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobits per second Kbps 1 kbps= 1,000 bps=103 bps
Megabits per second Mbps 1 mbps= 1,000,000 bps= 10 6 bps
Gigabits per second Gbps 1 gbps=1,000,000,000 bps= 10 9 bps
Terabits per second Tbps 1 tbps= 1,000,000,000,000, bps= 10 12 bps

Throughput

 Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific
internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on network
 Bandwidth varies depending upon the type of media as well as the LAN and WAN technologies
used

Why bandwidth is important:

 Bandwidth is limited by physics and technology

 Bandwidth is not free
 Bandwidth requirements are growing at a rapid rate
 Bandwidth is critical to network performance
 Transfer Time Calculation
Best Download

T= S .
BW

Typical Download

T= S .
P

BW Maximum theoretical bandwidth of the “slowest link” between the source host
and the destination host (measured in bits per second)
P Actual throughput at the moment of transfer (measured in bits per second)
T Time for file transfer to occur (measured in seconds)
S File size in bits

PCM: Pulse Code Modulation- Converts analog to digital

Involves three operations: Sampling, Quantization, and Encoding

Advantages of Digital

 Although both analog and digital signals degrade over distance, digital signals can be
regenerated and cleaned up
 Different data types can be sent with less bandwidth (voice, video, data)
 Digital transmission is less sensitive to noise

Networking’s Growing Pains

 Data networks developed as a result of business applications that were written for
microcomputers
 Emerging network technologies were built using different kinds of hardware and software
 Many of the new network technologies were incompatible
 There was a need for standardization
The ISO’s Standard
 The ISO recognized there was a need to create a network model that would help vendors create
networks that would work compatibly and interoperably with other networks
 In1984, the ISO released their networking model.

ANSI- American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

 Composed of more than a thousand representatives from industry and government

 Represents United States in setting internal standards

EIA and TIA

 Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA): Trade organization composed of representatives from

electronics manufacturing firms across US
1. Sets standards for its members
2. Helps write ANSI standards
3. Lobbies for legislation favorable to growth of computer and electronics industries

TIA

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
ISOC
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): Sets standards for how systems
communicate over the internet
IANA and ICANN
 Internet protocol (IP) addresses: Addresses used to identify computers on the internet
and other TCP/IP- based networks
 Internet assigned numbers Authority (IANA): used to keep records of available and
reserved IP addresses and determines how addresses were doled out
1. In 1997, coordinated efforts with three Regional internet registries (RIRs)
2. Not-for-profit agency that manages distribution of IP addresses to private and
public entities
 In late 1990s U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC) overhauled IP addressing and
domain name management
 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN): Ultimately responsible
for IP addressing and domain name management
1. IANA still performs system administration
 Individuals and businesses lease addresses from Internet Service Provider (ISP)
1. Business providing access to internet and other services

The OSI Model

 Open systems interconnection (OSI) Model: divides network communications into seven
layers:
 Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application
 Protocols perform services unique to layer
 Protocols interact with protocols in layers directly above and below
 Protocol: set of instructions to perform a function or group of functions
1. Written by a programmer
 Theoretical representation of what happens between two nodes communication on a
network
1. Does not prescribe type of hardware or software that should support each layer
2. Does not describe how software programs interact with other software
programs or how software programs interact with humans
 Each layer communicates with same layer from one computer to another
 Model is imperfect
Layer 1- Physical Layer- BIT, 1 & 0 = HUBS & REPEATERS NIC

Layer 2- Data layer- FRAMES = SWITCHES and BRIDGES NIC

Layer 3- Network Layer- PACKETS or Datagram’s = Routers

Layer 4- Transport Layer- SEGMENTS

Layer 5- Session Layer- USER DATE

Layer 6- Presentation Layer- USER DATE

Layer 7- Application Layer- USER DATE

7- Application Layer

 Services facilitate communication betweek software and lower- layer network

services
 Helps software applications negotiate formatiing, procedural, security,
synchronization, and other requirements with network
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): formats and sends requests from clients
browser to server, also formats and send web server’s response back to client’s
browser
 Application program interface (API): set of routines that make up part of a software
application

6- Presentation Layer

 Protocols accept Application Layer data and format it

 So that one type of application and host can understand data from another type of
application and host, e.g., translation and conversion between graphics file types
 Manages data encryption and decryption

5- Session Layer

 Protocols coordinate and maintain communications between two network nodes

 1. Establish and maintain communications link for duration of session
 2. Keep communication secure
 3.synchronize dialogue between two nodes
 4. Determine if communications have been cut off. Determine where to restart
transmission
 5. Terminate communications
  6. Sets terms of communication
 Decides which node will communicate first
 Decides how long a node can communicate
 7. Monitors identification of session participants
 Ensures that only authorized nodes have access

4- Transport Layer (view model)

 Protocols accept data from Session Layer and manage end-to-end delivery of data
 1. Ensure data transferred reliably, in correct sequence, and without errors
 Protocols also handle flow control
 1. Gauging appropriate rate of transmission based on how fast recipient can accept
data
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): takes care of reliably transmitting HTTP
requests from client to server and vice versa
 Connection-oriented protocols: ensure that data arrives exactly as it was sent
 1. Establish connection before transmitting data
 2. TCP is connection- oriented
 A. Client’s TCP protocol first sends synchronization (SYN) packet request to server
 B. Server responds with synchronization- acknowledgment (SYN-ACK) packet
 C. Client responds with own acknowledgement (ACK)
 Acknowledgements also used to ensure that data was properly delieverd
 1. For every data unit sent, connection-oriented protocol expects acknowledgment
from recipient
 A. If no acknowledgment, data retransmitted
 Connection- oriented protocols use a checksum
 1. Unique character string allowing receiving node to determine if arriving data unit
exactly matches data unit sent by source
 Connectionless protocols do not establish connection before transmitting
 1. No effort to ensure data delivered error-free
 Transport layer protocols break large data units received from Session layer into
smaller segments (Segmentation)
 Maximum transmission unit (MTU): largest data unit a given network will carry
 Reassembly (when received at destination): process of reconstructing segmented
data units
 Sequencing: method of identifying segments that belong to same group of
subdivided data
 1. Indicates where unit of data begins
 2. Indicates order in which groups of data were issued
 Transport layer protocols of two nodes must synchronize timing and agree on
starting point the transmission
 3- NETWORK LAYER

 Primary functions of protocols:

 1. Translate network addresses into physical counterparts
 2. Decide how to route data from sender to receiver
 Each node has two types of addresses:
 1. Network address: follows hierarchical addressing scheme
 A. can be assigned through OS software
 B. Network later addresses, logical addresses, or virtual addresses
 Physical address
 Network layer protocols accept Transport layer segments and add logical addressing
information in network header
 Network layer handles routing
 1. Determining best network path
 IP: network layer protocol that underlies most internet traffic
 Fragmentation: Network layer protocol subdivides segments it receives from
Transport layer into smaller packets

2-DATA LINK LAYER

 Protocols divide received data into distinct frames

 1. Can then be transmitted by Physical Layer
 Frame: structured package for moving data
 1. Raw data
 2. Sender’s and receiver’s network addresses
 3. Error checking and control information
 Error checking accomplished by 4-byte Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field
 1. Ensures data at destination exactly matches data issued from source
 2. When source node transmits data, performs Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to
get FCS
 3. Destination node’s Data Link layer services unscramble FCS via same CRC
algorithm
 Data Link Layer divided into two sub-layers:
 1. Logical Link Control
 2. Media Access Control
 VIEW MODEL
 Logical Link Control (LLC) sub layer:
 1. Provides interface to Network layer protocols
 2. Manages flow control
 3. Issues requests for transmission for data that has suffered errors
  Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer:
 1.manages access to physical layer
 A. Appends destination computer’s physical address onto data frame (MAC address,
Data Link layer address, or hardware address)
 MAC address contain two parts:
 1. Block ID: six- character sequence unique to vendor
 Device ID: six character sequence based on NIC’s model and manufacture date

1- PHYSICAL LAYER

 Protocols accept frames from Data Link layer and generate voltage to transmit
signals
 When receiving data, protocols detect voltage and accept signals
 Protocols also set data transmission rate and monitor data error rates
 1. Cannot perform error correction
 NICs operate at both physical layer and Data Link Layer
 Network administrators mostly concerned with bottom four layers of OSI Model

APPLYING THE OSI MODEL

OSI MODEL LAYER FUNCTION
Application (layer 7) Provides interface between software applications and network for
interpreting application’s requests and requirements
Presentation (layer 6) Allows hosts and applications to use a common language; performs
data formatting, encryption, and compression
Session (layer 5) Establishes, maintains, and terminates user connections
Transport (layer 4) Ensures accurate delivery of data through flow control, segmentation
and reassembly, error correction, and acknowledgment
Network (layer 3) Establishes network connections; translates network addresses into
their physical counterparts and determines routing
Data Link (Layer 2) Packages data in frames appropriate to network transmission method
Physical (Layer 1) Manages signaling to and from physical network connections
02/28/2011

(Figure on binder)
 Voltage is an electrical force, or pressure, that occurs when electrons and protons are
separated
 The force that is created pushes towards the opposite charge and away from the like
charge
 Volt is defined as the amount of work, per unit charge, needed to separate the charges

 Voltage is sometimes referred to as electromotive force (EMF)

 Voltage is represented by the letter V, and sometimes by the letter E, for electromotive
force
 The unit of measurement for voltage is volt (V)

 When voltage, or electrical pressure, is applied and there is a path for the current,
electrons move from the negative terminal along the path to the positive terminal
producing electrical current
 Electrical current is the flow of charges created when electrons move

Resistance and Impedance

 Materials that offer very little or no resistance to the flow of current are called
conductors
 Materials that do not allow electrical current to flow are called insulators
 The unit of measurement for the resistance is the ohm= Ω
 Insulators Conductors Semiconductors
Electrons flow poorly Electrons flow well Electron flow can be
precisely controlled
Plastic Copper (CU) Carbon (C)
Rubber Silver (AG) Germanium (GE)
Air Gold (AU) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Paper Solder Silicon (Si)
Dry wood Water with Ions
Glass Humans

Layer 1- Choices
Media choices:

 Twisted pair (most common, cheap and easy)

 Coaxial (old, not used for new installations)
 Fiber optic (expensive and difficult, fastest)

A network is only as reliable as its medium

Layer 1- Investments

How long should an investment in cabling last?

 Software: should last 2-3 years

 PC hardware: 3-5 years
 Cabling system: is expected to last 15 years.

Layer 1: Signaling
 Copper wires carry electrical signals over copper
 Fiber cables carry pulses of light over glass/ plastic
Criteria For Media Selection
 Cost
 Distance the signal must travel
 Speed required
 Need for security
 Person who will do the installation
 Potential interference problems
 Fire codes

Differences in Media
 Some media use plastic jackets that can emit toxic smoke during a fire
 To guard against such occurrences, fire codes, building codes, and safety standards have
been implemented which govern the type of cable jackets that can be used
(PLENUM)

Twisted- Pair Cabling

 Wires come in pairs
 The pairs of wire are twisted around each other (to reduce crosstalk)

STP (shielded Twisted Pair)

 Each pair is shielded along with a outer shield

Shielding
 Each wire pair or group of wire pairs is surrounded by a metal braid or foil.
 Acts as a barrier to any interfering signals
 Increases the diameter and cost of the cable
 Harder to install
STP
Advantages:

 Greater protection than UTP from interference

Disadvantages:

 More expensive than UTP

 Heavier and less flexible than UTP
 May not fit down narrow cabling ducts

UTP (unshielded Twisted Pair)

Unshielded pairs, all pairs are twisted but not shielded. Only has an Outer Jacket. Are color-
coded plastic insulation

 Speed and throughput: 10-100-1000 MBPS (depending on the quality/ category of

cable)
 Average $ per node: Least Expensive
 Media and Connector size: Small
 Maximum cable length: 100km

Connecting switch with a switch you need a crossover cable

Straight, Cross and Roll

 There are three types of UTP cables

1) Straight- Through
2) Crossover
3) Rollover

 Straight-Through is used for patch cables and horizontal cabling

 Crossover is used between two like devices to send and receive data
 Rollover is used to console into a device
Unshielded Twisted-Pair
Comes in different Categories:

 Cat 1: Voice grade only

 Cat 2: Voice- grade only (used to be data)
 Cat 3: Minimum standard for data
 Cat 4: Data grade
 Cat 5: Data- Grade, most widely implemented cabling today
 Cat 5 enhanced: Enhanced Cat 5
 Cat 6+: emerging standards

UTP
IEEE Standards:

 10BaseT
 100BaseT
 1000BaseT

Advantages:

 Thin, flexible, easy to install

 Doesn’t crowd wiring ducts as much as coax
 Cheap

Disadvantages:

 More susceptible to interference than most other types of cabling

 Limited to segments of 100 meters.

Coaxial Cable
 Consists of solid inner core, usually made of copper
 Uses a foil or copper braid shield
1. Thinnet (10Base2): 185 meters unboosted
2. Thicknet (10Base5): 500 meters unboosted
 Advantages:
 Segment lengths are longer than twisted pair
 Shielding built in
 Hubs between stations are not required
  Disadvantages:
 Not as easy to run as UTP
 More expensive than UTP
 Needs more room in wiring ducts than UTP

Light Sources
 Multimode= Light Emitting Diode (LED)
o Producing infrared light with wavelengths of either 850nm or 1310nm
o LANs and shorter distances
 Single-Mode= Laser
o Producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually with wavelengths of
1310nm or 1550 nm
o WANs and longer distances

Fiber Connectors and Terminators

 ST= straight Tip
o -Single –Mode
 SC= Subscriber Connector
o –Multimode

Fiber-Optic Cable
Advantages

 Not susceptible to electromagnetic interference

 Capable of higher data rates
 Capable of longest unboosted runs

Disadvantages

 -Expensive
 -Most difficult to install
Fiber Install Problems
 Stretched or curved too tightly can cause:
o Scatter from cracks in the fiber’s core
o Improper angle of reflection from tight turn
 Improper termination and polishing:
o Gap in the core and signal is lost in the cladding

Wireless
 802.11a-54Mbps, 5GHz
 802.11b-11Mbps, 2.4 GHz
 802.11g-54Mbps, 2.4 GHz
 802.11n->100Mbps, 2.4 and 5Ghz

WLANS
 Operate in one of two modes:
o Infrastructure or Ad-hoc
 Wireless network cards access wireless Access Points (APs)
 Wireless APs advertise their Service Set ID (SSID)
 Wireless cards detect the AP’s SSID and attempt to join

WLAN Security
 Wired equivalent Privacy (WEP) key
o 64 bit or 128 bit shared key between AP and card
o Most common form of authentication
o There is also EAP, LEAP (Cisco) and PEAP
 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) is gaining popularity as well as 802.1x
Authentication States
 Unauthenticated and unassociated
o The node is disconnected from the network and not associated to an access
point.
 Authenticated and unassociated
o The node has been authenticated on the network but has not yet associated
with the access point
 Authenticated and associated
o The node is connected to the network and able to transmit and receive data
through the access point.

Wireless
 Advantages
 Allows for mobile use
o Cars, planes, space travel
 Air is the media
o No physical wires connecting devices

Disadvantages

 Security
 Speed
 Interference

Despite disadvantages, wireless technologies are a crucial part of future of networking