Physical Science

Formation of Heavy Elements

Week

1
 What I Need to Know

This module will walk you through the beginning of everything. It

focuses on how some elements today were formed as stars were born
right after the universe existed. You will be provided with activities such
as filling out graphic organizer, reading story board and illustrations
which make you remember the lesson. Make sure to answer the pretest
first before going through this module and the posttest at the end of the
module.

The module consists of:

• Lesson 1 – Stellar Nucleosynthesis: Rise of the Stars!

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. explain stellar nucleosynthesis;
2. describe the different stages of life cycle of stars;
3. cite the different heavy elements formed in each stages of starcycle

Have you ever wondered what stars are made of? What keeps them
shine so bright? Well, this module will help you understand some of the
important concepts about stars. Are you ready? Let’s go!

Lesson
Stellar Nucleosynthesis: Rise of
1 the Stars!
The world where we live today is just a small part of our universe. In
your previous science lessons, you have learned different theories
about the origin of the universe that led to the formation of galaxies,
solar system and other heavenly bodies. This lesson will focus on
one of those wonderful things in outer space, the stars. Although
stars are millions of light years away from us, we can still see
them twinkling in the night sky. Let’s find out how they emitlight
and what keeps them shining for a long time.

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 What’s In

Scientists believe that the formation of the universe began through the explosion of
a primordial atom which happened approximately 13.7 billion years ago. The origin
of the universe is described by the Big Bang theory which was introduced by Edwin
Hubble. In 1929, Hubble demonstrated that all celestial objects in the universe
move away from each other.

Right after Big Bang, protons and neutrons combined and formed light elements
Hydrogen and Helium through the process of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.
Other light elements such as Lithium and Beryllium were also formed during this
process.

What’s New
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
The word “stellar” means star and the formation of elements in the
center of the star is called stellar nucleosynthesis. Carl Sagan said that
“We are made of star stuff.” What did he mean by that? If we know how
some important heavy elements were formed same as stars, that maybe
a clue.
Label the sequence of star life cycle. Use the hints/clues found in the
table below this diagram.

Star Life Cycle

1. NEBULA

2. PROTOSTAR

3. MAIN SEQUENCE STAR

RED GIANT
8. 4. RED SUPER GIANT

WHITE DWARF 5. SUPERNOVA

9.

BLACK DWARF
10.
7. 6.
NEUTRON STAR BLACK HOLE

Average Star Massive Star

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 Hints/ Clues
Average Star

1. The star is unable to generate heat when it runs out of hydrogen

in its core leading to its contraction and expansion. It cools
down and glows red. The Helium fused into Carbon. The star is
now RED GIANT
2. Red giant star becomes exhausted of nuclear fuel, the outer
material is blown off into space leaving the inert Carbon. The
remnant is known as WHITE DWARF.
3. Giant cloud of gas and dust known as NEBULA.
4. It is formed from nebula due to the gravity that pulled Hydrogen
gas together until it spins faster and faster and becomes ignited.
A PROTOSTAR rises.
5. MAIN SEQUENCE STAR starts to form when nuclear fusion
occurs at the core of the star, it begins to contract, glow and
become stable. Hydrogen is converted into Helium.
6. This is said to be the remain of the white dwarf that cooled down
and no longer emits light and heat. The hypotheticalBLACK
DWARF.
Massive star

1. It is believed that a NEUTRON STAR is formed from supernova

explosion. This is also the smallest star
2. Explosion of star or SUPERNOVA releases large amount of energy.
Because of that, elements are dispersed into the space.
3. BLACK HOLE is a region in space where gravity is too strong that
no matter can escape from it.
4. A more massive main sequence star evolves, cools and expands
faster than low mass star and will turn intoRED SUPER GIANT
star, the largest known star. Carbon fusion still occurs and Oxygen
formed.

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 What is It

Were you able to label all the stages of star? Review the hints/clues in the
previous activity. You will notice that following the sequence will reveal what
happens in each stage of star.

To understand further, answer the following questions below.

1. What element from space is pulled by gravity and turned into a protostar?

2. What will happen if a low mass main sequence star runs out of hydrogenfuel?

3. How are heavy elements such as Carbon, Oxygen and Neon formed
during star formation?
_

4. Why is it impossible for any matter such as light and radiation to escape
from a black hole?

5. Why do you think massive star has shorter life span than average stars?

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Look at the diagrams below in order to understand how stars are formed into
different stages because of nuclear fusion (combination of nuclei to form heavier
one) among heavy elements.
The diagram shows the
proton-proton chain
reaction in a main
sequence star. In this
process, the average
star gets its energy and
convert Hydrogen into
Helium. It starts with a
proton and a neutron
which fuse together to
form deuterium. When
another proton collides
with deuterium, Helium
-3 is formed.
Collision between the
Helium-3 atom with
another helium-3 forms
Helium-4.

The case is different for

massive stars (eight times
the mass of our sun).These
stars undergo CNO
(Carbon, Nitrogen,
Oxygen) cycle to convert
Hydrogen into Helium. You
can see at the left how
Carbon-12 fused with
proton (H) and form
Nitrogen-13. Nitrogen-13
undergoes beta decay to
form Carbon-13. Carbon-
13 captures proton (H)and
Nitrogen-14 is formed.
Nitrogen-14 captures
proton to produce Oxygen-
15, and Oxygen-15
undergoes beta decay that
forms Nitrogen-15. The
Nitrogen-15 fused with
proton gives off Helium to
generate the stable atom of
Carbon-12. Then the
process repeats again.

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Tri alpha process happens in red giant star once they leave the stage of main
sequence star. This is how three Helium-4 are converted into Carbon.
A star accumulates more mass and continues to grow into red super giant.
Alphaparticle fusion happens at its core and creates more heavy elements
until Iron. This is known as theAlpha ladder process.

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How do elements heavier than Iron form? As the energy at the core of
the star decreases, nuclear fusion cannot produce elements higher
than Iron. A different pathway is needed for heavier elements to be
formed.
Neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. Below
is the representation of how neutron is captured, and a
heavier nucleus is formed.

Example:

Neutron capture can be slow or rapid;

a. S-process or slow process happens when there is a

slow rate of capturing neutron while there is a faster
rate of radioactive decay hence increasing the proton by
1.
Example:

b. R-process or rapid process means that there is faster

rate of capturing neutron before it undergoes
radioactive decay thus, more neutrons can be
combined in the nucleus. This is what happens in a
supernova forming heavier elements than Iron with the
process known as supernova nucleosynthesis.

Example:

The explosion of star or supernova is believed to

be the source of other elements heavier than
Iron. During the explosion, these heavy elements
are dispersed into the space. Aside from
Hydrogen and Helium in space, other evidence
of star formation is the energy emitted during
nuclear reaction which includes ultraviolet,
infrared, X-ray, radio wave and microwave.

What I Have Learned

Read the paragraph then fill in the blanks with the correct word/s.

It all starts with 1. , cloud of gas and dust particle in outer space.
Due to the force of gravity, the 2. gas is pulled together and eventually
became a protostar. Nebular fusion occurs at the center of the protostar and becomes
stable. During this time, hydrogen is converted into 3. forming main
sequence star. The size of the star can be average or massive. A massive main
sequence star that runs out of hydrogen fuel will begin to expand and cool down.
This is 4. , the collective term for massive stars in the universe. The
red super giant continues to fuse with heavy elements and stops when 5.
is converted in the core of the star. At this point, red super giant will become a
supernova after hundreds of years.

What I
Can Do
 Now you have learned how stars are formed, go through their lifespan and how each
stage of the life of a star leads to formation of elements. There are many processes that
stars have to undergo before they evolve from one stage toanother.
For your next task, you will write a story which relates the events of your life from
past, present and future to the life cycle of a star. Use also those elements which could
symbolize something or anything in your story. (Use another sheet of paper for this
task).

Criteria Excellent _ Fair Poor

(5pts) ( 3pts) (1pt)

Work shows time,

Overall effort effort and
neatness that Work shows time Lacks effort and
enhances the and effort put into cleanliness
overall written 15 it
output.

The student's The project

output contains contains discussion No background or
Rubrics for
background and of world events contextual Story of Your
Background context and shows but it is unclear
context Life information is
how world events how they have included.
have significantly affected the
affected his/her student's life.
life.

The student does The student The student

Grammar and not commit error commits 1- 3 commits more
Spelling
when it comes to grammar mistakes than 4 mistakes in
grammar and and spelling. grammar and
spelling. spelling

Student includes Student includes Information

information about very few details. included is not
birth, friends, Output is related to the task
Content family, hobbies somewhat tied up or no attempt was
and is able to tie with the topic made.
his/her story to
the topic given.
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What is It
Key Points

 The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged

particles) in an atom.
 In 1913, Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who
demonstrated that the atomic number, the number of protons in an
atom, determines most of the properties of anelement.
 In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
transmutation reaction a process of transforming one element or
isotope into another element.
 In 1925, there were four unknown elements in the periodic table
that corresponds to atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Elements
with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using particle
accelerators.
 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to
overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic
nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize
new elements.
 Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of
uranium) are called transuranium elements They were discovered
in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.
Dmitri Mendeleev created a classification of elements based on their atomic
weight. He found that organizing the elements at the time by their calculated
weight demonstrated a periodic pattern of both physical and chemical
properties, such as luster, physical state, reactivity to water, and others.
Activity 1.1 Making Your Own Periodic Table shows how theoretical elements
where arranged according to their atomic weights. For example, H has an atomic
mass of 1.00794 amu, which makes hydrogen the lightest element on the
periodic table. Hydrogen, H, was named by Laviosier and is the most abundant
element on the periodic table. It is followed by He, Li, Be and so on and so fort
because atomic weight is used to arrange elements from lightest toheaviest.

By the way, scientist illustrated in the left is Henry

Moseley. He was an English physicist and his experiment
demonstrated that the major properties of an element
are determined by the atomic number, not by the atomic
weight, and firmly established the relationship between
atomic number and the charge of the atomicnucleus.

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Henry Moseley was a researcher at Rutherford’s laboratory.

In 1913, Moseley used Ernest Rutherford’s findings to advance the

understanding of the elements and solve the problem with Mendeleev’s
periodic table.

Moseley noticed that shooting electrons at elements caused them to release x-

rays at unique frequencies. He also noticed that the frequency increased by a
certain amount when the “positive charge” of the chosen element washigher.

By arranging the elements based on the square root of the frequency that they
emitted, he was able to arrange the elements that approximates their observed
properties as proposed by Mendeleev.
Henry Moseley proposed that the elements’ atomic number, or place in the
periodic table, was uniquely tied to their “positive charge”, or the number of
protons they have. This discovery allowed for a better arrangement of the periodic
table, and predicted elements that were not yet discovered. His method of
identifying elements by shooting electrons and looking at x-rays became a very
useful tool in characterizing elements, and is now calledx-ray spectroscopy.

He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an element. He

bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements and measured their X-
ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that frequency of the X-rays given
off by an element was mathematically related to the position of that element in
the periodic table. The frequency is proportional to the charge of the nucleus,
or the atomic number.
When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers, there
were four gaps in the table. These gaps corresponded to the atomic numbers
43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later synthesized in the laboratory
through nuclear transmutations.

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation

reaction — a reaction involving the transformation of one element or isotope into
another element. The first nuclide to be prepared by artificial means was an
isotope of oxygen, 17O. It was made by Ernest Rutherford in 1919 by bombarding
nitrogen atoms with α particles:

N+4α
14 → O
17 +
1H
7 2 8 1

However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they
repel each other. Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in
synthesizing new elements, atomic nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons
(neutral particles) in particle accelerators.

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James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, as a previously unknown

neutral particle produced along with 12C by the nuclear reaction between9Be and
4He:
9 +4 → 12 + 1

4 2 6 0

The first synthesized element that does not occur naturally on the earth,
technetium, was created by bombardment of molybdenum by deuterons (heavy
1

hydrogen, 2 , by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in 1937:

2 +97 →2 1 +97
1 42 0 43
The first controlled nuclear chain reaction was carried out in a reactor at the
University of Chicago in 1942. One of the many reactions involved was:

235 1
+ → 87 +146 +1 3
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 Assessment

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on
a separate sheet of paper.
1. He successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction, a process of
transforming one element or isotope into anotherelement.
a. James Chadwick c. Dmitri Mendeleev
b. Henry Moseley d. Ernest Rutherford

2. This is also known as Nucleosynthesis.

a. S Process c. Nuclear Fission
b. R-Process d. Proton-proton Reaction

3. This is known as the origin and production of heavy elements.

a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova Nucleosynthesis

4. It was created by bombardment of molybdenum by deuterons (heavy

hydrogen, 21H)), by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in 1937.
a. Oxygen c. Technetium
b. Helium d. Uranium\

5. Process that can produce elements up to Bismuth (atomic number = 83).

a. Nuclear Fission c. S Process
b. R-Process d. S Process

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6. This is known as the origin of light elements.
a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova Nucleosynthesis

7. It is also known as nuclear fusion and the formation of new nuclei

actions in the early stages of development of the universe.
a. Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. S-Process d. Singularity

8. In this process there’s a buildup of a VERY heavy isotope, then as beta-

decays occur, you march up in atomic number and produce heavy
product.
a. S Process c. Nuclear Fission
b. R-Process d. Proton-Proton Reaction

9. These are elements with atomic numbers beyond103.

a. Superheavy elements c. Transition element
b. Gases elements d. Halogens

10. This occurs in the main sequence of stars.

a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova Nucleosynthesis

11. It is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the

repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by
using magnetic and electrical fields.
a. Spectroscopy c. Particle Accelerator
b. Particle Decelerator d. Microscope

12. He created a classification of elements based on their atomic

weight.
a. Ernest Rutherford c. Robert Millikan
b. John Dalton d. Dmitri Mendeleev
13. It is a one-dimensional point which contains a huge mass in an
infinitely small space.
a. Nucleosynthesis c. Singularity
b. Dilation d. R-process

14. He noticed that shooting electrons at elements caused them to

release X-rays at unique frequencies.
a. Dmitri Mendeleev c. Henry Moseley
b. Robert Millikan d. Emilio Serge

15. He synthesized the 43rd element using a linear particle accelerator.

a. Ernest Rutherford c. Dmitri Mendeleev
b. Ernest Lawrence d. John Dalton

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