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Interactions of Body Systems, Viruses & Immune System Notes

Kingdom Animalia:
General Characteristics: Eukaryotic, Multicellular, Heterotrophic (be ingestion), Move at some
point in life, Digest food to get nutrients, Lack cell walls

Animal Classification:
The animal kingdom is divided into two groups:
1. Vertebrates- are animals that have a backbone. They have a firm body because of the
muscles that connect to their skeleton.
2. Invertebrates- are animals that do not have a backbone. They have soft inner bodies
which are held in shape by a flexible covering of outer cells or by a hard covering called an
exoskeleton.

Human Classification

Domain- Eukarya
Kingdom- Animalia
Phylum- Chordata
Class- Mammalia
Order- Primates
Family- Hominidae

Part 1: Maintaining Homeostasis Genus- Homo

List the levels of organization starting with the basic unit of life. Species- sapiens

Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organism

Define homeostasis-
The ability of an organism to maintain a stable, internal environment.

List three ways your body maintains homeostasis-

1. Body Temperature- 370 C
2. pH level- 7.35
3. Concentration of sugar in the bloodstream- 0.1% sugar
Part 2: Feedback Inhibition
Various animal functions help maintain homeostasis often by using feedback mechanisms including
feedback inhibition.

Example: Dogs get hot running, nervous system triggers panting, panting reduces body temperature
so panting stops.

Negative Feedback Inhibition—

Negative feedback is a reaction that causes a decrease in function. It occurs in response to
some kind of stimulus. Often it causes the output of a system to be lessened; so, the
feedback tends to stabilize the system.
• The negative feedback loop brings the body back to the original set point.

Examples of Negative Feedback—

1. Human body temperature - The hypothalamus of a human responds to temperature
fluctuations and responds accordingly. If the temperature drops, the body shivers to bring up
the temperature and if it is too warm, the body will sweat to cool down due to evaporation.
2. Human blood pressure- When blood pressure increases, signals are sent to the brain from the
blood vessels. Signals are sent to the heart from the brain and heart rate slows
down, thus helping blood pressure to return to normal.
3. Regulation of blood sugar in humans - When blood sugar rises, insulin sends a signal to the
liver, muscles and other cells to store the excess glucose. Some is stored as body fat and other is
stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

Positive Feedback Inhibition—

Positive feedback is a process in which the end products of an action causes more of that
action to occur. This amplifies the original action.
• Occurs when the rate of a process increases as the concentration of the
product increases
• Provides MORE, MORE, MORE!

Examples of Positive Feedback—

1. Blood Clotting- When a part of the body is injured, it releases chemicals that activate
blood platelets. Platelets are responsible for stopping bleeding by forming clots. An
activated platelet in turn activates more platelets, which group together to form a blood
clot.
2. Labor and Childbirth- when the fetus’s head presses up against the cervix, it stimulates
nerves that tell the brain to stimulate the pituitary gland, which then produces oxytocin.
Oxytocin causes the uterus to contract. This moves the fetus
even closer to the cervix, which causes more oxytocin to be produced until childbirth
occurs and the baby leaves the womb.
Part 3: Body System Comparison
1. Integumentary System-Composed of: skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers,
hoofs, and nails).
• Protects the body from damage
• Waterproofing, cushioning, and protecting the deeper tissues, excrete wastes, and
regulate temperature.

2. Skeletal System-Composed of: the bones in the body and the tissues such as tendons,
ligaments and cartilage that connect them.
• The main job of the skeleton is to provide support for our body.

3. Muscular System-Composed of: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles.

• It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the
body.

4. Digestive System-Composed of organs that break down food into components that your body
uses for energy, and then packages the residue for waste disposal.

5. Circulatory System-Composed of: the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries.

• Transports nutrients, water, hormones, and oxygen to your billions of body. cells
• Carries away wastes such as carbon dioxide that body cells produce.

6. Respiratory System-Composed of: organs in your body that aid in breathing. The main organ
is the lungs.
• Supplies the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body.

7. Nervous System- Composed of: the brain and spinal cord that is made up of a network of
specialized cells called neurons.
• Coordinates the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body.

8. Excretory System-Composed of: organs such as kidneys, lungs, and the skin
• The process of excretion involves finding and removing waste materials (such as urea, carbon
dioxide, and salt) produced by the body.

9. Endocrine System-Composed of: a collection of glands, each of which secretes a type of

hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body.
• Regulates metabolism, growth, sexual function, sleep, mood, etc.

10. Immune System-Composed of: antibodies, white blood cells, and other chemicals and
proteins.
• Designed to defend you against millions of bacteria, microbes, viruses, toxins and parasites that
can invade your body.
11. Lymphatic System-Composed of lymph vessels, lymph nodes,
and organs.
• Absorbs excess fluid and its return to the bloodstream
• Assists the immune system.
 12. Reproductive System- Composed of: a collection of internal and external organs in males and
females that work together for the purpose of procreating. Testes, Penis, Ovaries, Vagina and
Uterus are just a few.
• New individuals are produced by the fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote.
Sperm are male gametes, ova are female gametes.

Part 4: Interactions between the Body Systems

#1 Explain how the necessary nutrients that #2 Explain how sweating helps to maintain
you eat travel to all of the cells around body temperature
your body—
When your body temperature goes up, your
The food particles are broken down
brain signals sweat glands to cool body
by mechanical (teeth) and chemical
down. When your body is cold, your brain
(enzymes) digestion. Muscular
signals muscles to contract (shiver) to
contractions push the food down the
warm body up.
esophagus, into the stomach, and then
into the small intestine. Tiny nutrient
When body temperatures drop, the
molecules pass through projections in
arterioles constrict to minimize heat loss.
the small intestine (mircrovilli) and
When body temperatures rise, arterioles in
(into the blood vessels. The bloodstream
the dermis dilate so that excess heat carried
carries nutrient molecules to the rest of
by the blood can dissipate through the skin.
the body to be used by cells.
What Four systems are involved?
What systems are involved? Integumentary, Muscular,
Digestive, Muscular, and Circulatory and Nervous
Circulatory

#3 Give two examples of body responses that are #4 What are some of the similarities
a result of direct interactions between the between the reproductive and
skeletal, muscular, and nervous system. excretory systems?
Running away from danger and eating a Both rely on hormones from the
cheeseburger. pituitary gland (located in the
brain) to control functions.
 #8 Explain how a reflex works. What two
systems work together to respond when you
touch something that causes you pain, such as
What two systems are impacted when you are
#5 a hot pot of soup? Nervous and Muscular
given a vaccination?
Systems
Circulatory – transports the vaccine
A reflex is involuntary movement of any organ
Immune – builds antibodies to fight infections or body part that has received a stimulus. It
happens without any consciousness and is
What three other systems might you consider immediate. Reflexes protect the body from
as an answer? harm.
Integumentary, Muscular, & Circulatory
The signal goes from the touch receptors
(nerves) to the spinal cord and then to your
muscles to get you away from the danger
#6 What two systems interact during quick! Nervous and Muscular Systems.
Egg/sperm production?

Endocrine – the hypothalamus (gland in the #9

brain) sends messages to the pituitary (gland Maintaining homeostasis in your body is
in the brain) to make hormones. made possible through coordination of
all your body systems. What two body
Reproductive- receives the hormones and systems are mainly responsible for this
produces sperm and eggs. coordination? Nervous and
Endocrine System

#7 Which 3 systems work together to remove Explain two difference between the
excess water from the body? nervous and the endocrine system. How
do they communicate to the body?
Endocrine, Circulatory, and Excretory
Explanation-When you are dehydrated, the
pituitary releases a hormone into your
bloodstream to tell your kidneys to hold
onto water.
When you have too much water, the pituitary
stops releasing the hormone, so that you can
excrete the excess water (pee…)
Viruses

Viruses are NONLIVING particles that can only

reproduce within a HOST CELL (living cell).

• Can NOT carry out life-sustaining functions.

Viral Structure:
1. Nucleic Acid – DNA or RNA
• encodes for the synthesis of proteins – making new viruses
2. Capsid – protein coat surrounding nucleic acid; arrangement determines shape
3. Envelope – membrane surrounding capsid; NOT found in all viruses

VIRAL REPLICATION – Capsid proteins on virus must match proteins on host cell.

Lytic cycle: Lysogenic cycle:

1. Tail fibers attach to cell 1. Virus attaches to host cell and injects viral DNA
2. Virus injects DNA into cell to take over the 2. Viral DNA integrates with host DNA creating a
cell’s DNA provirus
3. Host cell is reprogrammed to multiply the 3. Provirus is replicated along with host cell’s DNA
viral genes 4. Virus may become active, switching to the lytic
4. New proteins assemble around new viral cycle, destroying host
DNA to form new viral particles
5. New viral particles released; cell is destroyed
TREATMENT:
o Treat the symptoms
o Your immune system has to kill the
virus

Vaccine – preparation of weakened or

killed virus/viral particle
• Few to no symptoms occur.
• The immune system responds by
producing specific antibodies for
the virus. These antibodies remain
in the body, providing immunity to
future exposures to the virus.
• The flu shot is an example of this
type of vaccination.

EXTRAS:
• Retrovirus – contains RNA; produces a DNA VIRAL DISEASES
copy of the viral RNA and inserts viral DNA into Mumps Rabies
host cell. HIV is an example of a retrovirus. Influenza Herpes
•
Smallpox Chickenpox
• The most complex capsids are the
bacteriophages- viruses that infect bacteria Measles AIDS
such as E. coli
IMMUNE SYSTEM-

LETS’S BRAINSTORM—
1. Why do organisms contract diseases? Because that person is exposed to:

2. What happens when an organism contracts a disease?

3. What happens when an organism is injured?

4. What factors can help (or hinder) the likelihood that we will recover from an
injury?

Infectious disease
• Infectious diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and other pathogens.
• Pathogens are often spread through coughing, sneezing, and physical contact between people.
They can also be spread through contamination of water supply, or through the exchange of
body fluids, including sexual intercourse or blood transfusions.

Nonspecific defense: the innate immune system

The human body has a series of nonspecific defenses that make up the innate immune system.
These defenses are not directed against any one pathogen but instead, provide a guard against all
infection.

First line of defense

The body's most important nonspecific defense is the skin, which acts as a physical barrier to keep
pathogens out. Even openings in the skin (such as the mouth and eyes) are protected by saliva,
mucus, and tears, which contain an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls.
Second line of defense
If a pathogen does make it into the body, there are secondary nonspecific defenses that take place.

Image showing
white blood cells
releasing
chemicals to
induce
inflammatory
response

An inflammatory response begins when a pathogen stimulates an increase in blood flow to the
infected area. Blood vessels in that area expand, and white blood cells leak from the vessels to invade
the infected tissue. These white blood cells, called phagocytes engulf and destroy bacteria. The area
often becomes red, swollen, and painful during an inflammatory response.
When a pathogen has invaded, the immune system may also release chemicals that increase body
temperature, producing a fever. Increased body temperature may slow or stop pathogens from
growing and helps speed up the immune response.

Specific defense: the adaptive immune system

When pathogens are able to bypass innate immune defenses, the adaptive immune system is
activated.

Third line of defense

Cells that belong in the body carry specific markers that identify them as "self" and tell the immune
system not to attack them. Once the immune system recognizes a pathogen as "non-self," it uses
cellular and chemical defenses to attack it. After an encounter with a new pathogen, the adaptive
immune system often "remembers" the pathogen, allowing for a faster response if the pathogen ever
attacks again.
Specific immune responses are triggered by antigens. Antigens are
usually found on the surface of pathogens and are unique to that
particular pathogen. The immune system responds to antigens by
producing cells that directly attack the pathogen, or by producing special
proteins called antibodies. Antibodies attach to an antigen and attract
cells that will engulf and destroy the pathogen.
The main cells of the immune system are lymphocytes known as B cells and T cells. B cells are
produced and mature in bone marrow. T cells are also produced in bone marrow, but they mature in
the thymus.

Vaccines
Vaccines work by taking advantage of antigen recognition and the antibody response. A vaccine
contains the antigens of a pathogen that causes disease. For example, the smallpox vaccine contains
the antigens specific to smallpox. When a person is vaccinated against smallpox, the immune system
responds by stimulating antibody-producing cells that are capable of making smallpox antibodies. As
a result, if the body comes into contact with smallpox in the future, the body is prepared to fight it.