DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM EXPANSION

USING EPANET IN SITIO PAWAS, MUNICIPALITY

OF BRAULIO E. DUJALI, DAVAO DEL NORTE

_______________________

An Undergraduate Research Presented to the Civil Engineering Faculty

St. Mary’s College of Tagum Inc.
Tagum City

_______________________

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree

of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

_______________________

HANNAH WYNZELLE T. ABAN

XANDRIA SHAQTIE B. LORICA
ANGELIE S. TAGALOGON
JONATHAN BUSCADO

March 21, 2021

 ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE i

TABLE OF CONTENT ii

LIST OF FIGURES iii

CHAPTER

1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background of the Study 1

Objectives of the Study 3

Review of Related Literature and Studies 4

Conceptual Paradigm of the Study 22

Significance of the Study 24

Definition of Terms 25

2 METHODOLOGY

Research Design 28

Research Locale 29

Research Instrument 31
Data Gathering Procedure 31

Ethical Consideration 33

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 The Location and the Total Number of Households 35

The Data on the Factors Affecting the Result of the Hydraulic 38

Network Solver

Nodal Demands 38

Network Links Information 43

Topographic Elevations of the Proposed Nodes 45

(Junctions, Reservoir, and Tank)

Proposed Reservoir and Tank Information 47

Assumed Diameters 48

Proposed Water Source 50

Proposed Map Design of The New and Current Water

Distribution System in Braulio E. Dujali using the 52
Quantum Geographic Information System

4 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of Findings 55

Conclusions 57

Recommendations for the Road Safety  58

Development Plan

References 59
 iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Population and Population Growth in the affected area of the

Expansion of Water Distribution System 37

3.2 Population and Population Growth in the affected area of the

Expansion of Water Distribution System 40

3.3 Node IDs and its Corresponding Demand and Base Demand 42

3.4 Link ID and Length 44

 iv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 The Conceptual Paradigm of the Study 19

2.1 Location Map of the Barangays of Braulio E. Dujali,

Davao del Norte, Philippines 26

3.1 Population and Population Growth in the affected area of the 37

Expansion of Water Distribution System

3.2 Pipe Diameters 49

3.3 Proposed Deep Well Pump Detail 51
 1

Chapter 1

PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background of the Study

The human life is dependent on water and so is the situation with all animal and

plant life on the planet. Not only do we need water to produce our food, generate our

power, and run our factories, but we also need water as an essential part of our everyday

lives, eloquently stated by Kumar (2015). Nevertheless, for many decades one billion

people in developing countries have not had a stable and safe water supply. Every year

more than 297,000 children under the age of five die from diarrhoeal diseases due to

contaminated drinking water (WHO/UNICEF 2019).

The World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that about 2.2 billion people

around the world lack access to healthy drinking water services. According to the fifth

ASEAN State Environmental Study, Indonesia, boasting the largest economy in

Southeast Asia, falls short behind other countries regarding access to clean drinking

water. Nearly 28 million Indonesians experience safe water scarcity. Kazakhstan is one

of the countries facing the most extreme water shortages on the Eurasian continent.

Water scarcity, as well as its poor quality, were described as significant issues

undermining the country's future prosperity (Bekturganov, Z. et al., 2016). Moreover, the

water supply distribution in Kazakhstan is subtly different in both urban and rural areas.

Approximately 90% of urban residents have access to secure drinking water resources,

although this is just 28% for rural areas. Rural areas, therefore, pose the greatest

obstacle in efforts to provide clean water for all (UNICEF and UN, 2018).

The Philippines is a richly populated country with rich natural resources

including surface and groundwater. It has a total internal water supply of approximately
 2

130 cubic kilometer per year. Given the vastness of this potential supply, however, the

country has a low freshwater availability per capita and encounters water-related

problems (Lapong, 2015). Approximately 1 in 10 Philippine people already lack access to

safe drinking water. In 2016, acute watery diarrhea was among the top 10 leading death

row in the Philippines, taking more than 139,000 lives (WHO, 2019). The Metro Cebu

has recently experienced water shortages, the reasons for the lack of water supply involve

population boom, groundwater over-extraction, saltwater intrusion, groundwater nitrate

contamination and a moratorium on groundwater drilling, limiting Metro Cebu Water

District's (MCWD) water supply to 250,000 cubic meters per day which is only half of

the estimated daily demand of consumers for 500,000 cubic meters per day. It was

reported that in the last decade, the increase in population or households, companies,

and industries made it impossible for MCWD to meet the needs of the water supply

(Fajardo, 2019). Furthermore, in Davao Region, Davao City is experiencing water

scarcity despite the "development explosion," most people in the far-flung areas of Davao

City still complain about the unreliable, if not zero, water supply in their region. For

example, residents now experience frequent low water pressure at Barangay 21-C,

Poblacion, Davao City, particularly during early morning and holidays or weekends,

unlike five years ago when water supply was still abundant at any time of day (Alivio,

2019).

Braulio E. Dujali is a municipality located in the Davao del Norte coastal

province, it is a municipality that is starting to bloom and needs careful urban planning

that will benefit its community and the people. In the Census of Population 2015, only

325 out of 5,404 households have their faucet that is connected to the municipal water

supply system. Three out of ten households obtained water for cooking from peddlers,

and peddler was also the most common source of drinking water and about 65.6% of

household acquired from it (Amoyen, 2015).

 3

Anchored in the above-mentioned contexts, the researchers are interested in

conducting the study and design expansion of the water distribution system to develop

adequate water pressure at various points such as the faucet spout of the customer, and

in determining the distribution and its elevation concerning the position of the water

treatment plants, the height of water in each tank, and the concentration of a chemical

species throughout the network during a simulation period comprised of multiple time

steps. This will be achieved by using EPANET, a computer program that simulates

hydraulic and water quality actions over an extended time within pressurized pipe

networks.

Life’s most critical resource in this pandemic is the water. The researchers had

found the urgency to conduct this study in order to help the people living in Sitio Pawas,

Braulio E. Dujali, Davao del Norte in providing sufficient potable drinking water and

preventing serious health issues that is cause by contaminated water. Existing studies

have been performed on the improvement of a water distribution network, but they do

not consider and prioritize problems of major concern for water distribution systems.

Objective of the Study

The ultimate purpose of this study is to establish an optimal long-term expansion

design of the water distribution system at a minimum cost for the residents of Sitio

Pawas at Braulio E. Dujali for a period of approximately 10 years.

To achieve the purpose of this research, the following objectives are established:

1. To determine the location and the number of households to both people that

are or are not part of current water distribution system.

2. To gather significant data in order to determine the result of the hydraulic

network solver by using EPANET

2.1 Nodal demands

 4

2.2 From/To node information

2.3 Topographic elevations

2.4 Reservoir/Tank information

2.5 Assumed diameters

2.6 Water Source Availability

3. To map out the design of the new pipeline routes in the georeferenced space

using Quantum Geographic Information System (GIS).

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This portion of the study presents the literature and studies related to the water

distribution systems (WDS) design methodologies that mitigate and also adapt the WDS

to the effect of urbanization changes.

History of Water Distribution System

Everyone knows the importance of water in the daily lives of people, not just in

human beings but in all species on this planet. Through centuries clean water has been a

matter of human interest. It is indeed a fact that all major early civilizations found a

structured supply of water as an essential component of any new urban community.

Even amongst the oldest archeological evidence on the island of Crete in Greece, there

has been proof of the existence of water distribution systems as early as 3500 years ago.

Furthermore, in support of their claims, in Anatolia in Turkey, they also founded old

pipes which indicates that the water supply systems are approximately 3000 years old

(Mays, 2015).

In Rome, Italy, the remnants of possibly the most excellent and well documented

ancient water supply network exist. Sextus Julius Frontinus, is the water commissioner

of ancient Rome around the first century AD, describes in his papers nine aqueducts with

an overall length of over 420 km which transported water for ranges of up to 90 km to a

 5

transmission network of water pipes ranging in size from 20 to 600 mm. These

aqueducts conveyed almost 1 million m3 of water each day, which would have provided

the 1.2 million population of ancient Rome to enjoy as much as an estimated 500 liters of

water for every person per day even after large losses along their routes. Nearly 2000

years later, one would expect the situation to have completely changed due to the

scientific and technological advances after the fall of the Roman Empire. Nonetheless,

many parts of the world still live under the conditions of water supply in which the

ancient Romans would have regarded as extremely primitive, and the worst-case

scenario is that there are still some places that do not have a water distribution system

(Tifunovic, 2016).

According to Adeosun (2015), supplying adequate water of adequate quality and

quantity was one of the most significant issues in human history. Many ancient

civilizations have started in the vicinity of water bodies. As populations expanded, the

challenge of meeting user demands also increased. People started bringing water from

other places to their neighborhoods. For example, the Romans built aqueducts to supply

water from distant sources to their communities. The water supply system today consists

of an infrastructure that gathers, processes, stores and distributes water between water

sources and consumers. Restricted new natural water supplies, particularly in the

southwestern region of the United States, and an increasingly rising population, have led

to the need for revolutionary methods to manage the water supply system. For instance,

reclaimed water has become an important water resource for drinking and non-portable

use. Structural additions, including modern conveyance systems and treatment and

recharging facilities and organizational decisions, such as the allocation of flow and the

implementation of sustainable practices, are made with current and future demands in

mind. With the introduction of new components and connections between sources and
 6

users, the complexity of the water supply system and the difficulty in understanding how

the system can respond to changes are growing.

According to Chan et.al 2020, global development of freshwater is expanding as

availability becomes more volatile. Today, one in six people – more than one billion – do

not have adequate access to clean water. The United Nations estimates that by 2025, half

of the world's countries will experience scarcity or marked shortages. By 2050, the water

shortage could impact as much as three out of four people across the globe. 

Water problems are therefore especially acute in Asia. Although Asia is home to

more than half the world's population, it has less freshwater than any continent other

than Antarctica – 3,920 cubic meters per person per year. Approximately two thirds of

the global population growth is taking place in Asia, where the population is estimated to

increase by about 500 million people over the next 10 years. The rural population of Asia

will remain nearly the same by 2025, but the urban population is projected to increase by

60 per cent. Moreover, as population growth and urbanization rates are gradually

growing in Asia, the water supply pressure in the region is rising. Climate change is

expected to make the situation worse. Experts believe that decreased freshwater access

would result in a cascading range of effects, including diminished food supply, lack of

livelihood security, large-scale displacement inside and across borders, and intensified

economic and geopolitical uncertainty and volatility. Those consequences would have a

significant impact on the protection around the country over time (Chan et.al, 2020).

According to Connor (2015), unsustainable development pathways and policy

deficiencies have affected the efficiency and availability of water supplies, undermining

their capacity to produce social and economic benefits. Unless the balance between

demand and scarce resources is restored, demand for freshwater is increasing, the world

will face an increasingly severe global water deficit. Global water demand is primarily
 7

driven by population growth, urbanization, food and energy conservation policies, and

macroeconomic forces such as trade globalization, shifting diets and rising usage by

2050, global water demand is expected to rise by 55 percent, mainly due to growing

demands from agriculture, thermal electricity production and domestic use. Competing

demands force hard allocation decisions and hinder market expansion.

According to Farwa Aamer and Jace White study in 2019, over the past few years,

global demand for fresh water supplies has drastically increased, especially in light of

rapid population growth and extensive urbanization around the globe. In addition, with

the impacts of climate change and supply shortage pressures gaining more momentum,

communities are being increasingly forced to pursue successful and viable alternatives to

their water woes. Water shortage has increasingly emerged within South Asia, one of the

most populous regions in the world and home to nearly 1.9 billion people, as a highly

important and contested issue. 

In addition, Asia is reportedly residences of 4.5 billion people, who make use of

around 65 percent of the world’s water resources. Around 30 percent of the Asian

population faces water scarcity now. In recent years, India and China have experienced

near double-digit GDP growth, along with a population boom. Many rivers basins are

still incapable of fulfilling the demands put on them (Tunnicliffe, 2018).

Human Right to Water

United Nations Development Program’s Human Development Report (2016)

states that “Human rights are the rights of all people, by their shared humanity, to live a

life of freedom and honor. They are universal, indivisible, and inalienable. Water comes

under the rubric of subsistence rights. Human beings cannot survive for very long

without a sufficient amount of water. A right to water must meet the basic needs for
 8

which a person needs water; that is, people have the right to a quantity of water that will

help them to survive (McAdam, 2018).

Water plays a key role in society and serves multiple purposes, including

agricultural, industrial, and public health needs (Lamm & Carter, 2015). Water scarcity is

one of the most pressing problems today. The problem of water scarcity is not

temporary, the mechanism is further challenged by climate change, the global

population, and food production. The effect associated with water scarcity is significant,

including the negative impact of up to two-thirds of the world's population by 2045.

There’s a close correlation between agriculture and water scarcity. Agriculture is the

world's largest user of water, accounting for about 70% of withdrawals (Mancosu et al.,

2015). Recognizing the role of agriculture in the problem of water scarcity, interventions

such as education in sustainable approaches to water management are recommended

(Fales et al., 2016). In fact, research indicates that educational interventions are

successful in increasing the sustainability of water use activities (Suh, Khachatryan,

Rihn, & Dukes, 2017).

Access to clean water is important for sustaining human life and necessary for

maintaining a stable and dignified existence. A large portion of the world's population

lacks adequate access to safe water, contributing to a substantial global burden of disease

and water-related disease death. Lack of access to clean water has been related to 60% of

diseases in the world (Moyo, 2015).

Living on an island nation with multiple natural water resources did not

guarantee access to clean water for the 75% of the Philippine population that has low

socioeconomic status and live in rural villages called barangays (United Nations 2017).

However, global concern generated by the introduction of the United Nations (UN)

Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and a steady flow of financial support from the
 9

World Bank at $638.1 million provides guidance and funding that led to the

development of important national legislation and the enactment of institutions to

respond to these and other community needs. Stronger institutions represent greater

opportunities for citizen engagement through community-driven development (CDD)

initiatives prompted by the UN. CDD is a platform for citizens to “make their own

decisions in identifying, developing, implementing, and monitoring development

initiatives based on their priorities” (United Nations, 2017).

The progression of moving policy decision-making process from global initiatives

to national initiatives began first with the UN establishing internal partnerships with

existing Philippine government institutions, such as the Department of Social Welfare

and Development and the National Statistical Coordination Board, providing community

access and local monitoring. The UN also had external development partnerships, such

as the Japan Social Development Social Fund and several governments, which were

instrumental in developing important internal mechanisms and metrics based on

monitoring the MDGS. These metrics establish empirical evidence for decision-making

with the long-term goals of a healthy environment and population. “The monitoring of

the MDGs taught us that data are an indispensable element of the development agenda,”

and that “what gets measured gets done” (United Nations, 2017).

Long-term Water Distribution System Design

The design of WDS has historically been focused on practice and trial and error to

satisfy the requirements. Since then, due to the vast number of potential design

combinations and the need to achieve the maximum efficiency for the investments made

in water supply facilities, WDS design optimization, service, etc. have been largely

investigated. In the past, numerous researchers and practitioners have researched the

issue of the optimal least-cost design of WDS. The majority of previous approaches
 10

focused on developing systems so that the necessary amount of water can be supplied as

a specific objective to customers at sufficient pressure (constraint), in a reliable manner

and at least cost. The previous design strategies include all precautionary techniques, i.e.,

for all design changes conducted at the outset of the planning horizon designs and

phased designs. Although the staged designs obtained by the aforementioned

researchers are progressive and better than the fixed deterministic (precautionary)

designs because of their staged design implementation over the planning period

according to the respective design stage requirements, they are still susceptible to poor

performance under uncertainty (Ainger et al., 2016).

The environmental output of WDS is increasingly being viewed and measured. In

the sense of environmental issues, the main contemporary indicator is that of

greenhouse gas emissions. Several environmental results of WDS have been analyzed,

such as energy density, operating energy, life-cycle energy review, greenhouse gases,

environmental impact index (Ghimire and Barkdoll, 2017). These evaluations can

facilitate climate change mitigation but have not been considered simultaneously with

WDS hydraulic performance in design. Concerning demineralized water, proposed

locally optimized rainwater harvesting systems to include a water distribution network to

pumps energy-saving approach in mountainous areas, and the results revealed that

harvesting rainwater becomes economically efficient when both energy and water

savings are approached together.

Some researchers have also acknowledged uncertainty in WDS designs where

nodal demand, pipe roughness coefficient, and part failure are the most prominent

sources of uncertainty. In all the earlier methods, the potential water demand variability

was only tackled actively by building in additional system redundancy (robustness) by

suitably constructed system configurations that are established (most of them not
 11

staged) over some pre-specified long-term planning horizon. The above studies did not

establish versatility in WDS designs nor did they suggest managing uncertainty with DM.

In engineering system design uncertainty can also be controlled by managing it with DM

and creating design flexibility. Researchers have recently started to create versatility in

the preparation of engineering systems and WDS designs (Huang et al., 2010). To a

greater degree, the implementation of methodologies for versatile WDS designs that

consider long-term management also needs to be explored.

Water distribution systems continue to work on the basis of simplified

assumptions and rigid-static analysis. As a result, the systems are not evaluated under

different conditions that can be experienced during their operating life and under

different scenarios of water demand. This typically results in troubling failures to satisfy

the actual demand during the service of the device in real life circumstances. Continuous

efforts should be made to drastically reduce waste/abuse, contamination and systems

operational cost through optimization, analysis and design. Several popular optimization

and assessment techniques can be used to analyze a water distribution system. These

methods may include several stochastic and metaheuristic methods (Elsevier, 2020).

Savic et al. (2018) stated in their research that Tuttle was responsible for the first

work in the late 1890s that presented standard pipe sizes in WDSs using standard flow

across pipes. Expansively, Tuttle formulated a theory of knowledge that stated that

reducing pipe sizes and pipe-related costs consequently increase head losses and the

required pressure. In addition, he modeled an equation representing the annual WDS

costs along with the initial cost of investment, installation, operation, and maintenance,

and equated the derivative of the equation to zero, reducing the pipe diameter and

measured flow.
 12

Water is primarily used domestically for drinking, cooking, bathing, and cleaning

purposes, secondly for industrial use in energy production and manufacturing, and third

for irrigation in agriculture. Optimization is applied in several systems and

circumstances, making it an important technology paradigm. We either minimize

(resource consumption, price) or maximize (profit, system performance) when we try to

optimize. In fact, money, time, and resources are typically short; optimization is

therefore highly paramount in operation (Yang & Koziel, 2019).

A list of research works that applied different metaheuristics to WDS

optimization has been reviewed by (Mala-Jetmarova et al., 2017), some of which include:

genetic algorithms, harmony search, simulated annealing, cuckoo-search algorithm,

shuffled complex evolution, optimization of particle swarm, scatter search, immune

algorithm, memetic algorithm, optimization of honey bee mating, the algorithm of

discrete state transition, differential evolution, mine blast algorithm, and evolutionary

algorithm.

A review of water distribution optimization found that formal research on the

optimization of WDSs began around half a century before work in this area was

published. In the early 1970s, few studies which reviewed optimization of water

distribution systems were published and more and more works were reviewed with novel

ideas applied as time passed. The succeeding section addresses the gap by reviewing the

early publications to date (O.M. Awe et al., 2019).

Furthermore, integrated water supply management is essential for the

optimization of hydraulic systems in developing nations such as Nigeria. A water delivery

system connects consumers through hydraulic components such as pipes, tanks and

reservoirs to water sources. When pipelines have been built, land-use developers

correctly push for the lowest construction cost along the pipeline path. As a result, while
 13

these services respond to development initially, the latter are an engine for urban and

rural expansion. Distribution network is an integral aspect of all water delivery schemes

and, in any major water supply scheme, the contribution amounts to more than 60

percent of the project’s over all contribution. Proposed methodology for storage

optimization to cross the difference between conventional engineering experience and

the mathematical requirements needed by genetic algorithms. The key variable used for

optimization was restricted to tank simulation only, while other critical variables and

components representing water delivery systems exist (Ovebode, 2018). 

According to Agboka et. al, 2019, that the water delivery system must provide the

consumers with water at the appropriate flow and pressure and consistency. Usually,

pressures in a water delivery system vary from around 20 to 70 m. This pressure scale is

a general model that can originally be used to measure the pressures in the service field.

An improved logistics network is required to provide the consumers with productive

supplies. Juja water supply distribution system in central Kenya under Riuru Juja Water

and Sewerage Company (RUJWASCO) is a looped distribution system but has water at

consumer points, not at the required pressure and flow rate. The basis for designing a

delivery network is based on the theory of cost and was the focus of numerous studies

using mathematical and technical instruments. To overcome the complexities of a

distributed network, software development based on the mathematical algorithm is

commonly used. The Environmental Protection Agency Network (EPANET) has been

used by the researches for the study of hydraulic and qualitative activity modeling in

pressurized zones in a water distribution system over a single or prolonged duration.

EPANET can also analyze the water quality levels in the delivery system.

Urbanization and Demographics

 14

Future water sources ought to be able to cope with unpredictable shifts in water

demand and supply due to the adverse effects of local and global developments that may

include a rise in population concentration in urban centers and the associated economic

growth per capita. Rapid urbanization has already triggered extreme water shortages and

dramatic disputes between supply and water demand. The American Water Works

Association Research Foundation listed U.S. population growth and demographic

changes as one of the top ten global factors that will change the drinking water industry's

operations over the next 20 years (Buchberger et al., 2008).

According to the case study of Omarova et.al (2019) that the goal of water

availability in rural areas is a big challenge for all countries, not just the low and middle-

income economies. The pledge to "leave no one behind" needs to concentrate on rural

areas, which is typically ignored. Approximately 844 million people on Earth actually

have no access to sufficient water supplies and 79% are rural residents. Around the same

time, 2.1 billion people do not have a healthy control of the drinking water supply

operation. That means that 14.9 percent of the urban population and 45.2 percent of the

rural population require quality facilities. To satisfy physiological and hygienic needs, a

person requires 50 to 100 liters of water per day. Therefore, people with a maximum 20

liters per capita per day would be subject to a high degree of health problems. Typically,

rural residents live in poorer economic conditions than urban residents and this impacts

the rate of water use. 

Despite the general demands to switch from public water fixing to improving

water systems, and to change from centralized to local water planning, detailed analyzes

of village drinking water facilities have been limited and preparation at regional level

remains underdeveloped. (Sangameswaran, 2014; Schouten & Smits, 2015; Hutching

et.al, 2017).
 15

Bao and Fang (2007) suggested that whenever the population, economic and

urban scale reaches or exceeds the capacity-bearing water resources or the usage of

water resources reaches or exceeds the natural water supply threshold, water

management systems drastically decrease down the growth of socio-economic

structures, including the urbanization phase. In addition, where water supplies are

limited, there is also the greater water supply constraint strength.

Rapid urbanization and an exponential rise in demand for water are some of the

problems that the 6th sustainable development objective aims to solve, and these

challenges involve increasingly efficient water delivery systems. WDSs are structures that

typically include interconnecting modules such as pumps, pipes, valves, pumps,

reservoirs and tanks, and are the result of the joint efforts of engineers and scientists

around the world. The reliability of WDS depends on the configuration, design, pressure

and flow of the system components. The running costs of the water delivery system can

be greater than or equal to 60% of the overall cost of the system as a whole (Elsevier,

2020).

In rural southern India, groundwater is pumped from deep bore wells into

overhead tanks and supplied to villages at least once a day by subterranean or surface

water pipes. Despite the piped supply of drinking water in most southern Indian villages,

the quality of drinking water is still poor. Multiple studies have shown fecal drinking

waste in rural and urban areas of Vellore, the likelihood of inadequate construction and

maintenance of water supply systems, inadequate water treatment and extended

household storage. Additional chlorination and solar disinfection have shown progress in

mitigating fecal emissions in drinking water at the point of use; nevertheless, low

implementation of these steps has resulted only in limited health benefits. (Francis et.al,

2016).
 16

Flexible Planning Methods

To keep up with the water service regulations, the design of WDS is required.

However, the scope of the design needs to be done to provide consumers with sufficient

water into the uncertain future. Given the consequences such as of rapid urbanization,

the WDS parameters (e.g. water demand) are highly uncertain in the future (Kapelan et

at.,2017).

It is important that uncertainty is recognized in the design parameters for WDS.

Studies have shown clearly that neglecting ambiguity in the design phase can lead to

WDS design becoming bad. Uncertainty occurs because of mistakes in calculations or

failure to accurately predict future parameter states (Babayan, 2018). The nodal

requirement, pipe roughness coefficient, and part failure are among the most prominent

sources of uncertainty studied by WDS research groups. Researchers have formulated

and solved robust WDS design issues over the years under uncertainty order to allow the

system to deal with uncertainty. One way to achieve robustness is to build redundancy in

the WDS. Kapelan et al. (2017) focused on robustness and risk-based solutions to a

multi-objective WDS issue of redesign under uncertainty in water demand. In all

previous approaches, the potential demand volatility has only been approached passively

by creating additional device capacity through a suitably designed and traditional

intervention strategy that is set within a certain pre-specified long-term planning period.

The importance of consideration of uncertainty increases as we take a longer-term view,

i.e. in the sense of the dynamics of climate and urbanization. As De Neufville (2015) has

pointed out, alternate ways exist to address potential uncertainty more proactively by

establishing and retaining flexibility in engineering design and/or demand management

control. Flexibility in WDSs has been seen as the degree and ease with which the systems

are able to cope with eventualities for which they were not planned. In other words,
 17

versatility in WDSs has so far centered more on the capacity of the structures to cope

with uncertainty without potential future interventions (change from external ones).

Recently, Huang (2011) introduced the Flexibility Index, which is described as

the weighted sum of decreasing (improving) pressure deficiency under each load

condition on the worst node of WDS. The improvement of the pressure deficiency is

based on the pressure deficiency before and after the application of the flexibility source

(intervention).

The necessity for a continuous water supply system with less head loss and high

pressure, a good indication of the form of soil and pressure in the pipes is appropriate for

EPANET (Kalubarme et al., 2015). According to the study by Ramana et al. (2015), in

order to ensure the availability of a good quality of water to be distributed to the different

parts of the population, the residual head at each node is analyzed using EPANET for the

design of complex pipe networks.

Data mining algorithms can be used for various purposes in the management of

the water delivery system. Commonly used data mining techniques (DMTs) in WDS

research include artificial neural networks (ANNs), genetic algorithms (GAs),

probabilistic and evidence-based reasoning, and fuzzy strategies. With regards to models

that predict pipeline failure rates, artificial neural networks (ANNs) seem to be

performing better than statistical methods. However, as ANNs is a black-box method, it’s

not helpful in establishing specific relationships between the variable concerned. GAs

can be utilized for optimization of system design, operational decisions, and

maintenance plans. Fuzzy based techniques were used for pipe condition assessment and

failure risk assessment (Al-Zahrani et al., 2016).

Design of Water Distribution System

 18

A water distribution network must be designed so that, at sufficient pressure, it

can supply the desired amount of water to the consumers. The design involves specifying

the sizes of different distribution network elements and checking that network's

adequacy. Significant efforts have been made to develop approaches to solving optimal

water distribution systems design. (May, 2016).

There is a wide body of literature on pipe network design optimization,

discussing the use of classical optimization approaches. These approaches were used,

often at the expense of the optimization models' substantial simplifications. One of the

earliest methods of optimization, in 1977, Alperovitz and Shamir proposed the linear

programming gradient method.

Fujiwara and Silva (2019) proposed a heuristic method for obtaining a design of a

water distribution network with given reliability at the least cost. First, the approach

decides an optimal design without reliability consideration. It then assesses the

efficiency of the network architecture. Then an iterative feedback technique is used

which improved the reliability with a slight cost increase.

Nonlinear programming methodology was used as an optimization method to

solve the problem of water distribution networks design optimization, in which the

diameter is taken as a continuous variable. Geem (2016) provided a cost minimization

model for the design of water distribution networks using the Harmony Search (HS)

algorithm. The model is applied to five water distribution networks and the findings have

shown that the Harmony Quest model is ideal for designing water networks.

According to Kumar et al. (2015) in their study about water distribution system

using EPANET. EPANET can help assess alternative management methods to improve

water quality in a system and to tracks the water flow in each pipe, the pressure at each

node, the water height in each tank, and the concentration of a chemical species
 19

throughout the network over a simulation period consisting of multiple time steps. The

research builds the respective distribution system by using EPANET which is by filling in

the data about the number of nodes, demand, elevation, tanks, and pipes in it. They

concluded that with the help of EPANET they successfully design a water distribution

system.

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2017) with EPANET, in

an extended period of time, users can simulate hydraulic and water quality actions

within pressurized pipe networks, consisting of pipes, nodes, pumps, valves, storage

tanks, and reservoirs. EPANET’s user interface provides a visual network editor that

simplifies the process of building network pipe models and editing their properties and

data. Different data monitoring and visualization tools are used to help visualize the

effects of network analysis, including color-coded network charts, data tables, energy

consumption, reaction, calibration, time-series graphs, and profile and contour plots.

A great deal of effort has been made to establish a water management system for

safe water supply. However, the complexity of the method restricted the site-specific

application at the first age. As water demands are growing stresses on the current water

supply system, a number of studies have attempted to establish a general water supply

system to help decision-makers design more efficient systems over a long period of time.

These attempts also require optimization of overall system construction and operating

costs. In the context of situations such as pipeline maintenance, non-revenue water,

advanced metering infrastructure, the ultimate aim of this paper is to ensure that water

delivery system problems are addressed and that water supplies are delivered to

consumers in a more reliable and timely manner as a long-term strategy.

According to Christodoulou (2018) Water delivery systems are wide and complex

networks planned and developed to meet the needs of urban water supply. For the best
 20

and most simplified management of the networks. Water supply networks should be

divided into parts, called "District Metered Areas." These areas can be identified as

sections of the network containing separate regional water meters as well as one entry

point and one exit point. Therefore, there should be no large altitude variations within

DMAs, particularly in gravity-based networks. In cases where this is inevitable, pressure

valves could be used to maintain continuous pressure through the DMA.

In order to ensure that an adequate quantity of good water quality to the various

section of the community in accordance with the demand. Several computer tools have

been developed, with EPANET being the most popular and convenient of all available

tools for the efficient design of complex pipe networks (Ramana et al., 2015).

EPANET is a public domain modeling software package for water distribution

systems developed by the Water Supply and Water Management Division of the United

States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPANET is a computer program that

performs extended time simulation within pressurized pipe networks of hydraulic and

water quality behavior. EPANET offers hydraulic analysis that can handle systems of any

size. EPANET tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at each node, the height

of the water in each tank, and the concentration of chemical organisms throughout the

network. Running under Windows, EPANET offers an advanced, environment for

editing network input data, running simulations of hydraulic and water quality, and

showing the results in a variety of formats. This includes the network maps with color-

coding, data tables, time-series graphs, and contour plots. As a set of links connected to

nodes, EPANET models a water delivery system. The links represent pipes, pumps, and

control valves. Junctions, tanks, and reservoirs are defined by the nodes (Waikhom and

Mehta, 2015).

Water Demand Management

 21

With water supplies depleting and increasing demand for water due to changes in

the environment and urbanization, the focus should be shifted to controlling demand for

the available resource. Changes in climate and urbanization pose challenges in WDS

performance to meet the regulatory requirements for its intended service. Therefore, the

need to incorporate DM strategies into WDS' design and long-term planning to mitigate

the impact associated with changes in climate and urbanization is evident (Abdulla,

2016).

Inadequacy of water delivery systems to meet demand and pressure is typically

the result of a rise in population, primarily due to rapid urbanization. Another concern is

the leakage and destruction of pipelines due to bursts. High pressure and flow also lead

to bursting, loss of water, decreased water quality, high maintenance costs, poor system

design as a result of systems being constructed as a continuous system based on a steady

supply assumption. But then again, the supply of water is not constant but intermittent.

Weak device design and configuration make WDSs susceptible to error due to incorrect

assumptions, inadequate data and error in input calculation. The related high levels of

pollution are a serious problem caused by intermittent supplies, bursts and leaks. This is

achieved in networks where supply outage times are prolonged due to negligible or null

system stresses and regular system disturbances. (Elsevier, 2020).

Worldwide water management schemes have been studied and implemented

(Memon, 2016), and certain initiatives are known to save electricity, reduce wastewater

and related costs, i.e. , water supply construction and treatment plants (Fidar et al.,

2015). Water DM based on water-efficient devices is seen as a way to reduce water use

without necessarily changing user behavior (Fidar et al., 2010). In addition, water-

efficient products are known to offer significant water-saving potential at the point of use

(Butler and Memon, 2006). However, it is very difficult to determine future savings and
 22

user acceptability. This is because potential savings can be affected by adoption (e.g.,

replacement time, patterns, technology acceptability, other developments and barriers),

the proportion of total water uses by the individual product, rebound effects, and usage

trends (Memon, 2016).

The gathered related literature and studies made the researchers grasp about the

problem of water scarcity not just in Philippines but also in the whole world despite how

large is the economy of a country. However, by understanding the problem and the

process of water distribution system, the researchers know how to design a safe WDS

that will provide sufficient potable water to the community.

Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

A conceptual model is used to give a clearer picture of the subject under

investigation. The whole process of this study was planned and outlined from the

diagram given (see Figure 1). The diagram will be understood from top to bottom

starting from the identification of the households that are not part of the existing water

distribution network. Next, is the computation of how much volume of water are needed

enough to be distributed. The third one is to test the flow of water using the EPANET

software, this is where the movement and fate of drinking water constituents within

distribution systems will be understand. The results in the EPANET will be mapped-out

using Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS).

 23

DETERMINE AND CALCULATE THE WATER

DEMAND OF THE PROJECT

TRACKING AND GEOTAGGING WATER

TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION PIPELINES AND
FACILITIES

DRAWING THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

EXPANSION OF SITIO PAWAS

ANALYZE THE HYDRAULIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE

PIPE TRANSMISSION LINES AND ITS FACILITIES
USING EPANET

CREATE MAPS OF THE STUDY USING QUANTUM

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEM (QGIS)

Figure 1.1 The Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

 24

Significance of the Study

This study provides information that will benefit the community with insufficient

supply of potable water and also provides design on expansion of water distribution

system to develop adequate water pressure that will sustain the needs of water in every

household.

National and Local Government Unit. This research will provide information

for government agencies that are tasked in the development of water distribution system

to provide clean and safe water to the community.

Civil Engineers. This study will benefit engineers in enhancing the designs of

water distribution system in the country.

Municipality of Braulio E. Dujali. The output of this study will benefit the

residents like those living in Sitio Pawas, Braulio E. Dujali Davao del Norte which most

of the households lacks access to the water supply provided by the municipality.

St. Mary’s College of Tagum, Inc. The researchers are taking their bachelor’s

degree in Civil Engineering in this institution. This study will help the school to provide

information that will support and improve the quality of future studies. Also, it will

increase the school’s popularity since the study itself is unique.

Future Investigators and Researchers. This study will benefit the future

investigators and researchers in providing them data and information to support and

develop their studies in the future. Furthermore, this study will give them ideas that will

enhance their knowledge in some things that is related in other fields of engineering.
 25

Definition of Terms

The following terms used in this study are conceptually and operationally defined

for clarity purposes.

Water Supply System. Networks whose edges and nodes are pressure pipes

and either pipe junctions, water sources or end-users, respectively. Their function is to

provide end-users with potable water with a sufficient pressure level. A WSS can be

decomposed into hierarchically arranged tiers. The first layer collects all pipes in the

main distribution which (within urban areas) follow the main roads and convey the main

water flow. This is usually designed with a redundant grid-like topology to ensure

reliable connection of the sub-components. The latter follows lower-order roads and

have a more vulnerable tree-like topology (but are made of more easily repairable

smaller diameter pipes and serve smaller demands, thus limiting the impact of service

interruption).

Sumps. According to Akvopedia (2015), a sump is an underground (or partially

underground) tank that is popular in India. It is usually used for large water tank storage

and can be built cheaply using cement-like materials. It is usually part of a rainwater

harvesting system, where the rainwater gets channeled into the tank, then pumped out

for use.

Elevated Tank. According to Hocine Hammoum, Drifa Slimani, in Handbook of

Materials Failure Analysis with Case Studies from the Chemicals, Concrete and Power

Industries, (2016) is constituted by the set of resistive elements ensuring its rigidity and

stability to the horizontal forces caused by the earthquake. It constitutes one of the most

important aspects of seismic design. The classification of this parameter is defined taking

into account the capacity of energy dissipation to the seismic action and deformation.

For this, there is currently interest to equip tanks with a regular structural mesh in order
 26

to avoid twisting of bracing elements. The tank studied is installed on a supporting

system of pilings which is a structure that has a low rigidity distribution of mass and

stiffness that changes from abrupt manner.

Pumping station. Main pumping stations, which supply water to the

distribution system, are located near the water treatment facility or a potable water

storage facility, and pump directly into the piping system. Pumps that pump directly into

transmission lines and distribution systems are sometimes called high lift pumps.

Booster pumps are additional pumps used to increase pressure locally or temporarily.

Booster pumps stations are usually remotely located from the main pump station, as in

hilly topography where high-pressure zones are required, or to handle peak flows in a

distribution system that can otherwise handle the normal flow requirements (Guyer,

2015).

Groundwater. It is used for drinking water by more than 50 percent of the

people in the United States, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas. The

largest use for groundwater is to irrigate crops. The area where water fills the aquifer is

called the saturated zone (or saturation zone). The top of this zone is called the water

table. The water table may be located only a foot below the ground’s surface or it can sit

hundreds of feet down.

EPANET. is a software application used throughout the world to model water

distribution systems. It was developed as a tool for understanding the movement and

fate of drinking water constituents within distribution systems, and can be used for

many different types of applications in distribution systems analysis. Today, engineers

and consultants use EPANET to design and size new water infrastructure, retrofit

existing aging infrastructure, optimize operations of tanks and pumps, reduce energy

usage, investigate water quality problems, and prepare for emergencies. It can also be
 27

used to model contamination threats and evaluate resilience to security threats or

natural disasters.

Pipelines. According to Scott a water pipe is any pipe or tube designed to

transport drinking water to consumers. If the water is treated before distribution or at

the point of use (POU) depends on the context. In well planned and designed water

distribution networks, water is generally treated before distribution and sometimes also

chlorinated, in order to prevent recontamination on the way to the end user. The

varieties of water pipes include large diameter main pipes, which supply entire towns,

smaller branch lines that supply a street or group of buildings, or small diameter pipes

located within individual buildings. Water pipes can range in size from giant mains of up

to 3.65 m in diameter to small 12.7 mm pipes used to feed individual outlets within a

building. Materials commonly used to construct water pipes include polyvinyl chloride

(PVC), cast iron, copper, steel and in older systems concrete or fired clay. Joining

individual water pipe lengths to make up extended runs is possible with flange, nipple,

compression or soldered joints.

Hydraulic Network Solver. It is an analysis of fluid flow through a hydraulic

network, comprising many or more interconnected branches. The goal is to evaluate the

flow rates and the pressure drops in the individual parts of the network.
 28

Chapter 2

METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals with the methods and procedures that will be used in gathering

the necessary data. The research design, the research subjects, the research instruments,

data gathering procedures, and the statistical treatment of data will be used by the

researcher in the study.

Research Design

This is a quantitative study specifically descriptive in design. The quantitative

research is a technique that gathers numerical data to response to the problem of the

study. In this study, the quantitative research design is used to provide the design

expansion of the water distribution system in Sitio Pawas, Municipality of Braulio E.

Dujali by employing EPANET and GIS.

On the other hand, descriptive research is a kind of research which observes and

describe the problem that being studies. According to Penwarden (2014), descriptive

research gathers proven data that used for numerical presumptions on the object

consultations in the course of information analysis. In this study, the descriptive

research design is used because the researchers gathered data about the current water

distribution sys.tem in Braulio E. Dujali.

This study focused on designing and mapping the water distribution system

expansion in the Municipality of Braulio E. Dujali. The design will be determined

throughout the data that the researchers have gather in terms of the extent of the

availability. The researchers will use EPANET software to understand the movement and

fate of the water constituents within distribution systems. To map the design of the
 29

expansion network, the researchers will be employing the use of GIS. GIS is a framework

for recording, storing, manipulating, analyzing, handling, and displaying all forms of

geographic data. Geography is the main word for this technology, indicating that some

portion of the data is spatial. In other words, data that is referred to as positions on the

planet in any way. This study was conducted from the month of July until on the month

of November, 2020. The respondents of this study are the local government and the

respective barangays officials and the officials in the office of the municipal engineer in

the Municipality of Braulio E. Duajli, Davao del Norte.

Research Locale

This study will be conducted at Sitio Pawas, Braulio E. Dujali Davao del Norte. In the

Census of Population 2015, there are 5,404 households in the municipality of Braulio E.

Dujali in which there are only 325 households whose faucets are connected to the

municipal water supply system. Braulio E. Dujali is politically subdivided into five (5)

barangays namely Cabay-Angan, Dujali, Magupising, New Casay, and Tanglaw. Sitio

Pawas is a district of Barangay Dujali which is also one of those districts who have not

acquired the water supply from the municipality.

 30

Figure 2.1 Location Map of the Barangays of Braulio E. Dujali,

Davao del Norte, Philippines

 31

Research Instrument

The following are the instruments that used in this study:

Total Station. It is an electronic or optical instrument used for surveying. It is

an electronic transit theodolite integrated with electronic distance measurement (EDM)

for measuring both vertical and horizontal angles and the distance from the instrument

to a specific point, and an on-board computer for data collection and triangulation

calculations.

Data Collection Device. It is an electronic field books which record and

calculate field survey positions. Data collection devices operate not only with GPS

receivers, but also with robotic and manual total stations and digital levels.

Microsoft Excel. This Microsoft office software will help the researchers to

tabulate all the data that will be gather.

Environmental Protection Agency Network (EPANET). It is a public

domain, water management system modeling software package built by the Water

Supply and Water Resources Division of the United States Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA). This software will help the researchers in understanding the movement

and fate of drinking water constituents within distribution systems.

Geographic Information System (GIS). It is one of the Free and Open-

Source Software. This software will help the researchers in making their maps. For the

final output, the informative map or the interactive map were made by Geographic

Information System.

Data Gathering Procedure

These were the following steps or procedure that the researchers will follow

accordingly in gathering all the data:

 32

Seeking Approval to Ask About the Availability of Data. The researchers

will write a letter to ask permission in Local Government Unit of Municipality of Braulio

E. Dujali, Davao Del Norte. Through email, the researchers will also ask some guidelines

for the health protocol in the Municipality of Braulio E. Dujali. Then the researchers will

gather the data of the number of populations of Barangay Dujali and the locale map in

the Planning Office of Municipality of Braulio E. Dujali, Davao Del Norte.

Gathering Data. In this study, the researchers will gather all of the available

documents and files on the concerned barangay in the Municipality of Dujali, including

the Sitio’s and the Purok of the Barangay, and in the Municipal Engineer Office for the

secondary data. For the primary data, the researchers will gather the information by

surveying the area with the permission and guidance of the barangay officials and

residents.

Analyzing all the Gathered Data. After investigating the location and

gathering all the information and data by the researchers given by the local government

and residents, the researchers will now use the Excel Software to organize and tabulate

the data.

Compiling all the Analyzed Data. The researchers will compile all the data

and make the conclusion. The gathered data will be encoded to the Environmental

Protection Agency Network (EPANET) software to make a water distribution system

design. After analyzing and compiling the data gathered, the researchers will input it to

the Geographic Information System software (GIS) for mapping.

Making the Interactive Map. The researchers will make the informative map

of Barangay Dujali of Sitio Pawas in order to show the design of the water distribution

system expansion in Sitio Pawas, Municipality of Braulio E. Dujali.

 33

Ethical Considerations

Berman et al. (2018) compiled in a discussion paper the ethics to be considered

when collecting or using geospatial data for research. They are under the Office of

Research – Innocenti, the dedicated research center of the United Nations International

Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), whose list of ethics are useful for studies

involving non-human subjects but geospatial data instead.

During the gathering and analysis of these data, researchers can ensure that these

ethical considerations are extended from the request to different sources, to the analysis

of the data and also to the presentation of the findings and conclusions. In addition, only

the data that is required to represent and prepare ahead of the data collection process

will be collected. The researchers will ensure this consideration by sending letters to the

various data sources containing the title, existence and intent of the report. In addition,

the unique datasets to be collected are often explicitly written in order to collect only the

required data.

Another ethical consideration is ensuring privacy and security. It involves

acquiring consent where it is necessary particularly as some geospatial data can capture

personal information. It also includes taking into account the expectations of data

providers about data privacy when receiving secondary data, updating visual data as

soon as it is obtained, applying privacy issues relevant to the software used, and taking

into account the privacy policies of third-party geospatial data providers. By providing an

initial view of all geospatial data agreed along with its features, ensuring that the privacy

issues of the applications to be used in the analysis are exercised, and evaluating the

issues of third-party geospatial data providers, the researchers can ensure that these are

applied.

The researchers will also observe the ethical principle of understanding the data

risks and limitations. The limitations of the data may include gaps, missing values,
 34

incompatible formats that needs to be merged, inclusion of outdated data, and the

limitations when using third-party data providers as data source. Meanwhile, the risk

include the possibility that geospatial data could have discriminations, like exclusion,

against disadvantaged groups within particular geographical areas. The researchers will

ensure to practice this principle by including a mitigating procedure when dealing with

missing values, ensuring the qualification of the datasets to be used despite the

limitations in terms of content or recentness, and mentioning related studies that

ensured through its findings the qualifications of those datasets despite having some

limitations.

Related to the aforementioned ethics is the ethical consideration of assessing and

managing the risks. It includes an initial conduct of risk assessment framework, making

contingency plans, informing the people involved in crowd mapping exercise about

potential risks and protection strategies, and managing expectation. The researchers will

ensure to apply this principle with the initial assessment of the datasets needed including

its date and source and choosing only the qualified sets. In terms of the risk of potential

loss of data, the researchers will create a contingency plan which involves the storing

strategies and platforms to be used.

Lastly, the legal considerations will be applied by the researchers. The data

gathering procedure must abide to the local and international legislation and

regulations. In the case of this study, the researchers will review Brauli E. Dujali’s

regulations on what datasets are or are not available to public; regulations on who will

gather, where it will be gathered, and requirements for gathering data that are under the

authority of government agencies; and ensuring that the procedure will abide to health

and safety protocols that are in practice within the study area.
 35

Chapter 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the researchers presented and discussed the results of the

conducted study. This chapter also show the informative maps made by the researchers

based on the gathered data. The researchers used the (GIS) Geographical Information

System. All the data were gathered by the researchers in Municipal Engineering Office in

Dujali and by visiting the area of Sitio Pawas at Braulio E. Dujali.

The Location and the

Total Number of
Households

From the gathered data that were collected by the researchers, there are a total of

57 households that resides in Sitio Pawas and is included in this proposed water

distribution expansion. As the population of the community grows in the future, the

accurate present and past population data were taken from the census office in order to

assess the population of the area. An average of five (5) person lives in each household

and the location has a 2.84% annual population growth rate. This project is designed to

last 10 years at the very least, that is why in order to still cater the growing population we

must know the projected number of households that is correlated to the annual

population growth and design year.

The household is a social unit consisting of an individual living alone or a group

of persons sleeping in the same housing unit and having a shared arrangement for the

provision and consumption of food. The basic criterion for assessing household
 36

membership is the regular place of residence or the place where the individual usually

resides. This could be the same or different from the location where it was found at the

time of the census (PSA, 2015). This actively demonstrates that households don’t really

mean a person living in a house, it can also mean a person living either in a different type

of buildings, a barn, a hut, etc. This needs to be emphasized, and the particular reason

for the circumstance is that one of the considered households in the data is a pigpen. It is

considered as a household because one of the residents of the location lives, eat, and

sleep in there.

The projected/future population is relatively connected to the number of present

populations, population growth, and the design year. The design year of this project is

ten (10) years. To get the projected/future population we use the exponential growth

formula which is x(t)=x0 [1+(r/100)t].

Where:

x(t) = projected population

x0 = present population

r = population annual growth rate/ rate of change

t = elapsed time

From two hundred and eighty-five (285) total present population, the estimated

population increases to three hundred and seventy-seven (377) after 10 years span of

time. Now, the three hundred and seventy-seven (377) is the projected population for

this proposed expansion design.

37
 38

Table 3.1
Present and Projected Number of Households and Population

Present Number of Projected Number of

Present Population Projected Population
Household/s Households

(a) a(t)=a0 [1+(r/100)t] (a×5=b) b(t)=b0 [1+(r/100)t]

57 75 285 377
Figure 3.1 Location Map of Davao del Norte
39
Figure 3.2 Thematic Map of Braulio E. Dujali
40
 41

The Data on the Factors Affecting

the Result of the Hydraulic
Network Solver

Nodal Demands. Designing of water systems involves calculation of the

expected water requirements applicable to the size of pumping equipment, transmission

and distribution lines and storage facilities. System water demand is the quantity of

water that needs to be generated to satisfy all water needs in the city. The estimation of

water needs for a given area depends on the number of the population to be provided,

their standard of living and lifestyles, the cost of water supplies, the availability of

wastewater facilities and the purpose of demand. It varies according to the needs of the

domestic population, the institutional, industrial and social institutions, etc.

Water demand includes water delivered to the system to meet the needs of

consumers, water supply for firefighting and system flushing, and water required to

properly operate the treatment facilities (CWESI, 2015). Additionally, virtually all

systems have a certain amount of leakage that cannot be economically removed and thus

total demand typically includes some leakage. The difference between the amount of

water sold and the amount delivered to the system is referred to as unaccounted water.

Unaccounted water can result from system flushing, leakage, firefighting, meter

inaccuracies, and other non-metered usage.

The percentage of the unaccounted water or also known as Nonrevenue Water

(NRW) for the proposed design is 15%. The Average Daily Demand (ADD) is the

cumulative amount of water supplied to the system over a year separated by 365 days.

The ADD is expressed in gallons/liters per day, it is the mathematical product of the

projected population and consumption rate that is divide by the quantity of 1 minus the

NRW. Furthermore, the Maximum Day Demand (MDD) is the highest amount of water
 42

supplied to the system in a single day expressed in gallons/liters per day. The supply of

water, the treatment plant, and the transmission lines should be built to meet the full day

demand. The Maximum Daily Demand (MDD) is the mathematical product of ADD

multiplied by 1.3. Whereas, the Peak Hourly Demand (PHD) is the cumulative amount of

water supplied to the system in a single hour expressed in gallons per day. Distribution

networks should be configured to provide adequate control of peak hourly demand or

full day-to-day demand plus fire flows, whichever is greater. Storage reservoirs provide

demand in excess of the full day demand at peak hourly flows. Peak Hourly Demand

(PHD) is the mathematical product of ADD that is multiplied by 2.5. The consumption

rate that is use in this design is 100 lpcd because the level of system is at level 2.

ADD = [ Projected Population x Consumption Rate ]/ ( 1 – NRW )

MDD = 1.3 x ADD

PHD = 2.5 x ADD

Conversion of liters per day (LPD) to liters per second (LPS):

1 L/D ( 1 D / 86400 s )

1 LPD = 0.00001157 LPS

Table 3.2
ADD, MDD, and PHD that corresponds to the Projected Population
 43

A node is point spatial object which is used to represent the connectivity between

two different waterway links, or between a waterway link and a watercourse link, in the

water transport network. There are two categories of nodes, these are the junction nodes

and fixed-grade nodes. The nodes in which the inflow or outflow is identified are referred

to as junction nodes. These nodes have lumped demand, in which might vary over time.

On the other hand, the nodes to which the reservoir is connected are referred to as fixed

grade nodes. These nodes may take the form of tanks or long constant pressure lines

(Clark, 2015).

The table 3.3 contains twenty-two (22) nodal ID with its corresponding demand

and base demand. Demand pattern is a multiplier of base demand at a given junction at

a certain time of day. The demand pattern reflects the peak and non-peak hour of a day.

The highest demand goes to junction 21 and junction 22 that is equal to 0.30 liters per

second. Most of the nodes that contains the highest demand are the nodes in the end of

the network. The base demand is not applicable in the junction 1 and 2 because that is

the tank and the pump.

Different approaches are presently available for the analysis of water distribution

systems, called Node Head Analysis (NHA) techniques, evaluate distribution systems,

assuming that nodal requirements can be met by having additional source heads or

increasing pressures, if required. When such additional heads or pressures are not

present, some of the collecting nodes struggle, partially or entirely, to meet the nodal

requirements. The method referred to as the Node Flow Analysis (NFA) is built to locate

such nodes and estimate the real nodal supplies.

 44

Table 3.3
Node IDs and its Corresponding Demand
and Base Demand

Node ID Base Demand (LPS) Demand (LPS)

Junc 3 0.05 0.05
Junc 4 0.05 0.05
Junc 5 0.06 0.06
Junc 6 0.00 0.00
Junc 7 0.09 0.09
Junc 8 0.04 0.04
Junc 9 0.02 0.02
Junc 10 0.05 0.05
Junc 11 0.00 0.00
Junc 12 0.2 0.02
Junc 13 0.09 0.09
Junc 14 0.03 0.03
Junc 15 0.02 0.02
Junc 16 0.03 0.03
Junc 17 0.18 0.18
Junc 18 0.2 0.02
Junc 19 0.08 0.08
Junc 20 0.16 0.16
Junc 21 0.30 0.30
Junc 22 0.30 0.30
Junc 1 N/A -1.9
Junc 2 N/A -0.13
 45

Network Links Information. The network link is one of the links between the

objects of the network.  We refer to objects as nodes or vertices, and typically draw them

as dots. Links can be guided, meaning that they point from one node to the next, and

links can also be undirected, where such case they are bidirectional (Nykamp, 2020).

Considerations for pipe material selection were often based on economic

considerations, but other factors such as environmental effects, physical and ambient

device conditions, hydraulic and water quality properties, and design, installation and

operating parameters should be also taken into consideration. Pipes are supplied and

referred to as single random, double random, and cut lengths. Single random pipe length

is usually 5.49 to 7.62 meter plain end or 5.49 to 6.71-meter threaded and coupled pipes.

Double random length pipes are made between 11.58 to 12.19 meter. On the other hand,

the cut length pipes are made in fixed lengths within +/- 1/8 inch. Some pipes are

available in about 24.38-meter lengths.

The table 3.1 presents all of the link ID and its corresponding length in meters.

The longest pipe length is 451.75 meter which belongs to pipe 6 that connects between

the junction 6 and junction 7 and the shortest pipe length belongs to the link ID Pipe 19.

We, the researchers, use pump in our design in order to deliver treated water to the

consumer’s tap with pressure and boost the line pressure. The pumping hours of the

design if only twelve (12) hours per day. The pumping rate is MDD (Lpd)/Pumping

Hours/3600, which results to 8.43 liters per day. The pump efficiency if 70% with the

total dynamic of 15.

 46

Table 3.4
Link ID Length (m)
Link ID and Length
Pipe 19 16.36
Pipe 17 23.11
Pipe 15 27.12
Pipe 18 31.87
Pipe 2 33.9
Pipe 21 47.69
Pipe 7 53.89
Pipe 8 56.49
Pipe 24 66.63
Pipe 11 69.35
Pipe 12 75.4
Pipe 16 76.46
Pipe 4 86.7
Pipe 10 90.7
Pipe 3 101.94
Pipe 14 120.11
Pipe 5 174.24
Pipe 9 190.28
Pipe 13 233.38
Pipe 20 272.99
Pipe 6 451.75
Pump #N/A
 47

Topographic Elevations of the Proposed Nodes (Junctions, Reservoir,

and Tank). Elevation is at a distance above sea level. Elevations are typically

measured in meters or in feet. They can be seen on maps by contour lines connecting

points with the same elevation; by color bands; or by numbers providing the exact

elevations of specific points on the Earth's surface. Maps displaying elevations are called

topographic maps (NG, 2018).

The elevation of each node in the network model must be allocated because the

elevation values affect the computation of the pressure at each node, particularly at the

point where the water pressure gauge is mounted. These elevations have been used to

recalibrate the model. As a result, the proposed design of the network model has

increased accuracy.

As you can see in the figure 3.1 the reservoir has the lowest elevation at negative

nineteen (-19) meters and the highest elevation among all of the node is the tank that has

an elevation of twenty-five (25) meters. The rest of the nodes, which are the junctions

has an elevation of six (6) to eleven (11) meters. The tank has the highest elevation

because the design method we use is the combined gravity and pumping system. It is one

of the most common system that is used in water networks. This system works in the way

of supplying water to consumer by the use of gravity, storing excess water in the

reservoir during low demand and it can get supplied during high demand period. Most of

all, we use this method in our design because it is economical, efficient, and a reliable

system.
 48

Figure 3.3 Proposed Path from Reservoir to Junctions and its

Corresponding Elevation
49
 50

Proposed Reservoir and Tank Information. Storage tanks and reservoirs

are used to create storage space to meet fluctuations in demand, to provide backup

supplies for fire-fighting and emergency use, to regulate pressures in the distribution

network, to improve operational convenience and provide flexibility in pumping,

to provide water through source or pump failure, and to combine various sources of

water (Ahmedabad, 2015). The suggested location of the storage tank is just outside the

demand center in the service area. Elevated or overhead tanks are most widely used, it is

required at distribution areas in which the topography of the town is not suitable for

under gravity. Furthermore, other types of tanks and reservoirs include in-ground tanks

and open or closed reservoirs. Popular tank materials are made of concrete and steel.

The water consumption rate of the project is at level three that is equivalent to

the system pressure seven (7). The storage requirement volume or the storage capacity is

12 cubic meters, it is the result of ADD multiplied by 25%. The proposed storage height is

five (5) meter and the result for Square base is 1.55m while the diameter base is 1.75

meter.

The reservoir is located in the 9929.557 x-coordinate and 9746.894 y-coordinate

with an elevation of 19 meter below the ground. While the tank is located in the

coordinate of 9931.836 on x-axis and 9690.366 on y-axis and is designed not to overflow

and has an elevation of 25 meters, initial level of 0.03 meters, minimum level of 0.01

meters, and a maximum level of 4.5 meters. The mixing model, which is identifies the

model that governs mixing within storage tanks, is mixed in which means it has a single

compartment with complete mix model.

51
 52

Figure 3.4 Proposed Tank Design

 53

Assumed Diameters. Selection of pipe diameters from a set of commercially

available diameters to form a water distribution network of least capital cost has been

shown to be a hard problem. Therefore, selecting the diameters needs to carried out with

scrupulous attention to detail because increase in pipe diameter would be equivalent to a

decrease in the flow velocity inside the pipe. From the figure below (figure 3.2), most of

the pipe diameter ranges form 61-75mm that is why the color of the links are red because

it is more than 36mm, while there are two yellow colors in the figure, those two pipes

have a diameter of 32mm.

For pumping a precise fixed water discharge, it can be pumped through a larger

pipe diameter at a low speed or through a smaller pipe diameter at a very high speed.

But, if the diameter of the pipe is increased, the expense of the pie line would be higher.

On the other hand, if the pipe diameter is decreased, the increased velocity will lead to a

higher frictional head loss and will need more horsepower for the necessary pumping,

thus increasing the cost of pumping. In order to achieve the optimum conditions, it is at

the most important to design the diameter of the main pump, which will be the most

economical overall in the initial cost, as well as the maintenance cost of pumping the

required quantity of water.

 54

Figure 3.5 Pipe Diameters

 55

Proposed Water Source. The water needed to supply an irrigation scheme is

taken from a water source. The most common sources of water for irrigation include

rivers, reservoirs and lakes, and groundwater. The researchers use the branch system in

designing, the branch system is where the water can take only one pathway from the

source to the consumer and in which smaller pipes branch off larger parts throughout

the service area. The proposed water source that is use in this design is a deep well. We

decided to use deep wells as water source because the availability of groundwater is less

irregular than that of small rivers and the current water distribution system in the

Braulio E. Dujali is also using deep wells as their water source. The way of tapping the

water from the deep well is by using a pump in order to lift the water above ground level

and then let it flow to the network.

The figure 3.4, is the deep well pump detail. The final depth of the well shall

depend on actual condition. Due to the large design requirement which will be supplied

by deepwells, it is recommended that the well be completed, tested and the results

evaluated prior to the drilling and construction of succeeding well. It would be best if

groundwater modelling can be done to determine the aquifer’s response to the planned

withdrawal. Moreover, it is strongly recommended that a qualified and experienced

hydrogeologist be hired to supervise the drilling and testing of the wells. The

submersible pumps were designed based from assumed parameters. The actual sizing of

pumps will depend on the final pumping results of the completed wells. The same

applies to the pump and mmotor controls. All of the casings and screen joints are welded

and all lengths are approximates.

 56

Figure 3.6 Proposed Deep Well Pump Detail

 57

Proposed Map Design of The New and Current Water Distribution

System in Braulio E. Dujali using the Quantum
Geographic Information System

Figure 1 shows the path of the water in Brgy. Cabayangan, Dujali, New Casay, and

Magupising. The red color represents the pumphouse where pumps and other pumping

equipment have been installed. The blue color represents the water source that is

potentially useful. The dark red color represents the tapstand that is installed in a safe

area where people can easily access the water and the light blue color represents the

water tank where water was stored.

The water source and pumphouse are located towards Cabayangan and the water

tank alongside Tapstand 1 which has an elevation of 900 mm and sta. 3 0+954.31. Line 2

has a Tapstand 6 which is elevation is 800 mm and sta. 1+228.42 and Tapstand 2 have

an elevation of 800 and sta. 2+294.26 going to Lamshed. In line 3 the Tapstand 3 has an

elevation of 700 mm and sta. 4+1799.32 going to New Casay. In Tapstand 4 the elevation

is 700mm and sta. 5 0+4812.35 and Tapstand 5 has an elevation of 600 mm and sta. 6

0+5564.17.

We used GIS software in showing the area because according to (D V Andreev,

2020), the GIS software product is a tool for users to create interactive queries, explore

spatial information, edit map information, and present the outcomes of all these

operations. 

Figure 2 is connected to figure 1, where the water source, pumphouse, and water

tank are located in the center of Sitio Pawas and Mag Creek. In Line 1 going to Prk. 11

Tipolo has a Tapstand 2 where the elevation is 700 mm and sta. 4 0+1179.04, Tapstand 3

has an elevation of 900 mm and sta. 4 0+1208.60, and the Tapstand 4 has an elevation

of 1100 mm and sta. 4 0+1433.90. In Line 2 the Tapstand 1 has an elevation of 900 mm

and sta. 4 0+1148.89 going to Dujali and Tagum City.

 58

From Sitio Pawas going to Prk. Mahayahay, there will be also a water source,

pumphouse, and water tank. In Line 1 the Tapstand 1 has an elevation of 700 mm and

sta. 4 0+1229.6. To Dujali and Tagum City there will be Tapstand 2 which has an

elevation of 1100 mm and sta. 4 0+1599.08. Going to Palayan the Tapstand 3 has an

elevation of 900 mm and sta. 4 0+1717.25.

The concept of expansion design came from the idea of our research adviser since

it has already a water source designed by him. With this concept in mind, the researchers

can help in developing adequate water pressure. This can also allow the residents of Sitio

Pawas to have a sufficient water. Along with this idea, the proponents’ design will create

a big help in the community. According to (Katko and Hukka, 2015), the provision of

water to the community as the most significant reason of our societies for water use plays

a fundamental role in community and societal development.

(Katko and Rajala, 2005) studied the priorities in Water Use Purposes (WUPs)

using a two-phase questionnaire in 11 countries/regions on five continents with different

water supplies and use, socio-economic and cultural conditions. On average, the

availability of community water was ranked first, nature conversation second, and third

is hydropower, but the priorities differed less than originally planned. In all countries

except Lithuania, supplying water for urban and rural areas was ranked first and

Lithuania placed second.

 59

Figure 3.7 Location Map of the Water Distribution System in the

Municipality of Braulio E. Dujali Davao del Norte

 60

Chapter 4

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The following were the summary of the findings and outcomes enumerated and

discussed in the preceding chapter, the conclusion and the recommendations given by

the researchers based on the results gathered.

Summary of Findings

The following finding were derived and summarized based on the preceding

chapter:

1. The present number of households of the project is 57. To get the

projected/future population the researchers used the exponential growth formula

which is x(t)=x0 [1+(r/100)t]. The annual population growth 2.84% and that

results to 75 projected number of households. Therefore, the present population

is 285 and the projected population is 377.

2. Designing of water systems involves calculation of the expected water

requirements applicable to the size of pumping equipment, transmission and

distribution lines and storage facilities. The researchers used pump in their

design in order to deliver treated water to the consumer’s tap with pressure and

boost the line pressure. The pumping hours of the design if only twelve (12) hours

per day. The pumping rate is MDD (Lpd)/Pumping Hours/3600, which results to

8.43 liters per day. The pump efficiency if 70% with the total dynamic of 15. The

reservoir has the lowest elevation at negative nineteen (-19) meters and the

highest elevation among all of the node is the tank that has an elevation of

twenty-five (25) meters. The tank has the highest elevation because the design
 61

method that the researchers used is the combined gravity and pumping system. It

is one of the most common system that is used in water networks. This system

works in the way of supplying water to consumer by the use of gravity, storing

excess water in the reservoir during low demand and it can get supplied during

high demand period. Most of all, we use this method in our design because it is

economical, efficient, and a reliable system. The water consumption rate of the

project is at level three that is equivalent to the system pressure seven (7). The

storage requirement volume or the storage capacity is 71 cubic meters, it is the

result of 25% ADD. The proposed storage height is five (5) meter and the result

for Square base is 3.77m while the diameter base is 4.25 meter. The tank is

designed not to overflow. The mixing model is mixed in which means it has a

single compartment. Most of the pipe diameter ranges form 61-75mm The

researchers decided to use deep wells as water source because the availability of

groundwater is less irregular than that of small rivers and the current water

distribution system in the Braulio E. Dujali is also using deep wells as their water

source. The way of tapping the water from the deep well is by using a pump in

order to lift the water above ground level and then let it flow to the network.

3. QGIS software was used to make a map of the new and current water distribution

system in Braulio E. Dujali, Davao del Norte.

Conclusion

Based on the finding of this quantitative study, the following conclusions were

drawn:

1. Water is one of the primary needs of people. Therefore, it is important to a

community to have a sufficient amount of water to their household.

 62

2. The expansion of water distribution system has been designed and analyzed

successfully with the help of EPANET and QGIS in which we use number of

nodes, elevation, and number of pipes and demands. The demand is more during

peak hours.

3. The resulting pressures at all the junctions and the flows with their velocities at

all pipes are adequate enough to provide water to Sitio Pawas, Braulio E. Dujali.

Recommendations:

Base on the findings and conclusions of this study, the researchers suggest the

following recommendations:

1. Aside from Quantum Geographic Information System (GIS) Software,

AutoCAD is also a reliable software to map out the design of the new pipeline

routes in the georeferenced space.

2. It is recommended to consider that the expansion of water distribution system

not only involves laying additional pipelines to reach the point of demand, but

that this process should be accompanied by reinforcement or finding water mains

to sufficiently supply potable water.

3. It is recommended for the future researchers to develop or design water

distribution system that would last longer than 10 years.

 63

REFERENCES
al, K. e. (2016). DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM USING EPANET.
International Journal of Advanced Research, 789-812.
Cavalieri, P. F. (2016). Handbook of Seismic Risk Analysis & Management of Civil
Infrastructure Systems.
Christopher Bwire, Richard Onchiri, NjengaMburu, “Simulation of Pressure variations
within Kimilili water supply system using EPANET” International Journal of Civil
Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print), ISSN 0976 –
6316(Online), Volume 6, Issue 4, April (2015).

Cohen, B.A., Wiles, R., Olson, E.D., and Campbell, C. (n.d.). Just Add Water, A two year
profile of drinking water quality in the US. Retrieved from Environmental
Working Group: http://www.ewg.org/reports/justaddwater
Colombo, A.F., and Karney, B.W. (n.d.). Energy and costs of leaky pipes: Toward
comprehensive picture. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management,
ASCE.
Cullinane, M. J. (2019). Determining availability and reliability of water distribution
systems. In Reliability analysis of water distribution systems. New York, N.Y.
Dave, Brinda & Rajpara, Gargi & Patel, Ajay & Kalubarme, Manik. (2015). Continuous
Water Distribution Network Analysis Using Geo-informatics Technology and
EPANET in Gandhinagar City, Gujarat state, India. International Journal of
Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 6, Issue 4, April-2015. 6.

Engelhardt, M.O., Skipworth, P.J., Cashman, A., Savic, D.A., Walters, G.A., and Saul,A.J.
(2018). Engelhardt, M.O., Skipworth, P.J.,Determining maintenance
requirements of a water distribution network using whole life costing. Journal of
Quality Maintenance Engineering.
Gama.M, Pan.Q, Lanfranchi.E.M, Jonoski.A, Dimitri, Solomatine. (2016). “Pump
Scheduling for a large water distribution network”, XVIII International
Conference on water distribution system analysis, WDSA.

Gupta, R., and Bhave, P.R. (2018). Comparison of Methods for Predicting
DeficientNetwork Performance. Journal of Water Resource Planning and
Management, ASCE.
Guyer, J. P. (2015). An introduction to Punping Stations for Water Supply Systems.
Createspace Independent Pub.
Hocine, H. (2016). Concrete and Power Industries. Handbook of Material Failure
Analysis with Case Studies from the Chemicals.
KakadiyaShital, MavaniKrunali, Darshan Mehta, Vipin Yadav, “Simulation of Existing
Water Distribution Network by using EPANET: A Case Study of Surat City”
Global Research and Development Journal for Engineering, Recent Advances in
Civil Engineering for Global Sustainability, March 2016.
 64

Karim, M.R., Abbaszadegan, M., and Lechevallier, M. (2003). Potential for pathogen
intrusion during pressure transient. Journal of American Water Works
Association. Mala-Jetmarova, H., Sultanova, N., & Savic, D. (2017). Lost in
optimisation of water distribution systems? A literature review of system
operation. Environmental modelling & software, 93, 209-254.

Michael Awe., Sociis Okolie., & Ojo Sunday Isaac Fayomi (2019). Optimization of Water
Distribution Systems: A Review. Journal of Physics Conference Series.

Mohammad N. Almasri PhD, “Simulation of Water Distribution Networks the Use of

EPANET” An-Najah National University

Muranho, J. F. (2015). Pressure-dependent Demand and Leakage Modelling with an

EPANET Extension. In Procedia Engineering (pp. 89:632-639).
Muranho, J., Ferreira, A., Sousa, J., Gomes, A., and Marqes, A. S. (2015). Pressure-
dependent Demand and Leakage Modelling with an EPANET Extension–
WaterNetGen. Procedia Engineering, 89:632–639.
Mutikanga, H., Sharma, S., and Vairamoorthy, K. . (2015). Methods and Tools for
Managing Losses in Water Distribution Systems. Journal of Water Resources
Planning and Management, 139:166–174.
(2016). Oslo Water and Sewerage Works. iFix, iHstorian, Arcmap, archives,and other
resources of the Oslo Water Works.
National Association of Clean Water Agencies (2015). NACWA.

Pollet, J. (2002). Developing a solid SCADA security strategy. 2nd ISA/IEEESensors for
Industry Conference, 2002, pages 148–156, 148–156.
Puust, R., Kapelan, Z., Savic, D. A., and Koppel, T. (2016). A review of methodsfor
leakage management in pipe networks. Urban Water Journal. Urban Water
Journal, 25-45.
Ramana, G. V., Sudheer, C. V., & Rajasekhar, B. (2015). 'Network Analysis of Water
Distribution System in Rural Areas using EPANET'. Procedia Engineering, Vol.
119, (pp.: 496-505)
RASOOLI Ahmadullah, KANG Dongshik, “Designing of Hydraulically Balanced Water
Distribution Network Based on GIS and EPANET” (IJACSA) International
Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications,Vol. 7, No. 2, 2016

Risley, A., Roberts, J., and Ladow, P. (2017). Electronic security of real-time protection
and SCADA systems. Spokane, Washington.
R. Sathyanathan, Mozammil Hasan, V.T. Deeptha, “Water Distribution Network Design
for SRM University using EPANET”Asian Journal of Applied Sciences (ISSN:
2321 – 089) Volume 04 – Issue 03, June 2016.
 65

Sahita I Waikhom, Darshan J Mehta (2015). Optimization of Limbayat zone water

distribution system using EPANET.International Research Journal of
Engineering and Technology (IRJET) Volume: 02 Issue: 04 July-2015

Savic, D., Mala-jetmarova, H., and Sultanova, N. (2018). History of Optimization in

Water Distribution System Analysis
Shivalingaswami.S. Halagalimath, Vijaykumar.H, Nagaraj.S.Patil, “Hydraulic modeling
of water supply network using EPANET” International Research Journal of
Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Volume: 03 Issue: 03, Mar-2016.

(n.d.). The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis. United
States: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water.
UNICEF. (2017). Joint Monitoring Programme.
Venkata Ramana.G, Sudheer .CH.V.S.S, Rajasekhar.B,. (2015) “Network analysis of
water distribution system in rural areas using EPANET”,13th computer control
forwater industry conference, CCWI.

Ward, B., D. Smith, D. Savic, J. Roebuck and J. Collingbourne (2017). "Optimized

investment planning for high-volume low-value buried infrastructure
assets." Journal of Pipeline Systems Engineering and Practice 8(3).

WHO. (2017). Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation.

Yang X.S., Koziel, S., (2019). Computational Optimisation and Application in

Engineering and Industry. Springer, Germany.

Zangenehmadar, Z. and O. Moselhi (2016). "Prioritizing deterioration factors of water

pipelines using Delphi method." Measurement: Journal of the International
Measurement Confederation 90: 491-499.