Power System 2

EEPB383
Chapter 11
Stability
2 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will be covered in 6 lecture hours. In this
chapter, you will learn the following

Lecture 1 • Introduction to stability

Lecture 2 • Swing Equation

• Synchronous Machine Model for Stability

Lecture 3 Studies

Lecture 4 • Steady State Stability

Lecture 5 • Transient Stability

Lecture 6 • Application to Three Phase Fault

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
3 Introduction
A power system is in a steady state operating condition if
all the physical quantities (voltage, current) describing
the operating condition of the system can be considered
constant for purposes of analysis.
If a sudden change or a sequence of changes occurs in
one or more of the parameters of the system, the system
is said to have undergone a disturbance from its steady
state operating condition.
The disturbance can be large or small depending on their
origin.
Large disturbance : transmission system faults, sudden load
changes, loss of generating unit.
Small disturbance : the change of a gain in an AVR in the
excitation system

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4 INTRODUCTION
Definition: CIGREE-IEEE
The ability of an electrical power
system, for a given initial operating
condition, to regain a state of
operating equilibrium after being
subjected to a physical disturbance,
with most systems variables bounded
so that practically the entire system
remains intact.
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5 INTRODUCTION
What is stability?
Stability : The property of the system which enables the
synchronous machines of the system to respond to a
disturbance from a normal operating condition so as to
return to a condition where their operation is again
normal.
If the forces tending to hold the machines in synchronism
with one another(FR) are sufficient to overcome the
disturbing forces(FD), the system is said to remain stable.
The stability problem is concerned with the behavior of
the synchronous machines after a disturbance.
Instability can be referred to as loss of synchronism
(synchronous machine is out of step).

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6 Stability
There are two types of stability.
Steady-state: The ability of the power system to regain
synchronism after small and slow disturbances e.g.
gradual power changes. (return back to the initial
operating condition)
Dynamic stability: It concerns with small disturbance lasting for
a long time with the inclusion of automatic control devices.
Transient Stability : It deals with the effects of large,
sudden disturbances e.g. the occurrence of fault, the
sudden outage of a line or the sudden application or
removal of loads. (settle at a different but acceptable
operating condition)
Required to ensure that the system can withstand the
transient condition following a major disturbance.
Useful to determine the nature of relaying system, critical
clearing time of a circuit breaker, voltage level and transfer
capability between systems.

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7 Stability (Steady State vs Dynamic)
The stability problem is the same in nature.
They differ only in the degree of detail used to
model the machines.
In dynamic stability studies, the excitation
system and turbine-governing system are
represented along with synchronous machine
models which provide for flux-linkage variations
in the machine air-gap.
Steady-state stability problems use a very simple
generator model which treats the generator as
a constant voltage source.

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8 Example 1
If short circuit fault occur at line bus 1 ( 3phase fault)
voltage of the bus will go to zero.
Power supply by the generator will be zero. (no
electrical power but mechanical input remains the
same).
There is a mismatch between the mechanical power
input and the electrical power output. Machine will
accelerate because the electrical input is zero. Rotor
angle will increase (delta).
If the fault is cleared by opening the line, power flow
from the machine and the behavior of the machine
depends on the time of fault clearing time.

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9 Example 1

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10 Example 2
When an islanding happen, one part
of the island might have load which is
higher than the power generated by
the generator. The frequency will
decrease. Other part, generated
power is more than load, frequency
will increase. Generator governor, will
reduce the mechanical power, and
the system will recover.
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 LECTURE 2
SWING EQUATION
12 Review of the synchronous machine

When generator floats on the line, the stator current I

is zero and no forces are developed. The only flux is
that created by the rotor. The N poles are line up with
the S poles of the stator.
When the mechanical torque is applied to the
generator, the rotor accelerates and gradually
advances by a mechanical angle m. The stator
currents immediately begin to flow owing to the
electrical angle between the induced voltage E0 and
the terminal voltage V.

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13 Review of the synchronous machine
is the angle between
rotor mmf and the resultant
air gap mmf, both rotating
at synchronous speed.
It is also the angle between
no load generated emf, E
and the resultant stator
voltage, Esr.
If the armature resistance,
RA and leakage flux are
neglected, the angle
between the generated
voltage, E and terminal
voltage, V is called the
power angle ( ).

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14 Swing Equation
Under normal operating condition, the relative position of the
rotor axis and the resultant magnetic field axis is fixed.
During any disturbance condition, the rotor will decelerate and
accelerate with respect to the synchronously rotating air gap
mmf, and a relative motion begins.
The equation that describes the above relative motion is called
Swing equation.
If after the oscillatory period, the rotor locks back into
synchronous speed, the generator will maintain its stability.
If the disturbance does not involve any net change in power, the
rotor will return to its original position.
If the disturbance is created by a change in generation, load, or
in network conditions, the rotor comes to a new operating power
angle relative to the synchronously revolving field.

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15 Swing Equation
Consider a synchronous generator developing an electromagnetic
torque, Te and running at a synchronous speed and Tm is the
mechanical torque. Under a steady state operating condition,
=

If there is a disturbance that results in an acceleration( > ) and

deceleration ( < ) of the rotor, the torque is,
= −
If is the moment of inertia of the prime mover and generator,
neglecting friction and damping torques, we have
= = −
Where is the angular displacement of the rotor wrt reference axis
on the stator.
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16 Swing Equation
The angular displacement is given by:
= +
Where is the rotor position before disturbance at time t0
measured from the synchronously rotating frame.
Rotor angular velocity, = = +

Rotor acceleration, =
Substituting inside Ta equation,
= = −
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17 Swing Equation
Multiply with , then,
= −
= −
is called an inertia constant and denoted by .
Therefore, the swing equation in terms of inertia constant is
= −

Substitute mechanical angle into electrical angle, where

= or ω=

Leads to = −
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
18 Swing Equation
Expressing in per unit, by dividing by the base power "# ,
2 2&'
= −
"# "# "#
Then we have
(
)*+
= (-.) − (-.) (rad)
(

012*+
= (-.) − (-.) (degree)

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 LECTURE 3
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES MODEL
 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
20 (Saliency is ignored)

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 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
21 (Saliency is ignored)

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
22 (Saliency is ignored)

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
23 (Saliency is ignored)

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
24 (Saliency is ignored)

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
25 (Saliency included)
The phasor diagram of the salient pole
machine during transient period.
From the figure,
Under normal operating condition, the
relative position of the rotor axis and the
resultant magnetic field axis is fixed.

Under normal operating condition, the relative

position of the rotor axis and the resultant
magnetic field axis is fixed.

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 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
26 (Saliency included)
The phasor diagram of the salient pole
machine during transient period.
From the figure,
Under normal operating condition, the
relative position of the rotor axis and the
resultant magnetic field axis is fixed.

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
27 (Saliency included)
The phasor diagram of the salient pole
machine during transient period.
From the figure,
Under normal operating condition, the
relative position of the rotor axis and the
resultant magnetic field axis is fixed.

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Synchronous Machine model for stability studies
28 (Saliency included)
The phasor diagram of the salient pole
machine during transient period.
From the figure,
Under normal operating condition, the
relative position of the rotor axis and the
resultant magnetic field axis is fixed.

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Example 11.1
29

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 Example 11.1
30

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 Example 11.1
31

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 Example 11.1
32

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 LECTURE 4
Steady State Stability
34 Recapture:
Swing Equation
(
)*+
= (-.) − (-.) (rad)
(

012*+
= (-.) − (-.) (degree)

Synchronous Machine Models

= 3 sin (without saliency)
7 8 8 9: ;9<
= sin + sin 2δ (with saliency)
9: 9: 9<

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35 Steady state stability – small disturbance
The steady-state stability refers to the ability of the power system to
remain in synchronism when subjected to small disturbances.
Assumptions:
the disturbances causing the changes disappear. The system is
free and stability is assured if the system returns to its original state.
Such a behaviour can be determined in a linear system by
examining the characteristic equation of the system.
The automatic controls e.g. voltage regulator and governor are
not active.

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36 Steady state stability – small disturbance
The same one machine connected to an infinite bus is
considered.
By substituting the electrical power equation, the swing
equation is given by:
>
= − 3 ABC
?@
Note that the swing equation is a nonlinear function of the
power angle, . However, the equation can be linearized with a
little loss of accuracy.
The small disturbance can be the deviation by two values:
Power angle, .
Real power,
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
37 Steady state stability – small disturbance
Deviation on ∆ :
Consider a small deviation of the power angle from its initial
point 2 ,
= 2+∆
Substituting inside the swing equation,
( ( E F∆ )
)*+
= − 3 sin( 2 +∆ ) OR
( ( ∆
)*+
E
+
)*+
= − 3 sin 2 cos ∆ + cos 2 sin ∆
Since ∆ is small, cos ∆ = 1 and sin ∆ = ∆ , therefore,
( ( ∆
)*+
E
+
)*+
= − 3 sin 2 − 3 cos 2 ∆
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
38 Steady state stability – small disturbance
Since we only interested in the incremental changes in the
power angle, the equation is reduced to:
( ∆
+ 3 cos 2 ∆ =0
)*+
The quantity 3 cos 2 is the slope of the power-angle curve at
2 and is known as the synchronising coefficient, denoted by .
This coefficient plays an important part in determining the
system stability, and is given by :
= K = 3 cos 2
E
Substituting inside the above equation:
( ∆
+ ∆ =0
)*+

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

39 Steady state stability – small disturbance
The solution of the swing equation depends on the roots of the
characteristic equation given by:
)*+
A =−
(
When is negative, there is one root that lies on the right s-plane. The
response is increasing exponentially and it is unstable.
When is positive, there are two roots lie on the left s-plane. The
response is oscillatory and undamped with a natural frequency of
oscillation given by:
)*+
L =
(

From the figure, the slope, = is

positive is between =0 and = 90
with a maximum value at no-load.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
40 Steady state stability – small disturbance
The swing equation is not complete yet without considering the
damping torque. Without the damping torque, the response will keep
oscillating at frequency L .
When there is a difference in angular velocity between the rotor and
the resultant rotating air gap field, induction motor action will take
place between them, and a torque will be set up on the rotor tending
to minimize the difference between the two angular velocity, called
the damping torque.
The damping power is approximately proportional to the speed
deviation,
=N ,
where the damping coefficient D can be determined from the design data
or test. Other damping torques (caused by speed/torque characteristic of
the prime mover and load dynamic) are not considered here. EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
41 Steady state stability – small disturbance
When the synchronizing power coefficient Ps is positive, due to the damping
power, oscillation will damp out eventually, and the operation at the
equilibrium angle will be restored. No loss of synchronism occurs and the
system is stable.
The linearized swing equation including the damping torque is given by:
( ∆ ∆
+N + ∆ =0 OR
)*+
∆ )* ∆ )*+
+ +N + ∆ =0
( (
Rearrange in standard DE,
∆ ∆
+ 2O L + L∆ =0
where L is the natural frequency of oscillation
P )*+
O is the dimensionless damping ration given by
( Q

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42 Steady state stability – small disturbance
The characteristic equation is
A + 2O LA + L =0
For normal operating condition,
P )*+
ζ= <1
( Q

Roots are complex, A0 , A = −O L ±T L 1 − ζ = −O L +T

where is the damped frequency of oscillation given by
= L 1−ζ
For positive damping, roots of the characteristic equation have
negative real part if synchronizing power coefficient, is positive. The
response is bounded and the system is stable.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
43 Steady state stability – small disturbance
When a rotor is suddenly perturbed by a small angle, ∆ , the
motion of rotor relative to the synchronously rotating field is:
∆
δ= + V ;WXY sin + where = Z[A ;0 O
0;U
The rotor angular velocity is:
L∆
= − V ;WXY sin
1−ζ
The response time constant is
0 (
τ= =
WXY )*E P
The response settles in approximately 4 time contsants.
Note that as the H increases, the natural frequency and the
damping ration increases, resulting in a longer settling time.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
 Example 11.2
44

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 Example 11.2
45

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 Example 11.2
46

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 Example 11.2
47

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 Example 11.2
48

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

49 Steady state stability – small disturbance
Deviation on ∆]:
Consider a small deviation of the power, ∆ . The linearized
swing equation becomes:
( ∆ ∆
+N + ∆ =∆ OR
)*+
∆ )* ∆ )*+ )*+
+ +N + ∆ = ∆
( ( (
Rearrange in standard DE,
∆ ∆
+ 2O L + L∆ = ∆^
)*+
where ∆^ = ∆ .
(
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50 Steady state stability – small disturbance
When the synchronizing power coefficient Ps is positive, due to the damping
power, oscillation will damp out eventually, and the operation at the
equilibrium angle will be restored. No loss of synchronism occurs and the
system is stable.
The linearized swing equation including the damping torque is given by:
( ∆ ∆
+N + ∆ =0 OR
)*+
∆ )* ∆ )*+
+ +N + ∆ =0
( (
Rearrange in standard DE,
∆ ∆
+ 2O L + L∆ =0
where L is the natural frequency of oscillation
P )*+
O is the dimensionless damping ration given by
( Q

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

51 Steady state stability – small disturbance
The motion of rotor relative to the synchronously rotating
field is:
)*E ∆ 0
δ= + V ;WXY sin +
(XY 0;U

where = Z[A ;0 O
The rotor angular velocity in radian pers second is:
?@2 ∆
= + V ;WXY sin
> L 1−ζ

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 Example 11.3
52

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 Example 11.3
53

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 LECTURE 5
Transient Stability
55 Transient stability – large disturbance
The transient stability study is to determine whether the machine
will maintain its synchronism after a severe disturbance, such as
a sudden application of load, loss of generation, loss of large
load or a fault in the system.
Cannot be solved using linearized swing equation but has to
solve the nonlinear swing equation.
A method called Equal-area criterion can be used for a quick
prediction of stability.
Equal-area criterion is based on the graphical interpretation of
the energy stored in the rotating mass an aid to determine if the
machine maintains its stability after a disturbance.
This method is only applicable to one-machine system
connected to an infinite bus or a two-machine system.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
56 Transient stability – large disturbance
Consider a synchronous machine connected to an infinite
bus, neglecting the damping:
>
= − =
?@
where is the accelerating power.
Rearrange the equation,
)*+
= −
(
Multiplying both sides with , leads to
)*+
= −
(

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57 Transient stability – large disturbance
Rewrite the equation,
2?@
= −
>
Integrating both sides, Rearrange the equation,
)*+ )*+
= _ − OR = _ −
( E ( E

is the relative speed of the machine with respect to the

synchronously revolving reference frame.
For stability, the speed must become zero after some time.
Therefore, the stability criterion is;
_ − =0
E

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58 Transient stability – large disturbance
Consider the machine is operating at the equilibrium point 2. The power input
equal to power output.
2 = 2
Consider a sudden increase in the input
power 0 , represented by the horizontal line.
Since 0 > 2 , the accelerating power is positive
and the power angle, increases.
The access energy stored in the rotor during the
initial acceleration is,
_ 0 − = `aV` `bZ = `aV` c0
E
As increases, the electrical power increases. When = 0 , the output power
matches the input power, = 0 .
Even though the accelerating power is zero at this point, the rotor is running above
synchronous speed, hence, and will continue to increase.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
59 Transient stability – large disturbance
Now, < , causing the rotor to decelerate toward synchronous speed until =
3.
The rotor must swing passing point b until
equal amount of energy is given up by the
rotating masses.
The energy given up by the rotor as it
decelerates back to synchronous speed is
de
_ 0 − = `aV` b V = `aV` c
f
As a result, the rotor swings to point b and the angle 3 at which
`aV` c0 = `aV` c
This is known as the equal-area criterion. The rotor then oscillates back and forth
between 2 and 3 at its natural frequency.
The damping in the machine will damp the oscillation to the new steady state
operation at point b.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
60 Transient stability – sudden increase in P input
The equal-area criterion is used to determine the maximum additional input
power, that can be applied to maintain the stability.
The stability is maintained only if area c
at least equal to c0 can be located above
line .
If area c is less than area c0, the accelerating
momentum can never be overcome.
The limit of stability occurs when 3 is at the
intersection of line and the power angle,
is 90 < < 180 .
Applying the equal area criterion, we have
f de
0 − 2 −_ 3 sin =_ 3 sin − 3 − 0
E f

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

61 Transient stability – sudden increase in P input
Integrating the above expression leads to,
3− 2 = 3 cos 2 − cos 3
Substituting = 3 sin 3 leads to
3 − 2 sin 3 + cos 3 = cos 2
Using iterative technique (Newton-Raphson) to solve for
3 where the maximum permissible power or the transient
stability limit is
= 3 sin 0
Where 0 =?− 3

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 Example 11.4
62

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 LECTURE 6
Transient Stability
Application to Three Phase Fault
64 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
WE will consider a few cases of the three
phase fault:
Fault at sending end
Fault in between busses

Fault at sending end:

Consider a generator is connected to
an infinite bus through two parallel lines
as shown.
Assume the input power, is constant,
delivering power with power angle 2 .
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
65 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
A temporary three-phase bolted fault
occurs at the sending end of the line at
bus 1, at point h. Therefore, no power is
transmitted to the infinite bus.
By neglecting the resistances, the
electrical power output, is zero. So the
is at the horizontal axis.
The machine accelerates with the input
power, as the accelerating power, .
This results in the increase in speed,
increase in power angle, and
additional storage of the kinetic energy.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
66 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
When the fault is cleared, we assume both
lines are intact.
When the fault is cleared at 0 , the original
power angle curve will be restored, but
the operation is shifted to point i.
The net power is decelerating, the stored kinetic energy will reduce to
zero at point j , when the shaded area kljm equals the area nopk.
However, > , the rotor continues to decelerate and the path is
retraced along the power-angle curve passing through point i and `.
The rotor oscillates back and forth around 2 at its natural frequency.
Due to damping, oscillation subsides and the operating point returns to
the original power angle 2 .
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
67 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
Critical clearing angle is reached when further
increase in 0 cause the area c (decelerating
energy), is less than the area c0 (accelerating
energy).
This occurs when 3,or point @ is at the
intersection of line and curve
Applying the equal area criterion, we have
q de
_ =_ 3 sin −
E q

Integrating both sides,

r − 2 = 3 cos r − cos 3 − 3 − r
Solving for r we get,
cos r = 3 − 2 + cos 3
de EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
68 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
Using equal-area criterion to find the critical clearing angle for
the machine to remain stable.
Critical clearing time is determined by solving the non-linear
swing equation.
The swing equation is given by
( ∆ )*+
= OR =
)*+ (

Integrating both sides,

)*+ )*+
= _2 =
( (

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69 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
Integrating again,
?@
= + 2
2>
The critical clearing time is
2> r − 2
r =
?@

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

70 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
Fault between busses:
Consider a generator is connected to
an infinite bus through two parallel lines
as shown.
Assume the input power, is constant,
delivering power with power angle 2 .
Consider a fault occurs on a transmission
line at location F, some distance away
from the sending end.
The power angle curve during pre-fault
condition is shown by curve c.

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71 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
When the fault occurs at location F,
the equivalent transfer reactance
between busses is increased.
Recall that the power angle curve
is given by
s t
= sin
u
when reactance increases, the
3 decreases.

This will lower the power transfer capability and the power angle
curve is represented by curve v.
The operating point shifts immediately to point b on curve v.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
72 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
However, > . Due to excess
kinetic energy, the rotor continues to
accelerate and the rotor angle
increases.
Assume the fault is cleared at 0 by
isolating the faulted line.
After the faulted line is removed, the
equivalent transfer reactance will
decrease but the value is higher than the pre-fault value.
This will increase the power transfer capability higher than during fault
but lower than before fault. Therefore, the power angle curve is
represented by curve w.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
73 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
The operating point shifts
immediately to point V on curve w.
However, > . The kinetic energy
will reduce to zero at point @ on
curve w , when shaded area de@z
equals the shaded area abcd .
The rotor will continue to decelerate
and the path is retraced along the
power angle curve passing through point V.
The rotor will oscillate back and forth around point V at its natural
frequency. The damping in the machine will cause the oscillation to
subside and a new steady state operation will establish at the
intersection of curve w.
EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali
74 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
Critical clearing angle is reached
when further increase in 0 cause the
area c (decelerating energy), is less
than the area c0 (accelerating
energy).
This occurs when 3 , or point @ is at
the intersection of line and curve w.

Applying the equal area criterion, we have

r − 2 −_ q
3 sin =_ de
} 3 sin − 3 − r
E q

Integrating both sides, and solving for r

de ; E F •€• de ; •€• E
cos r = ~ de de

~ de ; de EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Example 11.5
75

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 Example 11.5
76

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 Example 11.5
77

cos r = 3 − 2 + cos 3
3

2> r − 2
r =
?@

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 Example 11.5
78

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 Example 11.5
79

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 Example 11.5
80

3 − 2 + } 3 cos 3 − 3 cos 2
cos r =
} 3 − 3

2> r − 2
r =
?@

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

 Example 11.6
81

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 Problem 11.10
82

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83 Transient stability – Application to three phase fault
Summary
Fault at sending end: Fault between busses:
Calculate 3 Calculate 3

3 = 180 − 2 3 = 180 − ABC;0 ‚

~ de
Critical clearing angle, r Critical clearing angle, r
cos r = 3− 2 + cos 3 cos =
de r
de ; E F ~ de •€• de ; de •€• E
~ de ; de

EEPB383 - Zaipatimah Ali

END CHAPTER 11