I.

INTRODUCTION

Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California

Three fundamental areas of engineering mechanics:

1. Statics and Dynamics

- devoted primarily to the study of the external effects upon rigid bodies
❖ Rigid Bodies — bodies for which the change in shape (deformation) can be neglected.

2. Mechanics of Materials
- deals with the internal effects and deformations that are caused by the applied loads

❖ Both considerations are of paramount importance in design. A machine part or structure must
be strong enough to carry the applied load without breaking and, at the same time, the
deformations must not be excessive.

II. ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL FORCES

Equilibrium analysis of a rigid body:

➢ calculation of external reactions (forces that act external to a body)

➢ internal reactions (forces that act at internal connections
Mechanics of materials:

➢ internal forces — forces that act on cross sections that are internal to the body itself.

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 In addition, we must investigate the manner in which these internal forces are distributed within
the body. Only after these computations have been made can the design engineer select the
proper dimensions for a member and select the material from which the member should be
fabricated.

1. P - The component of the resultant force that is perpendicular to the cross section, tending to
elongate or shorten the bar, is called the normal force.
2. V - The component of the resultant force lying in the plane of the cross section, tending to shear
(slide) one segment of the bar relative to the other segment, is called the shear force.
3. T - The component of the resultant couple that tends to twist (rotate) the bar is called the twisting
moment or torque.
4. M - The component of the resultant couple that tends to bend the bar is called the bending
moment.

III. STRESS

❖ Stress
- Force per unit area
If the stresses are uniformly distributed:
𝐏
𝛔= (Normal Stress)
𝐀

𝐕
𝛕= (Shear Stress)
𝐀

where:

A = area of the cross section. If the stress distribution is not uniform, then 𝛔
and 𝛕 should be viewed as the average stress acting on the cross section.

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P = applied normal load

V = shearing force

IV. AXIALLY LOADED BARS

A. Centroidal/Axial Loading

Figure 1.6(a) shows a bar of constant cross-sectional area A. The ends

of the bar carry uniformly distributed normal loads of intensity p (units:
Pa or psi). We know from statics that

when the loading is uniform, its resultant passes through the

centroid of the loaded area

Therefore, the resultant P = pA of each end load acts along the

centroidal axis (the line connecting the centroids of cross sections) of
the bar, as shown in Fig. 1.6(b). The loads shown in Fig. 1.6 are called
axial or centroidal loads.

Although the loads in Figs. 1.6(a) and (b) are statically equivalent, they do not result in the same stress
distribution in the bar. In the case of the uniform loading in Fig. 1.6(a), the internal forces acting on all
cross sections are also uniformly distributed. Therefore, the normal stress acting at any point on a
cross section is

𝐏
𝛔=
𝐀
The stress distribution caused by the concentrated loading in Fig. 1.6(b) is more complicated. Advanced
methods of analysis show that on cross sections close to the ends, the maximum stress is considerably
higher than the average stress P/A. As we move away from the ends, the stress becomes more uniform,
reaching the uniform value P/A in a relatively short distance from the ends. In other words, the stress
distribution is approximately uniform in the bar, except in the regions close to the ends.

Example of concentrated loading:

Consider the thin strip of width b shown in Fig. 1.7(a). The strip is loaded by the centroidal force P.
Figures 1.7(b)–(d) show the stress distribution on three different cross sections. Note that at a distance
2.5b from the loaded end, the maximum stress differs by only 0.2% from the average stress P/A.

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B. Procedure for Stress Analysis

Equilibrium Analysis

If necessary, find the external reactions using a free-body diagram (FBD) of the entire structure.
Compute the axial force P in the member using the method of sections. This method introduces an
imaginary cutting plane that isolates a segment of the structure. The cutting plane must include the
cross section of the member of interest. The axial force acting in the member can then be found from
the FBD of the isolated segment because it now appears as an external force on the FBD.

Computation of Stress

a. After the axial force has been found by equilibrium analysis, the average normal stress
𝐏
in the member can be obtained from 𝛔 = where A is the cross-sectional area of the
𝐀
member at the cutting plane.

𝐏
b. In slender bars, 𝛔 = is the normal stress if the section is sufficiently far from applied
𝐀
loads and abrupt changes in the cross section (Saint Venant’s principle).
Design Considerations

For purposes of design, the computed stress must be compared with the allowable stress, also called
the working stress. To prevent failure of the member, the computed stress must be less than the
working stress.

Note on the Analysis of Trusses

The usual assumptions made in the analysis of trusses are:

1. Weights of the members are negligible compared to the applied loads.

2. Joints behave as smooth pins.
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 3. All loads are applied at the joints.
Under these assumptions, each member of the truss is an axially loaded bar. The internal forces in the
bars can be obtained by the method of sections or the method of joints (utilizing the free-body
diagrams of the joints).

V. Normal Stress

Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area or unit strength. It is the force on a member
divided by area, which carries the force, formerly express in psi, now in N/mm2 or MPa.

𝐏
𝛔=
𝐀
where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm2. The maximum stress in tension
or compression occurs over a section normal to the load.

Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members subject to pure tension (or
tensile force) is under tensile stress, while compression members (members subject to compressive
force) are under compressive stress.

Compressive force will tend to shorten the member. Tension force on the other hand will tend to
lengthen the member.

VI. Shearing Stress/Tangential Stress

By definition, normal stress acting on an interior plane is directed perpendicular to that plane. Shear
stress, on the other hand, is tangent to the plane on which it acts. Shear stress arises whenever the
applied loads cause one section of a body to slide past its adjacent section.
Figure 1.11(a) shows two plates that are joined by a rivet. As seen in the FBD, the rivet must carry the
shear force V = P. Because only one cross section of the rivet resists the shear, the rivet is said to be
in single shear.

The bolt of the clevis in Fig. 1.11(b) carries the load P across two cross-sectional areas, the shear force
being V = P/2 on each cross section. Therefore, the bolt is said to be in a state of double shear.

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In Fig. 1.11(c) a circular slug is being punched out of a metal sheet. Here the shear force is P and the
shear area is similar to the milled edge of a coin.

The loads shown in Fig. 1.11 are sometimes referred to as direct shear to distinguish them from the
induced shear. The distribution of direct shear stress is usually complex and not easily determined. It
is common practice to assume that the shear force V is uniformly distributed over the shear area A, so
that the shear stress can be computed from:

𝐕
𝛕=
𝐀

EXAMPLES:

1. A hollow cast-iron pole has an outside diameter of 450 mm and an inside

diameter of 350 mm. It is subjected to a compressive force of 1,200 kN. What
is the resulting stress due to the compressive force?
SOLUTION:

P
σ=
A
P
σ= π
2 2
4 (D − d )

1,200 x 103 N
σ= π
( 2 2) 2
4 450 − 350 mm
𝛔 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟏𝟎 𝐌𝐏𝐚

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2. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN.
Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120MN/m 2.
SOLUTION:
120MN/m2 = MPa = N/mm2

P
σ=
A
P
σ= π
2 2
4 (D − d )

400 x 103
120 = π
( 2 2)
4 D − 100
400 x 103
D2 − 1002 = π
(120)
4

2
400 x 103
D = π + 1002
(120)
4
D2 = 14,244.13182 mm2

𝐃 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟑𝟓 𝐦𝐦 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝐦 (round up)

3. What force is required to punch a 20 mm-diameter hole in a plate hat is 25 mm thick? The shear
strength is 350MN/m2.

SOLUTION:
C = 2πr
C = πd
A = πdt

V
τ=
A
P
τ=
πdt
P
350 =
π(20)(25)

P = 549,778.7144 N
P = 549.78 kN

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4. A hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing strength of 40 ksi. The compressive
stress in the punch is limited to 50 ksi.
a. Compute the maximum thickness of the plate in which a hole of 2.5 in-diameter cam be
punched
b. If the plate is 0.25 in thick, determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched.
SOLUTION:
P
a. σ = A
P
σ= π
d2
4
kips P
50 2 = π
in 2
4 (2.5 in)
P = 245.44 kips

V
τ=
A
P
τ=
πdt
245.44
40 =
π(2.5)t

t = 0.781 in
V
b. τ = A
P
τ=
πdt
P
40 =
πd(0.25)
P = 10πd

P
σ=
A
P
σ= π
2
4d
10πd
50 = π
2
4 (d)
10
d=
50
4
𝐝 = 𝟎. 𝟖 𝐢𝐧

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5. The bar ABCD in Fig. (a) consists of three cylindrical steel segments with di¤erent lengths and
cross-sectional areas. Axial loads are applied as shown. Calculate the normal stress in each
segment.

SOLUTION:
We begin by using equilibrium analysis to compute the axial force in each segment of the bar
(recall that equilibrium analysis is the first step in stress analysis). The required free body
diagrams (FBDs), shown in Fig. (b), were drawn by isolating the portions of the beam lying to
the left of sections 1 and 2, and to the right of section 3. From these FBDs, we see that the
internal forces in the three segments of the bar area.

PAB = 4,000 lb (T)

PBC = 5,000 lb (C)

PCD = 7,000 lb (C)

where:

(T) = tension

(C) = compression

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The axial force diagram in Fig. (c) shows how the how the internal forces vary with the
distance x measured along the bar from end A. Note that the internal forces vary from
segment to segment, but the force in each segment is constant. Because the internal forces
are discontinuous at points A, B, C, and D, our stress calculations will be valid only for
sections that are not too close to these points (Saint Venants principle). The normal stresses
in the three segments are:

PAB 4,000 lb
σAB = = = 𝟑, 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝐩𝐬𝐢 (𝐓)
AAB 1.2 in2

PBC 5,000 lb
σBC = = = 𝟐, 𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟕𝟖 𝐩𝐬𝐢 (𝐂)
ABC 1.8 in2

PCD 7,000 lb
σCD = = = 𝟒𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝐩𝐬𝐢 (𝐂)
ACD 1.6 in2

Observe that the lengths of the segments do not affect the calculations of the stresses. Also,
the fact that the bar is made of steel is irrelevant; the stresses in the segments would be as
calculated, regardless of the materials from which the segments of the bar are fabricated.

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