© Conservation International Photo by John Greene

NORTH BRAZIL SHELF MANGROVE

PROJECT
STATE OF MANGROVES IN GUYANA:
AN ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH GAPS
DISCLAIMER
The content of this report does not reflect the official opinion of the project sponsors or their partner
organization. Responsibility for the information and views expressed therein lies entirely with the
author(s).

SUGGESTED CITATION
Conservation International 2018. Setting the foundations for zero net loss of the mangroves that
underpin human wellbeing in the North Brazil Shelf LME: State of mangroves in Guyana: An analysis
of research gaps, and recommendations. Report by Conservation International.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 4
PROJECT BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................... 4
MANGROVE RESEARCH CONTEXT.......................................................................................................... 4
REPORT OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................... 6
METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................... 6
STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF MANGROVES IN GUYANA ............................................................. 7
BRIEF HISTORY, CLASSIFICATION, TAXONOMY, AND DISTRIBUTION OF MANGROVES IN GUYANA...................... 7
LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR MANGROVES IN GUYANA ................................................................................ 11
FLORA AND FAUNA OF MANGROVE FORESTS IN GUYANA......................................................................... 15
MANGROVES AND CLIMATE CHANGE .................................................................................................... 18
FACTORS AFFECTING MANGROVES AND THEIR RESPONSE TO NATURAL STRESSES..................................... 21
PRODUCTIVITY OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS ......................................................................................... 27
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND EFFORTS IN CONSERVATION ................................................................. 29
THE REHABILITATION AND RESTORATION OF MANGROVES IN GUYANA ...................................................... 31
2.9 ECONOMIC VALUATION OF MANGROVE FORESTS .............................................................................. 34
ONGOING, PLANNED AND INACCESSIBLE STUDIES FOR MANGROVE RESEARCH IN GUYANA
36
RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................. 39
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 40

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FIGURES
FIGURE 1: W ATERCOLOUR PAINTING DONE BY SIR ROBERT HERMANN SCHOMBURGK (1790 – 1814) DEPICTING
GUYANESE FLORA (RHIZOPHORA SP. IN FOREFRONT OF PAINTING).................................................................... 8
FIGURE 2 TREE AND ROOT SYSTEM OF THE RHIZOPHORA MANGLE (IMAGE RETRIEVED FROM
HTTP://WWW.EPAGUYANA.ORG/EPA/DOWNLOADS/ENVIRONMENTAL- EDUCATION-
PUBLICATIONS/ARTICLES/CATEGORY/11-ARTICLES) ......................................................................................... 9

FIGURE 3 THE DISTRIBUTION PATTERN FOR MANGROVES IN GUYANA (EXTRACTED FROM NMMAP 2010-2012) ............ 9

ACRONYMS / ABBREVIATIONS
CH&PA Central Housing and Planning Authority
CLME Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EU European Union
GGBMR Golden-Grove Belfield Mangrove Reserve
GMRP Guyana Mangrove Restoration Project
GFC Guyana Forestry Commission
IDB Inter-American Development Bank
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
NMMAP National Mangrove Management Action Plan
MNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment
UNFCC United Nations Framework on Climate Change
WPMR Wellington Park Mangrove Reserve

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 Executive Summary
The study of mangroves has become increasingly popular in Guyana. There are notable studies that
have been done on mangrove species and on the mangrove ecosystems as a whole. However, due to
the dynamics and vastness of these ecosystems, mangrove research is much more than meets the
eye. This report examined the state of mangroves in Guyana including completed, ongoing, and
planned research projects. Though there have been fragmented reports of mangroves existing in
Guyana as early as the 1800s, there is a serious lack of anecdotal and empirical evidence to support
this and the situations that existed then. From the synthesis study, it was also noted that there were
satisfactory attempts to examine the avifauna of mangrove forests, along with fish assemblages.
Additionally, there were valiant attempts to assess the relationship between mangroves and climate
change, and factors affecting mangrove forests, particularly sedimentation. The economic valuation of
mangrove forests is almost non-existent locally, so this is a priority and crucial point for research. The
scope for advanced research in all the areas discussed in this report is wide and once research gaps
are disseminated, there is a large possibility of filling these gaps over a period of time.

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 Introduction

Project Background
The project entitled “Setting the foundations for zero net loss of the mangroves that underpin human
wellbeing in the North Brazil Shelf LME (NBS-LME)” (from here on the “NBS Mangrove Project”), is a
one-year primer project to help establish a shared and multi-national process for an Integrated Coastal
Management in the NBS-LME. The project recognizes the prevalence, socio-ecological importance and
connectivity of mangroves in the retention and generation of key ecosystem services (fisheries, coastal
protection and defense, water quality, blue carbon etc.) from which communities in the NBS-LME
countries are beneficiaries. This project builds on, and supports, the antecedents and key elements of
the regional agreement established within the CLME+ SAP for the NBS-LME region.
The objectives of the NBS Mangrove Project are:
1. To generate the necessary baseline knowledge and technical assessments as inputs towards
a collaborative vision and a coordinated well-informed management of NBS-LME mangrove
systems, with emphasis on the information needs of Guyana and Suriname.
2. To support development of transboundary coordination mechanism(s) between the countries of
Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil (state of Amapá) towards the improved
integrated coastal management of the extensive, ecologically connected yet vulnerable
mangrove habitat of the NBS-LME region.

Mangrove Research Context

Mangroves refer to the constituents of tropical intertidal forest communities or to the community itself.
The term ‘mangal’ has been used to refer to a community that contains mangrove plants (Tomlinson,
1986). The term mangrove can also be used to refer to an assemblage of tropical trees and shrubs that
grow in the intertidal zone. It is used to describe a distinct group of plants adapted to a saline habitat
(McKee, 1995). Mangroves have four (4) major roles that are recognized. They are facultative
halophytes and they help in soil formation and help to stabilize coastlines. They may serve as filters for
upland runoff. They may also serve as a habitat for marine organisms and invertebrates, and wildlife.
They are producers of large amounts of detritus and may contribute to productivity in offshore waters.
The classification of mangroves varies according to the classification system used.
Generally, mangroves are said to include approximately sixteen (16) families and forty to fifty (40 – 50)
species. For the species to be studied for this research, three families will be considered. These families
are Rhizophoraceae, Verbenaceae and Combretaceae to which Rhizophora mangle (Red Mangrove),
Avicennia germinans (Black Mangrove) and Laguncularia racemosa (White Mangrove) belong to
respectively (Gilmore et al, 1993; Simberloff, 1983; Tomlinson, 1986). There are three (3) main types
of mangroves that are found in Guyana. These are the Black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), White
mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) and Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle). There is also a
mangrove associate – the Buttonwood mangrove (Conocarpus erectus). The Black mangrove is
commonly called ‘Cruda Bush’. It is also known as ‘Courida’. Through the intervention of the Guyana
Mangrove Restoration Project (GMRP), the mangrove cover in Guyana increased.

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A survey done in 2001 by the Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC), the estimated area in hectares (ha)
of mangrove forest along the coast was estimated to be 91,000 hectares with Region 1 having the
largest mangrove cover of 49,100 hectares or 61 % of the total mangrove cover in Guyana. Region 2
had the second highest amount with 11, 200 hectares or 14% of the total cover. Region 3 had 5, 240
hectares or 7 % of the total mangrove cover while Region 4 had 3, 540 hectares or 4% of the total
mangrove cover. Region 5 had 7, 252 hectares or 9% of the total mangrove cover or 5% of the total
mangrove cover. In 2011, an updated figure of 22,632 hectares of mangrove cover was presented by
the Guyana Forestry Commission. Unlike the pattern found in parts of the world, mangrove distribution
in the Guianas follows the pattern of Black mangroves dominant along coastal shorelines and Red
mangroves further inland dominating riverine areas. Elsewhere, the pattern is Red mangroves, Black
mangroves, and White mangroves. Climates, tidal and wave action, salinity and morphological
processes usually influence the distribution of mangroves.
Coastal development, including cultural practices has led to the degradation, erosion and unsustainable
use of mangroves locally. Over the years, there have been several efforts made to undertake research
directly related to mangroves in Guyana. There have been notable attempts to examine areas of
mangrove diversity and ecology, carbon storage potential and related strategies, community attitudes
and perceptions towards mangroves, and factors affecting the distribution of mangroves. However,
these attempts pale into insignificance to the larger arena where mangrove research has extended way
beyond morphological examinations to examining crucial economic valuations, comparisons of results
of various restoration techniques, and critical analyses of government policies and decision-making
techniques.
Recognizing the existing information, we have related to mangroves, building a database related to
same, and providing recommendations and suggestions to effect remedies, is a step in the right
direction. Even in the case of surveys conducted among community members, there is a need for follow-
up studies to be done. Bovell (2013) presented initial findings regarding gaps in mangrove research in
Guyana. The gaps that were identified are listed summarily below:
i) Taxonomies of mangroves and associated species, and the temporal changes
associated with each;
ii) Genotypic differences in mangroves locally and abroad;
iii) Effect of geomorphology on the distribution of mangroves along the coast of Guyana;
iv) Comparative studies and analyses of primary productivity of mangroves in Guyana;
v) Relationship between solid structures and coastal dynamics of mangroves;
vi) Amazon/Orinoco sedimentation inputs and the formation of mangrove ecosystems;
vii) Values of mangroves to fishes, birds, and wildlife;
viii) Role of mangroves in reducing wave energy;
ix) Total economic value of mangrove forests;
x) Mangrove rehabilitation/ restoration; and
xi) Community perceptions on the Mangrove Project.

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 Report Objectives
This Synthesis Report will serve to bridge the understanding of the current mangrove research gaps
locally. The bulk of this assessment relied on secondary research which essentially utilised all primary
research data that was collected in relation to the research topic.
Based on existing knowledge and data on mangroves, the following categorization was used in the
synthesis:
 Brief history, classification, and distribution taxonomy and of mangroves locally
 Legal Framework for Mangroves in Guyana
 Flora and Fauna of mangrove forests in Guyana
 Mangroves and climate change
 Factors affecting mangrove ecosystems and responses to stresses
 Productivity of mangrove forests
 Community participation and conservation efforts
 The rehabilitation of mangroves in Guyana
 Economic valuation of mangrove forests

Methodology
Multiple sources of correlated information were reviewed using the following guiding questions:
a) What baseline knowledge on mangroves in Guyana currently exists?
b) In considering the objectives of the primary data sources, what do past, current, and planned
research have in common?
c) What are the gaps that need to be filled as based on baseline knowledge and congruent
objectives of the past, current, and planned research?

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 State of knowledge of mangroves in Guyana

Brief history, classification, taxonomy, and distribution of mangroves in

Guyana
Dalton (1855) stated that in the 17th century, before the colonisation of Guyana by the Europeans, the
coastal area was home to several indigenous (Amerindian) tribes and had a mangrove fringe measuring
three (3) to five (5) km in width. Behind this fringed belt of vegetation, were swamp savannahs which
were home to sedges and aquatic plants including mosses. Persons existing during the developmental
and even pre-developmental stages of communities (1960 – 1970) indicated that the entire coast was
home to mangroves – large belts of mangroves. Of notable mention, was La Jalousie, West Coast
Demerara, which had one kilometre (1 km) deep of mangrove vegetation in the area.
Early baseline assessments showed that Region 1 (Waini Pomeroon) was composed mainly of
Avicennia species along the coastal fringe. Shell Beach was a continuous mudflat which was low-lying
and prone to erosion. Region 2 (Pomeroon-Essequibo) was the main area of Rhizophora dominance
with Avicennia found on the belt inland to the sea dam. In the Southern part of the region, human activity
removed all mangrove cover. Both the mouth of the Mahaica River mudflats and the Novar foreshore
were dominated by patches of Avicennia. Over in Region 3 (Essequibo Islands and West Coast
Demerara), Avicennia was found on the fringe with coastal erosion and upstream banks were covered
in Rhizophora mangle.
However, due to human activity, it was replaced with other species but these offered no protection from
flooding. Demerara Mahaica (Region 4) boasted seedlings of Avicennia and Laguncularia species on
extreme edges of mudflats that were present there. Laguncularia was primarily found at odd points
along the mudflat. At the Mon Repos beach, and at Lusignan, were mangroves behind a small raised
beach. Avicennia was found at the seaward fringe and inland was Laguncularia densely populated.
Anecdotal eveidence showed that there were mangrove stands but all evidence of mangrove forest had
disappeared. In Region 5 (Mahaica-Berbice), the mudflats near the mouth of the Mahaica River were
colonised by Avicennia. The Novar foreshore was also colonised and dominated by Avicennia in
patches. Belladrum and Profitt/Foulis hosted several Avicennia seedlings. At Trafalgar mangroves were
destroyed due to lagooning which occurred as a result of rainwater accumulation.
By the early 1900’s onwards, mangrove descriptions and discoveries, along with taxonomies and
classifications became imminent. Chapman (1976) reported that the species Rhizophora harisonii was
present but could not be ascertained. At that time, two institutions responsible for specimen collection
– the Jonah Boyan Herbarium at the University of Guyana, and the GFC did not have a record of
collection or any identification of the said species.

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 Figure 1: Watercolour painting done by Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk (1790 – 1814) depicting Guyanese flora
(Rhizophora sp. in forefront of painting)

There are several pieces of data which lend themselves to establishing key species of mangroves in
Guyana. Hussain (1990) posited that there were two (2) principal species of mangroves in Guyana:
Avicennia germinans and Rhizophora mangle. Avicennia was said to have been found in coastal
mudflats while Rhizophora was found in sheltered areas near canals. Where pure stands of Avicennia
were found, there were occurrences of Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erectus. A small
leguminous tree (Machaerium lunatum) was also found dwelling among the mangroves. Further work
also solidified the types of mangroves found in Guyana (Pastakia, 1991). In his field work and via direct
observation, Pastakia recorded seven species of mangroves found in Guyana. These were namely
Avicennia germinans, Avicennia schaueriana, Rhizophora mangle, Rhizophora harisonii, Rhizophora
racemosa and Laguncularia racemosa. The seventh is a mangrove associate scientifically called
Conocarpus erectus. Pastakia mentioned four (4) mangrove families: Avicenniae, Rhizophoraceae,
Combretaceae and Sonneratiaceae. The Black mangrove (locally called Courida or Cruda bush)
dominated mangrove fringes. Avicennia germinans was confusingly referred to as Avicennia nitida and
Avicennia schaueriana.

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Therefore, only the genus Avicennia was used for the rest of the research by Pastakia. When compared
to the distribution otherwise, the mangroves located locally followed the following pattern: Avicennia
(Coast), Laguncularia (coast) and Rhizophora (not coast). Laguncularia and Avicennia were found as
pioneers who provided new embryos for regeneration.

Figure 2 tree and root system of the Rhizophora mangle (Image retrieved from
http://www.epaguyana.org/epa/downloads/environmental-education-publications/articles/category/11-articles)

Later studies and investigations (Van Maren, 2004; Bovell, 2011) also presented the species of
Avicennia germinans, Rhizophora mangle and Laguncularia racemosa as being present in Guyana.
Van Maren reported that the white mangrove was found on sandy soils and tended to persist on dry
soils. The red mangrove was found in areas prone to flooding and the Black mangrove was found in
clayey areas with hypersaline conditions, but only for a period of time. The red mangrove was the most
dominant species while in some cases the red mangrove was entirely absent. The NMMAP offered, as
a reason for the distribution of Rhizophora at riverside and estuarine areas, the effect of wave action.
However, the Rhizophora is the species most adapted to wave activities so there is still some disparity
and lack of clarity promoting this reason.

Figure 3 The distribution pattern for mangroves in Guyana (extracted from NMMAP 2010-2012)

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Based on the data collected the following research gaps currently exist:

Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking

Gap #

1 (a) Low Anecdotal/empirical There is sketchy information documented on the

evidence of the early very early history of mangroves in the country.
appearance of mangroves in A survey particularly in rural areas should be
coastal communities carried out among persons age 50 and above
would provide necessary information on early
details surrounding mangroves locally.

1 (b) High Detailed taxonomy of mangal Detailed taxonomies of all mangrove species
communities in Guyana found locally along with the development of a
taxonomic key(s) for their identification locally

1 (c) High Comprehensive database of The data collected from 1(b) would be useful in
biodiversity of mangroves in developing a database which could lead to
Guyana greater or increased conservation and
monitoring efforts.

1 (d) High Biochemical and biophysical Observations and comparisons have shown
analyses possibly that the distribution pattern of mangroves in the
responsible for distribution of Guianas region, differs from that in other parts
mangroves in Guyana of the world. There has been minimal specific
research done locally to determine the exact
reason for this. Biochemical analyses and
biophysical analyses including soil comparisons
(hydrology and geology), and plate tectonics
would serve as a baseline for finalising reasons
behind different distributions.

1 (e) High Differences in distribution of What is the specific difference in distribution of

mangroves regionally and mangrove species when comparing each
over time region? Is there a difference in densities? How
do yearly estimates in distribution of each
species differ?

1 (f) High Dynamics of mangrove Evaluation of changes in magnitude and

vegetation linked to frequency of coastal geomorphic processes can
geomorphology of the coast show how variable environmental conditions
can determine colonisation by mangroves

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 Legal Framework for Mangroves in Guyana
Apart from the amended Forestry Act of 2010, which designates mangroves as protected species and
therefore it is illegal to destroy mangroves without prior permission from the Commissioner, there are
no direct legislations for governing mangroves locally. However, there are clauses in regulations that
can be interpreted and used to govern the management and conservation of them. These rules and
regulations indirectly refer to mangroves and are at best outdated. While the legislation provides
command and control methods that could be utilised towards the sustainable management of
mangroves, there is a notable lack of reinforcement of these legislations and some cases the
effectiveness of these legislations is poor. In the National Mangrove Management Plan (2010- 2012),
legislations that were related to mangroves were stated and have been identified below along with other
legislations developed thereafter.
a) Guyana Constitution Article 36 states that in the interest of the present and future generation,
the state will protect and make rational use of its land, mineral and water resources, as well as
its flora and fauna, and will take all appropriate measures to conserve and improve the
environment.

b) The Forests Act 2009 Part 3. 5.23. (1) mandates the EPA to declare a specific area of state
forest to be a specifically protected area for a period not exceeding 25years (a) declare a
specified area of State forest to be a specially protected area for a specified period not
exceeding 25 years ;Purpose of Part 3,5.22 (1 ) is to 1) conserve biological diversity 2) protect
specific trees and plants 3) conserve soil and water reserves 4) protect forests from fires, pest,
diseases and degradation

c) Forest Act 2009 Part 3. 5. 30 Minister can make order for protection of trees and plants any tree
or plant, Part 3. 5. 31 Minister can declare private land to be a forest conservation area.
Environmental Protection Act of 1996 mandated that the will provide for the management,
conservation, protection and improvement of the environment,; danger of extinction; (2) any
person who in any marine reserve without permission granted under subsection 3 (b) takes or
destroys any flora and fauna other than fish is guilty of an offence.

d) Fisheries Act 1957 Part 8 Marine Reserves and Fishing Priority Areas, Section 21. (1). (a) to
afford special protection to the flora and fauna of such areas and to protect and preserve the
natural breeding grounds and habitat of aquatic life with particular regard to flora and fauna in
danger of extinction; (2) any person who in any marine reserve without permission granted under
subsection 3 (b) takes or destroys any flora and fauna other than fish is guilty of an offence.

e) The Forests Act 2009, Part 1 5.2 (b) (1) defines forest with reference to mangroves Forest Act
2009. Part 1. 5.3. states that the Minister can declare public forested land as state forest.

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 f) Civil Act Article 4.1 defines foreshore of Guyana as the part of the shore of the sea and tidal
navigable rivers which is covered by the medium high tide between the spring tides and the
neap tide, the soil under tidal waters called land shall be deemed to be under state land

g) Sea Defence Act of 1998 declares that “sea defence includes – any shell bank or reefagainst
the erosive action of the river current”. In Part 3 Section 12 of the Act declares that “all sea
defences which are or shall be in existence in any district shall by force of this Act become the
property of the state”

h) Environmental Protection Agency states that their functions is to take steps necessary for the
effective management of the natural environment so as to ensure conservation, protection,
sustainable use of its natural resources; establish, monitor and enforce the environmental
regulations; assessed environment impact of the project ;and promote and encourage a better
understanding and appreciation of the natural environment and its role in social and economic
development

i) Sea Defence Act 1998 defined sea defence as (c, e)“All land fifty (50) feet landwards from the
centre of any sea or river dam or sea or river wall and all land on the other side of such sea or
river dam or sea or river wall in the direction of the sea or river to the toe of such sea or river
wall ; and declares that “sea defence includes – any shell bank or reef, sand bank or reef or
other natural feature which serves as a protection of the sea coast against the erosive action
performed by the Ministry or its agents at the expense of the Board

j) Guyana Land and Survey Commission Act mandated the commission to take charge of and act
as guardian over all public lands, rivers and creeks of Guyana

k) Municipal and District Council Act Part II Sec. 7 (2) states that the jurisdiction of the City Council
shall extend to low water mark of spring tide of the Demerara River and to all structure thereon
(2) town council shall extend to low water mark of spring tides of the Berbice River and to all
structures. Part IX 302 (19) to plant, trim, preserve or remove trees, flowers and shrubs in any
public places.

l) The Forests Act 2009 Part 3. 23 (b) prohibiting any disturbance of the soil, vegetation, rivers, or
creeks in that specially protected area; and Part 3.31. (1) The Minister may by public notice
make an order – (a) declaring any forest on private land to be a forest conservation area; and
(b) prohibiting, restricting, or regulating all or any of the following - (i) entry into the forest
conservation area (ii) cutting, damaging, taking, or removing any forest produce in the forest
conservation area; (v) clearing, cultivating, or turning of soil in the forest conservation area; (vi)
grazing or pasturing of livestock in the forest conservation area; (vii) setting of fire in the forest
conservation area; (2) No order may be made except on the advice of the Commission that the
order is necessary for – (a) conserving the forests of Guyana and securing the proper

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 management of forest land; (b) preventing soil erosion, coastal erosion, or erosion of the banks
of rivers or creeks; (c) preventing the deposit of mud, stones, or sand in rivers or creeks or on
agricultural land; (d) maintaining water supplies in springs, rivers, canals, reservoirs, aquifers,
or water conservancies; (e) minimising the risk or mitigating the impact of storms, winds, floods,
or landslides;

m) The Environmental Protection Act of 1996 Part 10.68.1 Minister may make regulations for giving
the effect to the provisions of this Act for the protection of particular species of prescribed fauna
and flora (j.) protecting the coastal and marine resources and establish, monitor and enforce the
environmental regulations

n) Sea Defences Act of 1998 Sec.13 (1) and Sec. 16 (b) mandated to make regulations for (a)
protecting the growth of Underwood, shrubs, and trees, on or near the foreshore or between
high and low water marks (b) and the protection of the land and soil between high and low marks
; and generally, conserving the foreshore; and require estate to protect the foreshore by sowing
seed, planting shoots to promote the growth of or the other tree, underwood, or shrubs, between
and low water marks on the foreshore Courida.

o) Civil Act Article 4.3 states that no one shall remove any sand, shell, gravel, shingle or other
mineral substances or any seaweed or vegetation from the lands without the permission of the
Minister responsible for sea defences and are subject to the like penalties.

p) The Forests Act 2009, Part 3.31. prohibits the cutting, damaging, or taking any forest produce,
or carry out any other kind of forest operation in a State forest; occupy or use any land in a State
forest;

q) Sea Defence Act of 1998 Sec.13 (1 Sec. 14, 15 and Sec. 16 (b) (a) (b) Sec, 26 states that
everyone who infringes any of the provision of this Act shall be liable on summary conviction of
twenty-two thousand five hundred dollars (G$ 22,500)

r) Municipal and District Council Act sec. 302 (28). states the power of the council to regulate the
cutting of wood on land vested in the council.

s) Local Government Act part IV sec 51. Cutting of trees will have fixed fees

t) The Forests Act 2009 Part 3.24., Part 3. 25 (2), Part 6. 68 b.(iv) section 25(2), section30(3),
section 31(4), section 23(5 )- prohibits person in any State forest to throw down a lighted match
or lighted or inflammable material; or do anything else likely to result in any forest produce being
burnt or damaged. Penalty range from G$250,000 to $1,00000

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 u) Municipal and District Council Act sec. 287,290 28). States that the power of the council to
regulate the grazing of animals; impounding the stray animal found in public places

v) Local Government Act Part IV sec 50 states that grazing of animals on common land of the
village and in country district will be impound and sec.102 (1-5) straying animals

w) Guyana constitution Article 25 states that every citizen has a duty to participate in activities
designed to improve the environment and protect the health of the nation. Article 74 (1) states
that it is the duty of the Local Democratic to ensure in accordance with the law the efficient
management and development of their areas and to provide leadership by example (3) to
maintain and protect property , improve working and living condition and raise the level of civic
consciousness

x) Local Democratic Organs Act Part II Sec. 7 states that duties of the local democratic organs is
(a) maintain and protect property (b) protect and improve the physical environment (f) raise the
level of civic consciousness (awareness).

y) National Biodiversity Action Plan was also developed (1999-2004) and recognizes biodiversity
as an important national asset. The programme area has interventions that aimed to build a
foundation for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity

z) ICZM Plan recognizes the coastal zone as an important part of the country but does not define
the coastal zone for the purpose of integrated coastal zone management and resource use.

The following research gaps have been identified and are presented below.

Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking

Gap #

2 (a) High Review of policy and There needs to be an overview of the key
legislation related to national policies, plans and legislations that
mangroves use and would be related to the use, protection and
management in Guyana management of mangrove ecosystems and
mangroves specifically. The research can first
analyse and assess policies, then offer possible
options and recommendations for policy and
law reform for consideration by the Government
of Guyana.

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 Flora and Fauna of mangrove forests in Guyana
There are hundreds of species of flora and fauna found in mangrove communities. Mangroves provide
the gradient that is needed between the sea and the land and serves as the perfect host for birds,
fishes, wildlife, insects and other plant organisms and associates. Locally the situation is no different
as there is a diverse array of these life forms.
A popular component of mangrove forests in Guyana is the Buttonwood mangrove (Conocarpus
erectus). It is not considered as a true mangrove species because it lives predominantly on land and
lacks the morphological and biological features associated with true mangrove species. It is found
closely associated with the black mangrove and is found on open mudflats with new colonization of
black mangrove seedlings. The grass (Spartina brasiliensis) is the first pioneer macrophyte and is
considered as a stability species, and is also found closely associated with mangroves. There are
several understory ferns including Batis maritime, Acrostichum danaeifolium and Brachypteris ovate
among others. One of the most popular phytoplanktons found living near mangroves is diatoms. Most
of the diatom assemblages are found attached to the prop roots of red mangroves (Rhizophora species)
(Martyn, 1934; Pastakia, 1991).
There have been several studies done regarding avifaunal diversity. Previously, the number of avifaunal
species was recorded at 720 for Guyana (Snyder, 1966). This work was built on by Braun, et al 2000
and Braun, et al 2007, with the numbers increasing from 786 species to 814 species. These 814 species
(habitats and distributions) were recorded in the Field Checklist for Birds of Guyana. Prince and
Bernard (1997) and Bayney and DaSilva (2005), both stated that there are twenty (20) bird orders in
Guyana and nine (9) families that are shorebirds. Another unpublished study of the Waini-Shell Beach
(Mendonca (2006)) documented ninety (90) species of birds.
Site specific work was done at Hope, East Coast Demerara by Dookram et al (2014). The study aimed
to compare the effects of mangrove ecosystems (disturbed and undisturbed) on the populations of birds
and fishes. Over a three month period, and by sampling birds using the point count method and
binoculars Results of the study related to birds showed that disturbed sites had higher bird diversities
and higher forest densities. Most birds were from the family Tyrannidae as compared to the undisturbed
forest with most birds from the family Ardeidae. Additionally, the undisturbed forest had an increased
population of birds, higher species richness, and more diverse bird species. For fishes, Sciades couma
and Anableps anableps dominated the undisturbed site, while the disturbed site the habitat for one
species, Cichlasoma bimaculatum, which had a very low population number. A total of 41 fish species
were found at this location.
In the same year, DaSilva (2014) used observational and walking transect methods to examine the
avifaunal diversity of the mangrove ecosystem at Wellington Park, Berbice. From this preliminary
assessment, there were fourteen (14) families found from 27 species. In 2015 follow up work was also
done by DaSilva, by use of a combination of desktop and field research and activities. He found that
there were several families not only in Wellington Park but also at Golden Grove – Belfield, namely:
Scolopacidae, Tyrannidae, Ardeidae, Accipitridae, Columbidae, Icteridae, Laridae, Cuculidae, and
Trochilidae respectively. The WPMR was found to have a total of 14 families which was less than those

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found in GGBMR (25 families). However, the GGBMR had greater occurrence of understory birds and
more migrant species. Overall, both sites supported a fair diversity of avifauna.
King (2013) utilised two mangrove sites on the East Coast Demerara – Golden Grove Belfield (a
standing forest) and Felicity-Chateau Margot (a restored site), to comparatively assess the avifaunal
diversity there. The methodology included the use of point counts and mist nets. The GGBM reserve
had greater number of species (93) identified that the Felicity-Chateau Margot reserve (72 species).
However, the latter had greater avifaunal diversity. The order Passeriformes was justifiably most
abundant since members of this order occupy ecosystems near coasts. Other notable families present
were Characiformes and Scolopacidae.
Overall, the trends from the avifaunal assessments conducted locally show that there is a diverse array
of birds (migrant, understory, etc) found within mangrove forests. As expected, there is a diverse range
of marine life inhabiting mangrove zones including shrimp (Xyphopoenus kroyeri), crabs (Uca species
including rapax and macronai). Turtles (green turtle Chelonia mydas and leatherback turtle
Dermochelys coriacea), manatee (Trichechus manatus), caiman (Caimam crocodylus), waterfowl
(herms egret ibis), and the Glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellis) (Pastakia, 1991).

The WWF Guyana carried out a comprehensive one year study to identify and characterise wetland
types in Guyana by using satellite imagery to identify the presence of these major wetland sites and to
thereafter sample points. Secondary data collection was done using journals, reports research
documents and datasets. In both the wet and dry seasons, transects were used to observe living
organisms (presence and distribution). In the North-West wetlands, at the Waini, Baramanni and mouth
of the lower Moruka Rivers and approximately 2 km from the shoreline, are mangrove swamps. All three
mangrove species are found there. Characiformes, Perciformes and Siluriformes are popular fish
species found there, Residents from the area also indicated that there are additional species present
from direct observation including patwa (cichlids), mullet, gillbaker, and yarrow. Additionally, there are
several bird species found there including but not limited to the attractive scarlet ibis, the black
skimmers, ospreys and the greater yellowlegs. Hawks and eagles are among the generalists found
there. There are several globally endangered species found in this vicinity including the giant otter
(Lontra kingicaudis), and manatees (Trichecus manatus). The world’s largest river dolphin is also found
there. Herepetofauna include the spectacled caiman, green anaconda, tree frogs and tree boa. More
importantly, are the globally endangered sea turtles that nest on the beach annually including the
leatherback, hawksbill, olive ridley and green sea turtles respectively. Aquatic insects being
accommodated here are Embioptera, Arcrididae, Plecoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Orthoptera.

Ram (2017) investigated the effect of mangrove degradation along the coast on fish assemblages. In
total, nine random plots were established at each site for habitat evaluation. Sampling was done during
both wet and dry season, using cast nets, gills and hand nets of different mesh sizes. Twenty four (24)
species from fourteen (14) families were recorded, with the sea catfishes, Ariidae, (6 species) being the
most speciose family. The results indicated that the natural habitats had the greatest fish diversity in
both the dry and wet season followed by the degraded and restored mangrove habitats respectively.
Significantly higher fish abundance, biomass and mean length were observed in natural and restored

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mangrove habitats in comparison to the degraded habitats. The results served as a clear indication that
restored mangrove habitats restored fish diversity and abundance.
Based on the results of completed research, the following gaps in research have been identified:

Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking

Gap #

3 (a) Low Effect of the use of Spartina In each region, efforts should be made to use
grass as a means of recruiting Spartina grass as a recruiter to determine and
mangroves compare rates of recruitment and species
recruited. Experiments with Spartina grass have
been done locally and these results can serve as
the precursor to similar studies in each region.

3 (b) Low Further studies in each Establishment of a biological database will lend
mangrove region to itself to 3 (c) below
determine flora and fauna
present (establishment of a
floral and faunal database)

3 (c) Low Taxonomies of each species Taxonomies per species will aid in differentiation
for in mangrove sites of all species present and learning about 3 (d)
below

3 (d) High Effect of salinity on variety This would give clearer insight into mangrove
and abundance of fishes fish habitats and their roles as nursery and
feeding areas, refuges and migration routes.

3 (e) High Temporal patterns of Once biodiversity indices are established,

occurrence of flora and fauna studies can be done at least twice yearly to
in mangrove communities determine species occurrence at specific times
of the year.

3 (f) High Establishing keystone Crabs are keystone species of mangrove

species of mangrove forests forests. Their presence has a disproportionately
locally large effect on its environment relative to their
abundance. Studies can be done to determine
how the presence of these keystone species
affects the mangrove ecosystem. Research can
also be done to determine how they serve as
biological health of mangrove ecosystems.

3 (g) High Mapping migratory patterns Migratory patterns can be established and used
and behaviours of migratory as ecotourism promotional material; behaviours

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 birds through mangrove of migratory birds can contribute to developing
forests in Guyana life history patterns and dependence on
mangrove forests.

Mangroves and Climate Change

The Guyana Chronicle issue on October 26, 2013, quoted one resident, Theola Fortune, as having
faced ridicule when initial attempts were made to warn persons about the importance of mangroves
along the coast. They accused her, and by extension project members, of breeding mosquitoes in the
community. With the impact of climate change in that same year, there were several breaches in the
seawalls and this lead to flooding. It was then that residents realised the importance of mangroves in
augmenting existing sea defense structures. This is just one of the numerous sentiments echoed by
community members along the coast who have finally realised the importance of mangroves in
combating climate change and its effects. There have not been many studies done directly examining
the link between mangroves and climate change but there have been some brave attempts.

Hollowell (2009) documented the widespread impacts of fire across 50,000km square of mangroves in
Region 1 in the North West of Guyana associated with the El Nino event in 1997-1998. However, one
of the more serious implications of sea-level rise as a result of climate change, he indicated, is the
presence of coastal hard sea defense structures which mars the movement of mangroves landward
during flooding.

Dalrymple (2006) undertook an assessment to

(i) provide a conceptual model for the analysis of vulnerability of the areas
(ii) define the most important physical impacts of sea-level rise
(iii) recommend suitable adaptation strategies to reduce the impact of sea-level rise and
(iv) identify areas requiring further scientific investigation for reliable future sea-level rise
assessment.
With the use of increased flood frequency probabilities, erosion, and inundation, various existing
methodologies available for coastal vulnerability assessment were used and a site-specific procedure
for the investigation was developed. Through the use of algorithms and equations of estimations
(Brunn’s Rule), the results of the study found that there is a projected sea level rise of 3mm per year
(1990 – 2020), small changes in the still water level result in significant increases in mean overtopping
discharges, there is a high design risk (87.9%) for hard coastal structures, and that there is a high rate
of erosion occurring. Additionally, like the results of Hollowell’s investigation, the results of the study
also alluded to the fact that the ability of mangroves to move landward is restricted. Due to the clearing
of lands for human settlement and development, it is likely that the buffer presented by mangroves may
disappear and cause exposure along the coast to wave action and severe flooding.

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Hickey et al (2012), attempted to understand the financial but practical challenges of adaptation by the
use of in-depth qualitative interviews that were done with key experts both within the state bureaucracy
and outside of it. The key informants were persons with knowledge of Guyana’s coastal infrastructure,
hazards and disaster preparedness, climate change vulnerability and adaptation planning. The results
of the study found that climate change affects everyday life. Sea defenses are old and in poor condition
and are not well equipped to deal with the effects of climate change. Most of the hard structures are
neglected and more than rehabilitation is needed. Rehabilitation includes drainage systems like kokers
and conservancies. In some instances, mangroves are the sole form of protection. In some
communities, some persons would remove the mangroves because bandits use them for cover or
because they are of the opinion that the mangroves harbour mosquitoes. The overall findings of the
study showed that mitigation efforts bring immediate financial rewards and urgent adaptation entails a
prohibitive cost to defend against a future threat.

As an important investigative follow-up study to the latter mentioned, Saywack (2013) identified triple-
win benefits and explored the depth of the identified synergies and challenges associated with
mangrove restoration in Guyana in research entitled ‘Mangrove Management in Guyana: A case of
Climate Compatible Development (CCD)’. The results of the research contributed to the ongoing
discussion surrounding Climate Compatible Development which is essentially development which
minimises the harm caused by climate change impacts but at the same time maximising human benefits
and opportunities presented by a low emission, more resilient future and merging adaptation, mitigation,
and development. Lower emissions would in turn build resilience and promote development. The main
research question aimed to investigate the triple-win opportunities of adaptation, mitigation and
development through mangrove restoration and protection. The methodology used was quantitative
and utilised key informants and documented and anecdotal evidence. Data was collected using mainly
secondary research from both published and unpublished data including grey literature. Direct
observation in the form of site visits was also done to seven of the nine intervention sites of the GMRP.
The results of the study proved that locally, mangrove restoration and protection have the potential to
generate synergies and multiply benefits for climate change adaptation mostly in the form of shoreline
protection, carbon sequestration and development.
Shoreline protection is afforded by the botany of the mangroves found locally, therefore minimising the
need for hard structures such as seawalls and groynes. The protection of the shoreline is already at
work. Carbon sequestration is a main mitigation benefit since mangroves are able to cycle carbon
dioxide fifty (50) times faster than other tropical forests. Through the UNFCC, Guyana is committed to
reducing all secretions into the atmosphere. By preserving the mangroves, there would be enhanced
ecosystem services since a habitat for microorganisms would be afforded (including fishes and shrimps)
along with crabs which are important in rural communities for food productivity and livelihood security.
There are also improved livelihood operations of beekeeping, ecotourism and an overall possible
benefit of alleviation of poverty (Bedasse, 2012).

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While the concept of Climate Change Development sounded good in theory, Saywack identified several
barriers for the tradeoff for a loss of land for alternative development. Firstly, there would be several
interest groups that are opposed to change. Businessmen and other related occupations would be
skeptiacal to give up their livelihoods all in the name of saving the environment and sacrificing their
extractive based livelihood. Though mangroves would serve as good augmentation to existing solid
structures they are however vulnerable to sea level rise. The sediment trapping to wave ratio is low and
mangroves are not capable of shifting boundaries. The study concluded that it was indeterminate if
benefits would outweigh the regrets or vice versa in promoting Climate Compatible Development.

A field visit carried out in 2013, in Regions 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 highlighted the bewildering diversity of
shoreline morphology, the deleterious effects of seawalls on mangroves, the reasons for the variability
in alongshore mangrove regeneration and the success/failure reasons for mangrove replanting
undertaken by the GMRP. Primarily, the shoreline diversity was related to coastal socio-economic
development, degradation and fragmentation of the mangrove ecosystem and the presence of
numerous river mouths, (Anthony et al, 2012). The recommendations of this report were the preparation
of GIS based characterisation of the shoreline regionally, replanting in areas where banks are present,
training in identifying and mapping of bank and interbank zones, and a holistic approach to mangrove
replanting activities.

From the investigations of research related to mangroves and climate change locally, the following
research gaps are identified below:

Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking

Gap #

4 (a) High The effect of mangroves on This information is very important since sea
the hydrodynamic processes level is on the rise and the total suitability and
along Guyana’s coast possibility of mangroves being a crucial defense
system is pertinent.

4 (b) High Distribution, phenology and Climate change is causing a poleward shift in
abundance of mangrove the distribution, phenology, and abundance of
forests in response to climate several species including mangroves. These
change changes are visible especially in wetlands.
Research carried out on the latter can give
useful insight into how biodiversity patterns and
ecosystem structure and function are being
altered.

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 4 (c) High Local processes contributing Mangroves are sensitive to changes in sea level
to vulnerability of mangroves rise and salinities. These changes can lead to
to sea level rise decreased productivity and untimely death.
Understanding these processes and their timing
ca n help in reducing vulnerability levels
nationwide.

4 (d) High Factors contributing to Mangroves demonstrate significant resilience to

mangrove resilience to sea climate change and sea level rise by sediment
level rise trapping and retention. Due to the different soil
profiles regionally, retention and trapping
capabilities can differ greatly. An investigation
of this can show which regions are more
resilient to climate change and steps that can
be taken to effect these. The measurement of
sediment accretion would prove to be a useful
tool in this regard.

Factors affecting mangroves and their response to natural stresses

The functions of mangroves vary from shore protection, to habitat formation to carbon sequestration. In
Guyana, mangroves serve as a major role in sea defence by breaking the action of waves and the tide.
The factors affecting mangroves are natural and man-made. Natural threats include accretion and
erosion while manmade includes rural agricultural activities such as over harvesting, urban construction
on high rise buildings and other properties.Major (2011) assessed knowledge and use of mangroves.
In the study, he aimed to assess the use and knowledge of mangroves by fishermen. A total of 50
questionnaires were used to gather information from fishermen at Mon Repos, Hope, Bee Hive and
Mahaica. Most of the fishermen alleged to having used mangroves for firewood the most. However,
80% of them were aware of the benefits of mangroves and the work that the GMRP was doing.
Therefore, even though use was unsustainable, knowledge existed on the importance of preserving the
mangroves.

In the North West District, a study was carried out (Narine, 2011) to determine the level of compliance
and issues related to mangrove bark harvesting. The Code of Conduct for Mangrove Harvesting was
used to determine best practices for mangrove harvesting. The methodology involved the use of
surveys and personal observation along with the use of primary data as a basis for comparison. The
results of the study showed that there were three major issues in relation to mangrove harvesting:
decrease in bark production over the years, the low price of bark and the importance of alternative
tanning dyes as a substitute to mangrove bark. Additionally, it was found that the harvesting practices

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do not fully conform to the standards set out in the Code of Practice by mangrove harvesting including
disregard for felling distance, the felling of trees with thin barks and the use of chainsaws.

The ICZM Plan (2011) noted that poor growth rate is an important factor contributing to the depletion of
mangroves in Guyana. Layne (2011) conducted research to determine the growth rate of black
mangrove seedlings grown in a controlled environment and wildlimgs. Three sites were selected in
three different communities along the East Coast Demerara (Min Repos, BV, Melanie), including one
where regeneration was occurring and one where black mangroves had been replanted. Three plots
and subplots were identified and saplings measuring 5cm and above were tagged for rechecking.
Randomised Complete Block Design was also utilised in the methodology. Growth rate was recorded
from examining measurements of height, leaf count and diameter. All three sites had favourable
temperatures for the growth of the mangroves (15 degrees Celsius and 37 degrees Celsius). At the
wildlings site, survival was the greatest as compared to poor survival at the replabted sites. A proposed
reason for enhanced survival at wildlings site was that the already existing larger mangrove vegetation
reduced the wave energy therefore reducing wave impact. The planted sites (BV and Mon Repos) were
subjected to spring tides and heavy rains and may have altered nearby environmental salinity. The leaf
production at the three sites was also different with the planted sites having greater production of leaves.
Growth rate at Melanie was the highest with BV having the lowest. Once again, the absence of
competing vegetation would have promoted faster growth rates. The monthly diameter increment
increase followed the same pattern as was likely as a result of the absence of competing vegetation as
mentioned earlier.

Erskine (2011) carried out research at Annandale, an area along the East Coast Demerara, to
investigate the invertebrates’ population found in parallel mudflat and mangrove habitat, determine the
suspended sediment concentration in each habitat respectively, and its influence on each habitat’s
development; determine whether the invertebrate abundance influenced the suspended sediment
concentration in each habitat and determine whether the invertebrates found and sediment shear
stress in each habitat contributed to its erosion or accretion. Soil and water samples were collected,
and soil was checked for presence and density of invertebrates, and turbidities of soil and water
samples were measured. Overall, the suspended sediment concentration in both habitats was found to
be high at the low tide which indicated that more sediment was leaving than coming in. Among the
organisms observed in mangroves habitat the A. anableps were very prominent, both at low and high
tides in abundance at all sites. Crabs were very common in both the mudflat and mangrove ecosystems,
as they contribute to bioturbation, along with polychetes in the mudflat ecosystem. Overall, the
mangrove habitat showed poor nutrient concentrations as compared to \the mudflat ecosystem. It was
concluded that erosion was occurring at outer mangrove habitats and the mudflat habitat. Other
physical features proved to be more influential such as accelerating tidal velocity and invertebrate
bioturbating activities. Several invertebrate species were present at both sites in Annandale, However,
polychetes were distinctly present in the mudflat habitat. A high abundance of gastropods and
malacostraca was observed in the mangrove ecosystem which contributed to nutrient cycling and its
somewhat healthy nature. The low mean density of invertebrates indicated that they contributed to low
rates of erosion. Additionally, the nutrient parameters were very satisfactory in all the sites.

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Jack (2012) designed a timber brushwood design based on prior investigations of causes of erosion.
Recommendations were made for future brushwood structures and a determination was made for an
initial cost for the breakwater structure. The proposed work area was frequently visited, and level
surveys were conducted by the WSG to determine elevation data and to obtain the required design
elevation for the proposed structure. Theoretical work was conducted in the outline of a design of a
suitable groyne and also in the determination of soil properties, geomorphology and hydrological
investigation of the study area. Analysis of existing hydrographic data and Geomorphology was
accomplished to determine the elevation of the foreshore depth of mud bed, wave climates
and natural processing along the foreshore. Hydraulic data was collected in order to determine the
size required. The main structure to be constructed at Victoria was that of a permeable timber
piling groyne with bamboos or gabion as a screening mechanism. The aspects of the environment
primarily susceptible to impacts due to the development of the project were stated as the water
environment including surface and ground water quality; and marine environment with special
emphasis on parameters such as currents, bathymetry, sedimentation and erosion.

Duncan (2013) investigated the survival of planted mangroves along thee (3) sites that were previously
the subject of mangrove planting activities (Mon Repos, Hope Beach, and Village #8). Using transects
and plots, diameter and height measurements were taken from selected plants three months after these
transects and plots were set up. There were significant differences at each of these three sites. Village
#8 and Hope showed high survival rates (80% and 78% respectively) while Mon Repos showed 50%
survival rate. The results from this study confirmed that of Gratiot’s (2010) who purported that Village
#8 and Hope were sheltered and offered stable shorelines for mangrove growth, and that the elevation
of mudflats at Mon Repos was not facilitating for the survival of mangroves. Hope and Village #8 both
had higher diameter and growth increments than Mon Repos.

Omacharan (2013) investigated the effect of human influence in the presence of coastal mangrove
forests in Region 5. The densities of mangrove stands adjacent to nearby villages were measured over
an eight month period and it was found that the major human activities were rice cultivation, housing
and animal rearing. There was a positive correlation between degraded mangroves and human
activities (R2 = 0.9821).

Mangal (2013) carried out a study to determine how the physical parameters influenced the distribution
of mangroves in Region 5 (West Coast Berbice). Collection of data was carried out for one month and
triplicate field measurements of pH, temperature, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen were taken at
predetermined sites. This was done at two areas of a particular location, these being within the
mangrove stands and with the water channel before it entered into the stand. Site characteristics along
with anthropogenic influences were also recorded. Temperature, ph and dissolved oxygen were
measured by the use of probes, and turbidity was measured by use of a turbidimeter. Overall the water
temperature was found to be lower in the mangrove areas than in the channels as supported by the

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cover provided by the mangrove forests. The ph tested was found to be in a neutral range which is
attributed by the presence of acid reducing bacteria in the soils of mangroves. The older stands of
mangroves were found to have higher dissolved oxygen.
At twelve (12) different areas in Region 5, a study was done to determine relationships between
mangrove population densities and soil parameters (soil organic content, soil ph and soil texture). With
the help of existing maps, samples were collected and tested for these parameters and the results
showed that there was no significant relationship between mangrove population densities and each of
the parameters tested. Extremely weak relationships were found (Harry, 2013).

Edwards (2013) tested salinity to determine if there was a correlation between soil salinity and
mangrove populations in Region 5. With the use of existing maps, sixteen sites were selected and over
a six (6) month period, observations were made and tests were done to analyse salt content. Population
densities were also recorded for each site. Additional parameters tested included ph, soil texture, cation
content, phosphorous and organic matter content. There were no significant correlations between
population density and salinity levels.

In 2013, Gopaul similarly investigated inland sediment outflow along the coastline of region 5 to
determine if there was a relationship between the presence or absence of mangroves and the nature
and concentration level of soil sediments present there (density). Existing maps were used to determine
drainage areas and sites of mangrove forests. A reconnaissance survey was also done to obtain
baseline information about the area. The final sites were selected (nine outfalls from six villages) and
laboratory analysis was done at GUYSUCO to determine overall sediment concentration and
determination of the chemical nature of the soil. The results, like the latter study, also showed that there
was no relationship between sediment concentration and the density of mangroves found in the area.
However, useful information was gained for sediment concentration per area. Even in the testing of
individual soil parameters, there was still a weak relationship that was obtained.

Robertson (2015) investigated the wave attenuation due to mangroves and assessed existing numerical
models used to predict sea wave attenuation in mangroves. The site chosen for this research was
Chateau Margot which consists of wide mudflats which are made from large alluvial sediments.
Theoretical data collection was done through literature reviews and existing data and practical work
was done by deploying gauges to collect wind and wave data. Transects were also cut to collect tree
height, canopy, root diameter and leaf count. The overall results of the study showed that a three year
old black mangrove forest with a bandwidth of 50m can reduce a 0.43 m wave at open sea to 0.001 m
of the coast. Modelled wave heights prove that a 50 m mangrove forest can reduce a 0.43 m wave to
approximately 0.2 m.

Three species of mangroves found in Guyana were assessed for in-situ salt tolerance and endophytic
diversity during the wet and the dry season. These species were A germinans, R mangle and L

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racemosa. Other parameters measured included sodium and chlorine content in soil, soil water and leaf
tissue. This was done using prescribed methods from the Standard Methods for the Treatment of Waste
and Wastewater, 20th Edition. The results showed that when cultured in-situ, the plates with no salt
added were more promoting to the growth of fungal endophytes. The Aspergillus species, Mucor and
Penicillium were representative in the preliminary set of results in the study. Rhizophora mangle had
the most number of diseased leaves while Laguncularia had the least number of diseased leaves thus
making Rhizophora the most vulnerable to foliar disease. These results were statistically significant.
The Post Hoc tests showed that the results between Rhizophora and Laguncularia and Rhizophora and
Avicennia were statistically significant. Laguncularia leaves were found to have the highest sodium
content while Rhizophora leaves were found to have the lowest sodium content. The highest number
of colony forming units (CFUs) was from Rhizophora mangle both in the dry season (39) and in the wet
season (84). These results were not statistically significant. From the results of the second phase of
the study, out of a total of sixty (60) leaf fragments in total, from which there were two hundred and two
(202) CFUs obtained. Rhizophora mangle dominated in both of the seasons. The results showed that
the dry season had greater diversity and abundance than the wet season. The results for the greatest
number of diseased leaves correlated positively with the number of taxa formed on each of the
mangrove species. The greater the abundance of the diseased leaves, the higher the number of
endophytic fungal taxa found. Dominant species found were Aspergillus flavus and niger, Penicillium,
and Mucor. The similarity of fungus between the dry season and the wet season was 61.54 % which is
a significant similarity. The highest similarity between species was found in Avicennia germinans and
Laguncularia racemosa with 62.5% similarity (Craig, 2016).
Toorman et al. (2018) examined the interaction of mangroves, coastal hydrodynamics, and
morphodynamics along the coastal fringes of the Guianas, and found that quantitatively, three
processes govern the coastal dynamics: the interaction between mangroves, hydrodynamics and
sediment mechanics. Discrete mudbanks are transported westwards by waves and currents, and once
dumped, mud is trapped and the colonisation of mangroves occurs. Afterwards, waves attack the
shores again and a cycle of erosion and accretion occurs. The occurrence of flooding is more likely in
areas where there is little to no mangroves occurring. Even hard structures, like seawalls and groynes,
are not fully sustainable. As a precautionary method, prediction models are often used to make
estimations so as to evade threats to the coastal zone and develop implementation and integrated
procedures to remedy the same.

Based on the findings of the completed research, the following research gaps are mentioned below:

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Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking
Gap #

5 (a) Low Relationship between There have been significant strides taken
sedimentation and the in this research area. However, greater
presence/absence of effort needs to be placed into
mangroves understanding background dynamics e.g.
dredging, associated with the presence or
absence of mangroves

5 (b) High Relationship between coastal Regionally, a characterisation of the

development (structural shoreline can be done, and GIS mapping
engineering) and the can be used to draw relationships
presence/ absence of between shore structures and other sea
mangroves defenses. This data would be combined
with studies of near shore bathymetry
along the Guyanese shoreline.

5 (c) High Movement of mud banks and Erosion is a great threat to Guyana’s
erosion cycle mangroves and when coupled with other
environmental stresses, can prove too
hazardous to the life of mangroves.
Research in this area would therefore
help to take precautionary moves before
these environmental stresses cause
disaster.

5 (d) High Mapping and modelling of The coastline is very important to the
coastline retreat and preservation of mangroves. Due to cyclic
advance processes, the coastline can either
retreat or advance depending on geologic
processes and activities. Mapping and
modelling of these activities will help in
gathering key data which would
holistically contribute to mangrove
restoration, conservation and protection.

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 Productivity of mangrove ecosystems

Mangroves are said to be among the most highly productive ecosystems in the world and are
comparable to coral reefs on several accounts. Measuring the literfall is the most important way of
measuring net primary productivity. Estimating biomass and net primary productivity are valuable
contributors to ecosystem management and the evaluation of carbon stock. Leaf turnover in particular
provides an indication of the contribution as a major energy source to consumer organisms and as such
is a popular method of estimating primary productivity. Records of primary productivity rates also
contribute to determining the overall health of the ecosystem. Notable efforts have been made locally
to determine primary productivity in mangrove ecosystems through leaf fall dynamics.

Sharma (2006), Smith (2007) and Hodge (2008) measured litterfall in a "restricted" forest (in a restricted
5km stretch of mangroves at Ruimzeight, West Demerara). The methods used in these three studies
utilised litter fall traps to collect all components of litterfall followed by drying then weighting. The forest
(made up mainly of Avicennia germinans) had similar rates of litter production for the three contiguous
years 0.11kg/m2 /year; 0.10kg/m2 /year and 0.073kg/m2 /year respectively.

Crook (2013) proposed that the destruction of the mangrove ecosystem could result in the rapid release
of carbon. Therefore, the ‘blue carbon’ concept was presented. This concept is widely used to recognize
the importance of improved management of coastal ecosystems in terms of climate change mitigation.
Case studies on ‘blue carbon’ around the world was done and discussions on how it can potentially be
applied locally as a means of introducing a sustainable means of financing, in order to support ongoing
and future efforts to manage and restore Guyana’s mangroves, was undertaken.
Jaikissoon (2013) estimated the carbon storage capacity of the major mangrove species in two regions
of Regions #1 and #2 and found 3390.94 kg/ha and 809.09kg/ha respectively. Along the same line,
specific work was done by Jaikishun, Ansari et al (2013) on the carbon storage potential of mangrove
forests in Guyana. In their research, the carbon storage in mangrove forests in Guyana was estimated.
Carbon and other phytochemical properties of soil in mangrove forest were quantified in six (6) regions
of Guyana: Region 1 to Region 6 in the fringe forests. Transects were set up from inland to shore and
plots were subdivided and selected for random carbon assessment. The diameter at breast height and
overall tree height for each mangrove tree species was tested using DBH tape and Laser Technology
Laser Range Finders. Non-tree vegetation above ground was measured by using harvesting techniques
and forest floor litter was sampled using the oven drying technique. Aboveground and belowground
biomass was determined by destructive harvesting while soil carbon variables (depth, bulk density, and
concentrations of organic carbon were analysed using the Walkley-Black method). Two species,
Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia germinans were found to have the highest carbon stock capacity
(481 Mg/ha). Out of over 18 million hectares of forest cover, mangroves account for approximately
22,000 hectares of forest cover (MNRE, 2012). The results of the study indicated that mangroves
account for less than 1% of the total carbon storage potential in Guyana’s mangrove ecosystems. The

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global estimates for carbon stiorage potential are at 3% thereby reflecting that this level of carbon
storage potential is very low.
Primo (2017) focused on research to estimate litter production by mangrove forests in an effort to
understand the energy contribution made by mangroves to neighbouring ecosystems and the factors
that can influence this production. There were three study sites that were used: Village #7, West Coast
Berbice, Wellington Park, East Coast Berbice and Hope/ Victoria East Coast Demerara. All the sampled
plots were previously developed by the Guyana Mangrove Restoration Project by the use of transect
lines. Forest assessment and measurement was done to assess parameters that have an effect on litter
fall production. There were seven (7) litter fall traps in total and the overall results showed that the soil
structure and composition could have affected the growth and the level of nutrients available to
surrounding ecosystems. The differences in soil structures could have been as a result of natural
topography of the area, limited freshwater flushing, and nutrient input into the sites. There were
noticeable differences in production of leaf litter between sites and seasons (wet and dry). It was
concluded that the maximum leaf litter production was during the dry season and continuous fluctuation
in leaf production in the degraded forest beginning at the end of the dry season and throughout the wet
seasons. At the degraded site, leaf composition held the greatest account in leaf litter, followed directly
by twigs, flowers, fruit and other unidentified components. Though the results of the study were
inconclusive, it paved the way for more recent primary productivity studies locally.
Based on completed studies, the following research gaps have been identified:

Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking

Gap #

6 (a) Medium Regional studies Studies of biomass and leaf litter

investigating primary production to establish baseline
productivity in the form of leaf information perhaps using trial plots and
litter dynamics established sites by the Mangrove
Department

6 (b) Medium From 7a above, a A comparative analytical report region

comparison of the variations by region to assess rates of primary
in primary productivity within productivity
each region

6 (c) Medium Investigation of temporal The influence of time on rates and

changes in primary status of primary productivity
productivity

6 (d) Medium Assessment of levels of Indicators of primary productivity in

environmental stress mangrove forest types e.g. disturbed,
interference with primary undisturbed
productivity

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 6 (e) Medium Studies comparing the A comparison of the rate of primary
primary productivity in productivity locally to that of
Guyanese mangroves to international scales
regional and global studies

Community participation and efforts in conservation

At the community level, participation is crucial to the management of mangrove forests. The message
of protecting the resources in a community usually resonates well once person’s livelihoods are not
affected and they are taught how to use their resources in a sustainable manner. The idea of protecting
resources rolls over into the protection of mangroves. Over the years, there have been several efforts
in mangrove awareness and conservation at the local level.

Evans (1998) investigated how mangroves could be restored along the coast and in part reported that
large areas of mangrove forest were destroyed to control mosquitoes. Additionally, mangroves were
used unsustainably for fuel wood, and bark collection for tannins. He found that most people had beliefs
that the mangrove forests were harbours of mosquitoes.

In the Buxton/ Friendship area, an exploratory study was carried out on a sample of 136 community
members including key informants with the objectives of determining attitudes and willingness of
community members to promote mangrove restoration and sustainability, and identify the familiarity
level of community members towards the latter mentioned. Based on the results of the study, it was
found that many of the members were familiar with mangroves but not with the local Mangrove Action
Committee which promoted social and educational activities in the community. Additionally, members
were highly familiar with destructive cultural practices affecting mangroves, how mangroves should be
planted, and when they should be planted (Thomas-Holder, 2013).

Due to land tenure arrangements, insufficient knowledge of mangrove habitats, and Government
interaction, some coastal dwellers indicated via a survey that these were the primary reasons for their
lack of involvement in the management of mangroves. However, they indicated that they were willing
to actually get involved and increase their awareness. Stakeholders also noted that there was a need
for stronger enforcement of regulations (Williams, 2013). Another study conducted in 2013 by Bhola in
Region 6, noted that land tenure issues were a major constraint to sustainable management of
mangroves, as many of the remaining mangroves in that part of Guyana were located on private lands.
Nevertheless, individuals were willing to transfer ownership and power over mangrove areas if there
suitable options presented to them.

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In 2013, Murray assessed the level of mangrove awareness amongst secondary schools in Region 4,
along with their knowledge of the Guyana Mangrove Restoration Project. The research was done using
questionnaires which had questions related to the students’ and some teachers’ knowledge of
mangroves and the Mangrove Project. It was concluded that students had favourable knowledge on
mangrove awareness, but more work was needed to be done in improving awareness in secondary
schools. A high percentage of the sample (43.8%) was willing to participate in conservation activities
even though the actual knowledge of the then GMRP was poor overall.

A similar study was undertaken in 2015 by DaSilva to determine the extent of teachers’ awareness of
the importance of mangroves as an important ecosystem in Guyana. One hundred and twenty
participants (120) from Region 4 and Region 6 were exposed to mangrove conservation training
workshops and were later on subjected to one hundred ‘yes or no’ questions. They were tested on their
perceptions and awareness, current sources of information and stakeholders and roles. The results of
the study showed that teachers were knowledgeable about mangroves and displayed favourable
attitudes toward the conservation and management of mangroves. The researcher recommended that
more should be done to pass on knowledge to students through field trips, training workshops and
lectures. It was also recommended that the Ministry of Education and the GMRP engage in continuous
professional development.

Kalamadeen (2013) through the GMRP developed a mangrove management plan for the Golden Grove
Belfield Mangrove Reserve. Importantly, the key components of the plan, were (1) agreed management
goals and objectives for the site (community involvement); (2) a delineation process which included
data collection and community resource mapping and the collection of on socioeconomic and biological
data on the status of mangroves and fauna of the site, and (3) institutional arrangements for
management of the site including mangrove restoration, protection and economic activities. This plan
integrated several pertinent aspects of mangrove management and community participation – both
necessary precursors to effective conservation.

Based on the completed research, the following research gaps have been identified:

Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking

Gap #

7 (a) Medium Updated community How have perceptions of mangrove

perceptions of mangroves: forests and their usefulness/ benefits
benefits and uses changes since the inception of the
GMRP?

7 (b) Medium Updated assessment of How have students and teachers

students and teachers knowledge of mangroves and

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 knowledge of mangroves conservation efforts been enhanced
and conservation efforts since widespread dissemination of
information on mangroves through the
inception of the GMRP?

7 (c) Medium Community involvement: What do communities require to benefit

goals and objectives sustainably from mangrove forests but
at the same time contributing to
community knowledge and
management of these forests?

7 (d) High The development of Plans similar to that developed by

additional management Kalamandeen (2013) should be
plans for communities developed so as to better effect
adjacent to mangroves management of mangrove
communities and enhance community
participation.

The rehabilitation and restoration of mangroves in Guyana

There have been notable efforts in the rehabilitation and restoration of mangroves locally. At the end of
2012, there were more than 330, 000 black mangrove seedlings along 5.59km of the coastline at ten
locations, equating to approximately 35ha in area that were planted. Topper (2012) assessed the year
two achievements of the Mangrove Action Project by a brief desk review, meetings with stakeholders,
and field observations. The report found that public awareness and development of a monitoring system
for coastal mangroves were satisfactorily achieved. The monitoring system, though functional, was not
fully operational. Although the 11km target of protection of the shoreline was not reached, there was
still effective protection given the setbacks of limited technical assistance and limited understanding of
shoreline dynamics.
The 2017 Annual Report of the Mangrove Department, NAREI, presented the overall results of the
activities of the department in the said year. From a total of nine (9) sites, the overall states of the sites
were presented as follows: Lima – planted with black mangrove seedlings had extensive natural
regeneration and growth of planted seedlings; Anna Regina – breakwater structure installation had
natural regeneration of mangroves; Devonshire Castle – fitted with a geotextile tube had natural
regeneration; Victoria – fitted with geotextile tube at naturally occurring mangrove sites had rapid
recruitment; Hope – planted with black mangrove seedlings had erosion occurring; Green Field –
planted with black mangroves had erosion occurring; Better Hope – planted with black mangroves had
extensive natural regeneration; the two sites at Village #6 - #8 had extensive natural regeneration, and
the three sites at Wellington Park suffered from extensive erosion due to sawdust build-up along the
foreshore and natural erosion activities.

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An interpreted time-series satellite data of 1990, 2000 and 2010 using a semi -automated
Geographical Information System and Remote sensing approach was done in order to look at
regeneration and loss in forested areas (Mahaica-Berbice) over specific periods (Hamwant, 2011). The
time periods used were 1990 to 2000, 2000 to 2010, and 1990 to 2010. The overall findings were
consistent within all three temporal periods. There was an average loss of forested area of
26.57ha/yr for the twenty year period. The first ten (10) years of the assessment saw a rate
of deforestation of 7.86 ha/yr and increased to 45.32 ha/yr in the second assessment period.
The rates of deforestation differed spatially and temporally. Greater regeneration occurred between the
1990 –2000 period, in comparison to the 2000 –2010 period. It was observed that for the
period 1990 there was reforestation in forest at a rate of 15.61ha/yr. whilst there was a loss of
31.08 ha/yr. The rate of reforestation decreased for the period 2000 to 2010 to 8.76ha/yr. while
the rate of forest loss increased to 54.07 ha/yr. Assessing the 1990 to 2010 period it was
observed that the regeneration was at a rate of 11.61ha/yr. and on the contrary, there was forest
loss at a rate of 34.39 ha/yr.

In a presentation entitled, ‘Restoring mangroves in a challenging environment’, Machin (2013) indicated

that in optimal environmental conditions, the recovery of the coastal protective belt can be rapid with
mean growth rate of 200cm per year at the most successful field site and canopy closure one year after
planting. The sediment conditions and wave energy were the main attributing factors determining the
success rate of planted seedlings. Site selection procedures were done using (1- macro scale, using
Satellite imagery and Aerial photography from the GIS database to identify presence of mud banks and
predict their movements) and 2) Micro scale at each potential planting site to assess suitability of
different locations within planting sites in terms of known tolerance limits of mangroves to variation in
mud elevation, soil conditions and wave action. Machin (2013) also examined field results of ten
locations across 5.59 kilometres of shoreline comprising 35 hectares on the East Coast of Demerara
coastline. An average growth rate of 200cm/year was found. Ecological natural restoration methods
were also utilised including planting of coastal grasses (e.g. Spartina) to facilitate stabilisation of
sediments in areas subject to heavier wave energy, as well as natural recruitment of mangrove
seedlings through entrapment of propagules, fencing to enable natural recruitment by naturally
available mangrove seeds without pressure from grazing animals, trials of techniques to restore natural
hydrological processes in degraded mangrove forest areas to again allow for natural recovery of these
mangrove areas and establishment of coastal engineering structures.
Along this line, Giovannozzi et al (2013) recognised that hard sea defense structures hamper the ability
of mud to build up to a level suitable for mangrove colonization and propagule movement. For example,
sea walls disrupt the normal wave-energy flow onto the land, and restrict the ability of mangrove stands
to shift their boundaries as sea levels rise. Even during periods of seawall construction, existing stands
of mangroves are damaged. Importantly, sea defense structures also limit the flow of fresh water into
mangrove ecosystems.
Libourd (2013) carried out research to compare survival rates of mangroves wildings planted using
open planting and encasement techniques and to assess the comparative costs of replanting
mangroves using open planting and encasement. Six hundred black mangrove seedlings were
collected from Ann’s Grove and Victoria village respectively on the East Coast Demerara. Plots were

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demarcated at Mon Repos, Greenfield and Village #8 along the shore and four (4) treatments were
replicated at each site. These treatments were open planting, bamboo pipe, half length PVC pipe, and
full length PVC pipe. The plots were monitored for three (3) weeks for a total of fifteen (15) weeks. In
order to calculate costs, factors taken into consideration were acquisition costs and transport costs for
materials and payment for planting. Survival rates were found to be low overall with all treatments. The
full PVC and half PVC had comparable survival rates. Mon Repos had the lowest survival rates which
was not surprising as Gratiot (2010) expressed possible reasons for this. Overall, there was a 70%
survival rate at Greenfield. PVC accounted for the highest cost per treatment but this was no statistically
significant.
Through the GMRP, now Mangrove Department, NAREI, there has been significant strides in mangrove
restoration. However, more research is needed to better understand underlying dynamics so as to
choose the best restoration and monitoring techniques.
The following research gaps have been identified below.

Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking

Gap #

8 (a) High Detailed survival rates and There have been several studies done
factors affecting their to assess survival rates at replanted
survival at each replanted sites but a comprehensive study needs
site in Guyana to be done to determine survival rates
at all replanted sites and comparisons
should be done to see if survival rates
follow a trend or have increased/
decreased over the years.

8 (b) High A comparative assessment With the implementation of

of the use of hard structures breakwaters, geotextile tubes, brush
locally to effect mangrove as dams etc. a comparative assessment
sea defenses should be done to determine levels of
effectiveness of each treatment type in
promoting the growth of mangroves.

8 (c) High Local role of mangroves in Studies of change in wave energy

reducing wave energy reaching the sea defence infrastructure
over time as restored forest areas
develop

8 (d) Medium Effect of herbivory on Cattle grazing is very dominant in

restoration and subsequent restored mangrove sites. Key
survival of mangroves documentation of this is needed at each
site and a link between herbivory and
rates of survival along with effects on

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 restoration is pertinent to developing
methods to remedy any situations of
exiting herbivory in mangrove forests.

8 (e) High Investigation of alternative Apart from the alternative hard

hard structures to augment structures that have been implemented
mangrove forests locally, research should be undertaken
to determine how geologically similar
areas are using other hard structures as
support systems to mangroves.

2.9 Economic valuation of mangrove forests

Mangroves are highly valuable forests and their valuation ranges from habitat, food source, goods and
products and coastal zone defense systems. Locally, persons are dependent on mangrove forests for
their livelihoods including honey production and harvesting of the wood and bark. Generally,
mangroves are useful for fisheries due to enhanced primary productivity and refuge from predation. In
fact, mangrove forests are virtually impenetrable to large boats and other machinery and equipment
(Spalding et al, 2015). There is a diverse array of fishes and other marine organisms found within these
highly protected forests. Many fish species, example snapper, use mangrove forests as juveniles before
heading out into the sea as fully grown and mature adults. Though there are studies that point to the
diversities of organisms in mangrove forests, there are no studies deeply examining the economic value
of these forests locally.

The services provided by mangrove forests and its surrounding ecosystems can be estimated by
calculating the value of these goods or services per unit area. For example, mangroves acting as a
complete sea level rise defense system can be calculated by considering the amount of money saved
from preventing damage from sea level rise. Ileiva (2013) conducted a preliminary study at the Golden-
Grove Belfield area and estimated the total economic value of mangroves at USD1209 per hectare
incorporating direct use values (fishing, ecotourism and apiculture indirect use values (carbon
sequestration, biodiversity). This study did not evaluate the benefits in terms of coastal protection and
non-use values of mangroves.

The research gap for the economic valuation of mangroves in Guyana has been identified below.

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Research Priority Research Gap Information lacking
Gap #

9 (a) High Total Economic Value of This is a high priority research area that
mangrove forests in Guyana can contribute information on
cost/benefit analysis, environmental
costs and management actions.

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 Ongoing, Planned and Inaccessible Studies For Mangrove
Research In Guyana
CLME + Sub-regional project being implemented by EPA
This project aims to identify, analyse, and agree upon major issues, root causes and actions required
to achieve sustainable management of the shared living marine resources, including mangroves, in the
Caribbean LME and its adjacent regions; and to improve the shared knowledge base for sustainable
use and management of transboundary living marine resources.

CH&PA/IDB project on Climate Resilience Support for the Adequate Housing and Urban
Accessibility Program
This project supports the Government of Guyana with the integration of climate adaptation and
resiliency aspects into the Adequate Housing and Urban Accessibility Program, which is a proposed
reformulation of GY-L1028 - "Road Network, Upgrade and Expansion Program. Though this project is
not directly related to mangroves, the modelling and coastal data can be used to inform mangrove
management.

The EU/SRDD Project to update the Sea Defence Act

The overall objective of the programme is to support climate change adaptation through an Integrated
Coastal Zone Management approach and thereby protect the population in vulnerable, flood prone
areas under sea level. One of the expected results is to update the Sea Defence Bill and the harmonised
legal framework governing the executive agencies with responsibilities for disaster risk management,
ensuring that an integrated coastal zone management approach is covered comprehensively. The
results would also be useful in informing mangrove management.

Marine Spatial Planning Project (funded by European Union)

This project aims to identify and propose key coastal and marine areas for conservation status. By the
use of a participatory approach, spatial data will be developed and used to make decisions regarding
aspects of marine management and protection. The knowledge gained will help in the decision-making
process in increased marine protection and human uses. The overall outcomes will conserve
biodiversity and improve the complete health of the ocean. Of direct benefit to mangroves, the project
will map related spatial data of mangroves and serve as a stimulus for conservation and restoration
options.

EU Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project

The overall objective of the programme is to support climate change adaptation through an Integrated
Coastal Zone Management approach and thereby protect the population in vulnerable, flood prone

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areas under sea level. One of the expected outputs related to mangroves includes suitable mangrove
sites established with conditions conducive to their protection and natural regeneration.

Academic research

The EPA Guyana indicated that they have no direct projects that were done by researchers relating to
mangroves in Guyana. However, upon direct and official request by the NBS-LME Mangrove Project,
a list of another facilitated research could be generated and presented. Contact made with the Guyana
School of Agriculture also indicated that there were no direct projects or research done by students
related to mangroves locally.

The list for undergraduate and graduate research projects by students of the University of Guyana has
not been released as yet but is expected to be released by the end of December 2018, by which time,
it will be comprehensive and accessible. Project proposals are currently in preparatory stages.
However, direct access regarding project topics will only be made accessible once project proposals
are completed and presented, approved, then accepted. However, there has been one confirmed study
for undergraduate mangrove research so far for the upcoming year. This is expected to commence in
January 2018, by Kimberly Duncan, a final year Biology student at the University of Guyana, Turkeyen
Campus. The title of the thesis is ‘Anecdotal and empirical investigations of mangroves in Region 5,
Guyana’. It is expected to be completed in June 2019 and proposes to examine anecdotal and empirical
evidence from the older population, regarding the presence of mangroves during prescribed periods.
Additionally, the study intends to use surveys, personal interviews, and questionnaires to gather
information about situations that existed in a pre-Georgetown or early Georgetown era.

Inaccessible completed undergraduate research by students of the University of Guyana

The following list of research theses were not able to be accessed by the consultant due to property
rights issues by their owners. However, the table presents (in cases where obtainable), the researchers
and their affiliations, year of research and title of research.

Researcher/ Affiliation Year Title of Research

Ayana Isaacs, University of 2002 Insect diversity in the black and white mangrove
Guyana ecosystems

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 Abundance and distribution of avifauna in two
black mangrove ecosystems along the East Coast
Demerara

Kevin Cornette, University of 2012 Investigating how the macroinvertebrate and

Guyana microbial population influences the ecology of the
mudflat and mangrove ecosystem at Annandale

Shaneen Gillis, University of 2012 Mangrove nurseries in the GMRP Initiative (Roles,
Guyana challenges, risks)
Assessing the capacity of coastal communities to
climate change
•

Marvin Monize, University of 2012 Identification of insect pests and functional

Guyana diseases in mangrove nurseries in Cove and John,
Guyana

Kewena Stewart, University of 2014 Management and Utilisation of mangroves at the

Guyana Golden-Grove Belfield Mangrove Reserve

University of Guyana 2014 Heavy-metal accumulation in leaf eating insects in

three mangrove ecosystems

University of Guyana 2014 The predation on mangrove seedlings by

herbivourous animals

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 Recommendations

Based on the research gaps and priorities identified in this report, the following recommendations are
proposed to fill these gaps in a timely manner:

1. Generate a full list of research topics and utilise the skills of researchers, academics etc. to
undertake these topics as research;
2. Partner with neighbouring universities to develop strategies for undertaking research gaps;
3. Set a goal of a fixed amount of research topics to be completed in an academic year by willing
and capable research students of the University of Guyana;
4. Circulate the main findings of the Synthesis Report so as to disseminate knowledge on the
current state of mangroves in Guyana to garner support for researchers;
5. Involve all relevant stakeholders in the dissemination of research projects; and
6. Prioritise the hiring of relevant staff/ personnel at the Mangrove Department of NAREI for the
purpose of undertaking or assisting in the supervision of research/ scientific studies.

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 References

1. Abdool, Y., DaSilva, P. 1997. Characteristics for the establishment of a mangrove fringe.
(Master of Science Dissertation). University of Guyana.
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of Guyana. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
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Education, Research and Practice” 21-23 June 2006, Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.

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 14. Da Silva, P. 2014. Avifaunal diversity in the Guyanese mangrove ecosystem, University
of Guyana. Presented at the Guyana mangrove Forum, April 11-13, Georgetown, Guyana,
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15. Da Silva, P. (2015). Exploring a community’s knowledge and use of a coastal mangrove
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