Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr.

Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

1.3. Tautology /Contradiction / Contingency

A tautology (theorem or lemma) is a logical proposition that is always true.

Remark 1.3.2. One informal way to check whether or not a certain logical formula is
a theorem is to construct its truth table.

Example 1.3.3. p ∨ ~p.

Definition 1.3.4. (Contradiction)

A contradiction is a logical proposition that is always false.

Example 1.3.5. p ∧ ~p.

Definition 1.3.6. (Contingency)

A contingency is a logical proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

Example 1.3.7.

(i) The logical proposition p ∨ q → ~r is a contingency. See Example 1.2.3(i).

(ii) The logical proposition p ∨ ~ (p ∧ q) is a tautology.

p q p∧q ~ (p ∧ q) p ∨ ~ (p ∧ q)

T T T F T

T F F T T

F T F T T

F F F T T

Exercise 1. 1.3.8

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Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

(i) Build a truth table to verify that the logical proposition

(p ↔ q) ∧ (~p∧ q)

is a contradiction.

(ii) (Low of Syllogism) Show that the logical proposition

[(p → q) ∧(q → r) ] →(p → q)

is a tautology.

Definition 1.3.8. (Logically equivalent)

Propositions r and s are logically equivalent if the truth tables of r and s are the same
and denoted by (r ≡ s).

Example 1.3.9. Show that

(p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ p ↔ q.

Solution. Show the truth values of both propositions are identical.

p q ~q p→q ~(p → q) p ∧ ~q

T T F T F F

T F T F T T

F T F T F F

F F T T F F

Theorem 1.3.10. (Relation Between Logical Equivalent and Tautology)

r ≡ s if and only if the statement r ↔ s is a tautology.

1.3.11. Algebra of Logical Proposition

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Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

The logical equivalences below are important equivalences that should be memorized.

1-Identity Laws: p ∧ T ≡ p.
p ∨ F≡ p.

2-Domination Laws: p ∨ T ≡ T.
p ∧ F ≡ F.

3-Idempotent Laws: p ∨ p ≡ p.
p ∧ p ≡ p.

4- Double Negation Law: ~(~ p) ≡ p.

5- Commutative Laws: p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p.
p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p.

6- Associative Laws: (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r).

7- Distributive Laws: p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r).

8- De Morgan's Laws: ~ (p ∧ q) ≡ ~ p ∨ ~q.

9- Absorption Laws: p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p.
p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p.
p ∧ (~p ∨ q) ≡ p∧q.
p ∨ (~p ∧ q) ≡ p∨q.
10-Implication Law: (p → q) ≡ (~ p ∨ q).
11- Contrapositive Law: (p → q) ≡ (~ q → ~p).
12- Tautology: p ∨ ~ p ≡ T.
13- Contradiction: p ∧ ~p ≡ F.
14- Equivalence: (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ (p ⟷ q).

15- p ∨ q ≡(p ∨ q) ∧ ~(p ∧ q).

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Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

Solution.

(8) We using truth table to prove ~ (p ∧ q) ≡ ~ p ∨ ~q.

p q ~p ~q p∧q ~ (p ∧ q) ~ p ∨ ~q

T T F F T F F

T F F T F T T

F T T F F T T

F F T T F T T

(14) We using truth table to prove (p → q) ∧ (q → p) ≡ (p ⟷ q).

p q p→q q→p p→q∧q→p p↔q

T T T T T T

T F F T F F

F T T F F F

F F T T T T

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Foundation of Mathematics 1 Dr. Bassam Al-Asadi and Dr. Emad Al-Zangana
Mustansiriyah University College of Science Dept. of Math. (2017-2018)

(15) p ∨ q ≡(p ∨ q) ∧ ~(p ∧ q).

p q p∨q p∧q ~ (p ∧ q) 𝐩 ∨𝐪 ( p ∨ q) ∧ ~ (p ∧ q)

T T T T F F F

T F T F T T T

F T T F T T T

F F F F T F F

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