REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

[CONTENTS: One-line diagram, impedance diagram, reactance diagram, per unit quantities, per unit
impedance diagram, formation of bus admittance & impedance matrices, examples]

1.1 One Line Diagram

Usually, the electric power systems are very complex and their size is unwieldy. It is very difficult to
represent all the components of the system on a single frame. The complexities could be in terms of
various types of protective devices, machines (transformers, generators, motors, etc.), their
connections (star, delta, etc.), etc. Hence, for the purpose of power system analysis, a simple
single-phase equivalent circuit is developed called, the one-line diagram (OLD) or the single line
diagram (SLD).
Thus, an SLD is the concise form of representing a given power system. It is to be noted that a given
SLD will contain only such data that are relevant to the system analysis/study under consideration.
For example, the details of protective devices need not be shown for load flow analysis nor it is
necessary to show the details of shunt values for stability studies.
Symbols used for SLD

For the SLD, various symbols are used to represent the different parameters and machines as single-phase
equivalents. Some of the important symbols used are as listed in the table of Figure 1 .
Example system

For illustration, consider a sample example power system and data as under:

Generator 1: 30 MVA, 10.5 KV, X” = 1.6 ohms,

Generator 2: 15 MVA, 6.6 KV, X” = 1.2 ohms,
Generator 3: 25 MVA, 6.6 KV, X” = 0.56 ohms,
Transformer 1 (3-phase): 15 MVA, 33/11 KV, X=15.2 ohms/phase on HT side,
Transformer 2 (3-phase): 15 MVA, 33/6.2 KV, X=16.0 ohms/phase on HT side,
Transmission Line: 20.5 ohms per phase, Load A: 15 MW, 11 KV, 0.9 PF (lag); and
Load B: 40 MW, 6.6 KV, 0.85 PF (lag).
The corresponding SLD incorporating the standard symbols can be shown as in figure 2.

Here, it is observed that the generators are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L voltage and per phase
Y-equivalent impedance, transformers are specified in 3-phase MVA, L-L voltage transformation ratio
and per phase Y-equivalent impedance on any one side and the loads are specified in 3-phase MW,
L-L voltage and power factor.
1.2 Impedance Diagram
The impedance diagram on single-phase basis for use under balanced conditions can be easily
drawn from the SLD. The following assumptions are made in obtaining the impedance diagrams.
Assumptions:

1. The single-phase transformer equivalents are shown as ideals with impedances on appropriate
side (LV/HV),
2. The magnetizing reactance’s of transformers are negligible,
3. The generators are represented as constant voltage sources with series resistance or reactance,
4. The transmission lines are approximated by their equivalent -Models,
5. The loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by a series branch of resistance or
reactance and
6. Since the balanced conditions are assumed, the neutral grounding impedances do not appear in
the impedance diagram.
Example system

Based on the assumptions as above and with reference to the system of figure 2, the impedance
diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 3.

1.3 Reactance Diagram

Further with some more simplifying assumptions, the impedance diagram can be used to obtain the
corresponding reactance diagram. The assumptions made are as under.

Additional assumptions:
The resistance is often omitted during the fault analysis. This causes a very Resistances are
negligible
➢ Loads are Omitted
 ➢ Transmission line capacitances are ineffective &
➢ Magnetizing currents of transformers are neglected.

Example system

Based on the assumptions as above and with reference to the system of figure 2 and figure 3, the
reactance diagram can be obtained as shown in figure 4.

Note: The impedance & reactance diagrams are also referred as the Positive Sequence Diagrams/ Networks.

1.4 Per Unit Quantities

It is a usual practice to represent current, voltage, impedance, power, etc., of an electric power
system in per unit or percentage of the base or reference value of the respective quantities. The
numerical per unit (pu) value of any quantity is its ratio to a chosen base value of the same
dimension. Thus, a pu value is a normalized quantity with respect to the chosen base value.

Definition: Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any given unit to the base
value in the same unit.

The percent value is 100 times the pu value. Both the pu and percentage methods are simpler than the
use of actual values. Further, the main advantage in using the pu system of computations is that the result that
comes out of the sum, product, quotient, etc. of two or more pu values is expressed in per unit itself.

In an electrical power system, the parameters of interest include the current, voltage, complex power (VA),
impedance and the phase angle. Of these, the phase angle is dimensionless and the other four quantities can
be described by knowing any two of them. Thus clearly, an arbitrary choice of any two base values will
evidently fix the other base values.

Normally the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is known along with the complex power rating in MVA.
Hence, in practice, the base values are chosen for complex power (MVA) and line voltage (KV). The chosen
base MVA is the same for all the parts of the system. However, the base voltage is chosen with reference to a
particular section of the system and the other base voltages (with reference to the other sections of the
systems, these sections caused by the presence of the transformers) are then related to the chosen one by the
turns-ratio of the connecting transformer.

If Ib is the base current in kilo amperes and V b, the base voltage in kilovolts, then the base MVA is, S b = (VbIb).
Then the base values of current & impedance are given by

Base current (kA), Ib = MVAb/KVb

= Sb/ Vb (1)

Base impedance, Zb = (Vb/Ib)

= (KVb2 / MVAb) (2)

Hence the per unit impedance is given by
Zpu = Zohms/Zb
= Zohms (MVAb/KVb2) (3)

In 3-phase systems, KVb is the line-to-line value & MVAb is the 3-phase MVA. [1-phase MVA = (1/3) 3-phase
MVA].

Changing the base of a given pu value:

It is observed from equation (3) that the pu value of impedance is proportional directly to the base MVA and
inversely to the square of the base KV. If Zpunew is the pu impedance required to be calculated on a new set

of base values: MVAbnew & KVbnew from the already given per unit impedance Z puold, specified on the old

set of base values, MVAbold & KVbold , then we have

Zpunew = Zpuold (MVAbnew/MVAbold) (KVbold/KVbnew)2 (4)

On the other hand, the change of base can also be done by first converting the given pu impedance to its ohmic value and then calculating its pu value
on the new set of base values.

Merits and Demerits of pu System

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the pu system of computations in electric
power systems:
Merits:

➢ The pu value is the same for both 1-phase and & 3-phase systems
 ➢ The pu value once expressed on a proper base, will be the same when refereed to either side of the transformer.
Thus the presence of transformer is totally eliminated
➢ The variation of values is in a smaller range 9nearby unity). Hence the errors involved in pu
computations are very less.
➢ Usually the nameplate ratings will be marked in pu on the base of the name plate ratings, etc.
Demerits:

➢ If proper bases are not chosen, then the resulting pu values may be highly absurd (such as 5.8 pu,
-18.9 pu, etc.). This may cause confusion to the user. However, this problem can be avoided by
selecting the base MVA near the high-rated equipment and a convenient base KV in any section of the
system.
1.5 pu Impedance / Reactance Diagram
Given a power system with all its data with regard to the generators, transformers, transmission lines, loads, etc., it is possible to obtain the
corresponding impedance or reactance diagram as explained above. If the parametric values are shown in pu on the properly selected base values of
the system, then the diagram is referred as the per unit impedance or reactance diagram. In forming a pu diagram, the following are the procedural steps
involved:

1. Obtain the one-line diagram based on the given data

2. Choose a common base MVA for the system
3. Choose a base KV in any one section (Sections formed by the presence of transformers)
4. Find the base KV of all the sections present
5. Find pu values of all the parameters: R,X, Z, E, etc.
6. Draw the pu impedance/ reactance diagram.
Problem #1:

Two generators rated 10 MVA, 13.2 KV and 15 MVA, 13.2 KV are connected in parallel to a bus bar. They feed
supply to 2 motors of inputs 8 MVA and 12 MVA respectively. The operating voltage of motors is 12.5 KV.
Assuming the base quantities as 50 MVA, 13.8 KV, draw the per unit reactance diagram. The percentage
reactance for generators is 15% and that for motors is 20%.

Solution:

The one-line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P1(a).
Selection of base quantities: 50 MVA, 13.8 KV (Given)

Calculation of pu values:

XG1 = j 0.15 (50/10) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.6862 pu.

XG2 = j 0.15 (50/15) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.4574 pu.

Xm1 = j 0.2 (50/8) (12.5/13.8)2 = j 1.0256 pu.

Xm2 = j 0.2 (50/12) (12.5/13.8)2 = j 0.6837 pu.

Eg1 = Eg2 = (13.2/13.8) = 0.9565 00 pu

Em1 = Em2 = (12.5/13.8) = 0.9058 00 pu

Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P1(b).

Problem #2:

Draw the per unit reactance diagram for the system shown in figure below. Choose a base of 11 KV, 100 MVA
in the generator circuit.

Solution:

The one line diagram with the data is considered as shown in figure.

Selection of base quantities:

100 MVA, 11 KV in the generator circuit(Given); the voltage bases in other sections are: 11 (115/11.5) = 110
KV in the transmission line circuit and 110 (6.6/11.5) = 6.31 KV in the motor circuit.

Calculation of pu values:

XG = j 0.1 pu, Xm = j 0.2 (100/90) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.243 pu.

Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (100/50) (11.5/11)2 = j 0.2185 pu.

Xt3 =Xt4 = j 0.1 (100/50) (6.6/6.31)2 = j 0.219 pu.

Xlines = j 20 (100/1102) = j 0.1652 pu.

Eg = 1.000 pu, Em = (6.6/6.31) = 1.04500 pu

Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P2(b).

Problem #3:

A 30 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The generator supplies 2 motors
through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down transformer arrangement. The motors have
rated inputs of 20 MVA and 10 MVA at 12.8 KV with 20% sub transient reactance each. The 3-phase
transformers are rated at 35 MVA, 13.2 KV- /115 KV-Y with 10 % leakage reactance. The line reactance is 80
ohms. Draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram by selecting the generator ratings as base values in the
generator circuit.

Solution:
The one-line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P3(a).

Selection of base quantities:

30 MVA, 13.8 KV in the generator circuit (Given);

The voltage bases in other sections are:

13.8 (115/13.2) = 120.23 KV in the transmission line circuit and

120.23 (13.26/115) = 13.8 KV in the motor circuit.

Calculation of pu values:

XG = j 0.15 pu.

Xm1 = j 0.2 (30/20) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.516 pu.

Xm2 = j 0.2 (30/10) (12.8/13.8)2 = j 0.2581 pu.

Xt1 =Xt2 = j 0.1 (30/35) (13.2/13.8)2 = j 0.0784 pu.

Xline = j 80 (30/120.232) = j 0.17 pu.

Eg = 1.000 pu; Em1 = Em2 = (6.6/6.31) = 0.9300 pu

Thus, the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P3(b).

Problem #4:

A 33 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 0.5%. The generator supplies a motor
through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down transformer arrangement. The motor has rated
input of 25 MVA at 6.6 KV with 25% sub transient reactance. Draw the equivalent per unit impedance diagram
by selecting 25 MVA (3), 6.6 KV (LL) as base values in the motor circuit, given the transformer and
transmission line data as under:
Step up transformer bank: three single phase units, connected –Y, each rated 10 MVA, 13.2/6.6 KV with 7.7
% leakage reactance and 0.5 % leakage resistance;

Transmission line: 75 KM long with a positive sequence reactance of 0.8 ohm/ KM and a resistance of 0.2
ohm/ KM; and

Step down transformer bank: three single phase units, connected –Y, each rated 8.33 MVA, 110/3.98 KV with
8% leakage reactance and 0.8 % leakage resistance;

Solution:

The one-line diagram with the data is obtained as shown in figure P4(a).

3-phase ratings of transformers:

T1: 3(10) = 30 MVA, 13.2/ 66.43 KV = 13.2/ 115 KV, X = 0.077, R = 0.005 pu.

T2: 3(8.33) = 25 MVA, 110/ 3.983 KV = 110/ 6.8936 KV, X = 0.08, R = 0.008 pu.

Selection of base quantities:

25 MVA, 6.6 KV in the motor circuit (Given); the voltage bases in other sections are: 6.6 (110/6.8936) =
105.316 KV in the transmission line circuit and 105.316 (13.2/115) = 12.09 KV in the generator circuit.

Calculation of pu values:

Xm = j 0.25 pu; Em = 1.000 pu.

XG = j 0.005 (25/33) (13.8/12.09)2 = j 0.005 pu; Eg = 13.8/12.09 = 1.41400 pu.

Zt1 = 0.005 + j 0.077 (25/30) (13.2/12.09)2 = 0.005 + j 0.0765 pu. (ref. to LV side)

Zt2 = 0.008 + j 0.08 (25/25) (110/105.316)2 = 0.0087 + j 0.0873 pu. (ref. to HV side)
Zline = 75 (0.2+j 0.8) (25/ 105.316 2) = 0.0338 + j 0.1351 pu.

Thus the pu reactance diagram can be drawn as shown in figure P4(b).

1.8 Exercises for Practice

Problems

1. Determine the reactances of the three generators rated as follows on a common base of 200 MVA, 35 KV:
Generator 1: 100 MVA, 33 KV, sub transient reactance of 10%; Generator 2: 150 MVA, 32 KV, sub transient
reactance of 8% and Generator 3: 110 MVA, 30 KV, sub transient reactance of 12%.

[Answers: XG1 = j 0.1778, Xg2 = j 0.089, Xg3 = j 0.16 all in per unit]

2. A 100 MVA, 33 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15%. The generator supplies 3
motors through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down transformer arrangement. The motors
have rated inputs of 30 MVA, 20 MVA and 50 MVA, at 30 KV with 20% sub transient reactance each. The
3-phase transformers are rated at 100 MVA, 32 KV- /110 KV-Y with 8 % leakage reactance. The line has a
reactance of 50 ohms. By selecting the generator ratings as base values in the generator circuit, determine the
base values in all the other parts of the system. Hence evaluate the corresponding pu values and draw the
equivalent per unit reactance diagram.

[Answers: XG = j 0.15, Xm1 = j 0.551, Xm2 = j 0.826, Xm3 = j 0.331, Eg1=1.0 00, Em1 = Em2 = Em3 =
0.9100, Xt1 = Xt2 = j 0.0775 and Xline = j 0.39 all in per unit]
3. A 80 MVA, 10 KV, 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 10%. The generator supplies a motor
through a step-up transformer - transmission line – step-down transformer arrangement. The motor has rated
input of 95 MVA, 6.3 KV with 15% sub transient reactance. The step-up 3-phase transformer is rated at 90
MVA, 11 KV-Y /110 KV-Y with 10% leakage reactance. The 3-phase step-down transformer consists of three
single phase Y- connected transformers, each rated at 33.33 MVA, 68/6.6 KV with 10% leakage reactance.
The line has a reactance of 20 ohms. By selecting the 11 KV, 100 MVA as base values in the generator circuit,
determine the base values in all the other parts of the system. Hence evaluate the corresponding pu values
and draw the equivalent per unit reactance diagram.

[Answers: XG = j 1.103, Xm = j 0.165, Eg1=0.9100, Em= 1.02200, Xt1 = j 0.11, Xt2 = j 0.114 and Xline =
j 0.17 all in per unit]

4. For the three-phase system shown below, draw an impedance diagram expressing all impedances in per
unit on a common base of 20 MVA, 2600 V on the HV side of the transformer. Using this impedance diagram,
find the HV and LV currents.

[Answers: Sb = 20 MVA; Vb=2.6 KV (HV) and 0.2427 KV (LV); Vt=1.000, Xt = j 0.107, Zcable = 0.136 +j
0.204 and Zload = 5.66 + j 2.26, I = 0.158 all in per unit, I (hv)= 0.7 A and I (lv) = 7.5 A]

Objective type questions

1. Under no load conditions the current in a transmission line is due to.

a) Corona effects
b) Capacitance of the line

c) Back flow from earth

d) None of the above

2. In the short transmission line which of the following is neglected?

 a)  - Model
b) T – Model
c) Both (a) and (b)

d) None of the above

3. In the short transmission line which of the following is neglected?

a) I2 R loss

b) Shunt admittance

c) Series impedance

d) All of the above

4. Which of the following loss in a transformer is zero even at full load?

a) Eddy current
b) Hysteresis

c) Core loss

d) Friction loss

5. The transmission line conductors are transposed to

a) Balance the current

b) Obtain different losses

c) Obtain same line drops

d) Balance the voltage

[Ans.: 1(b), 2(a), 3(b), 4(d), 5(c)]