KON 317E Control Systems

Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tufan Kumbasar

4.1 Time Response of Continuous Systems
• Time response of a system is defined in two parts
• Transient State / Natural Response
• Steady State/ Forced Response
𝑐 𝑡 =𝑐 𝑡 +𝑐 𝑡
• In order to analyse 𝑐 𝑡 and 𝑐 𝑡 , let us define
𝑁(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝐷(𝑠)
• Poles of 𝐺 𝑠
• the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to become
infinite or
• any roots of the denominator of the transfer function that are common to roots of the
numerator.

Slide 2
4.1 Time Response of Continuous Systems
• In order to analyse 𝑐 𝑡 and 𝑐 𝑡 , let us define
𝑁(𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝐷(𝑠)
• Poles of 𝐺 𝑠
• the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to become
infinite or
• any roots of the denominator of the transfer function that are common to roots of the
numerator.
• Zeros of 𝐺 𝑠
• the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to become
zero, or
• any roots of the numerator of the transfer function that are common to roots of the
denominator.

Slide 3
4.1 Time Response of Continuous Systems
• Time response of a system is defined in two parts
• Transient State / Natural Response
• Steady State/ Forced Response
𝑐 𝑡 =𝑐 𝑡 +𝑐 𝑡
• In order to analyse 𝑐 𝑡 and 𝑐 𝑡 , we need to also define the following deterministic test
signals
• Step function Input
• Ramp function Input
• Parabolic function Input

Slide 4
4.1 Time Response of Continuous Systems

Slide 5
Motivating Example

Slide 6
4.2 Time Response of LTI Systems
A) Time Response of first order systems
• Let 1st order dynamic system described as follows:
𝑑𝑐
= 𝑎𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑢 𝑡 , 𝑎 < 0
𝑑𝑡
or
𝑑𝑐 1
= − 𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑢 𝑡 , 𝜏 > 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
• We can define:
𝑏𝜏 𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 = ≡
𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑠 + 1

• For 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑀/𝑠 , the step response of this system is then as follows:

𝐾𝑀 𝐾𝑀 𝐾𝑀
𝐶 𝑠 = = −
𝑠(𝜏𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 1
𝑠+𝜏

Slide 7
A) Time Response of first order systems
• The step response of this system is as follows:
𝐾𝑀 𝐾𝑀 𝐾𝑀
𝐶 𝑠 = = −
𝑠(𝜏𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 1
𝑠+𝜏
𝐾𝑀

𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀(1 − 𝑒 / )
• Let us examine the significance of 𝜏
0.632𝐾𝑀
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀 1 − 𝑒 = 0.632𝐾𝑀
• 𝜏 defines the speed of the system response
• 𝜏: Time Constant
• The slope of the system response at t=0
𝑑𝑐 𝑡 𝐾𝑀
= 𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
𝑑𝑐 0 𝐾𝑀 𝐾𝑀
= 𝑒 =
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏

Slide 8
A) Time Response of first order systems
• The step response of this system is as follows:
𝐾𝑀 𝐾𝑀 𝐾𝑀
𝐶 𝑠 = = −
𝑠(𝜏𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 1
𝑠+𝜏
𝐾𝑀

𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀(1 − 𝑒 / )
• Let us examine the significance of 𝜏
0.632𝐾𝑀
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀 1 − 𝑒 = 0.632𝐾𝑀
• 𝜏 defines the speed of the system response
• 𝜏: Time Constant
• The exponential terms can be neglected after
t = 4𝜏. Thus, the settling time of the system is:
𝑇 ≅ 4𝜏

Slide 9
B) Time Response of second order systems
• Motivating Example

Slide 10
B) Time Response of second order systems
• Motivating Example

Slide 12
B) Time Response of second order systems
• Let 2nd order dynamic system described as follows:
𝐾𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤
• K: Gain of the system
• 𝜁: Damping ratio of a system
• 𝑤 : Natural Frequency
• The time response of unit step input is
𝐾𝑤
𝐶 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤 )
After inverse Laplace transformation:
𝜁
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾[1 − 𝑒 (cos 𝑤 𝑡 +   sin(𝑤 𝑡) ]
1−𝜁
 
𝑤 =𝑤 1−𝜁
• 𝑤 : Damped natural frequency
Slide 13
B) Time Response of second order systems
• The time response of unit step input is
𝐾𝑤
𝐶 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤 )
After inverse Laplace transformation:
𝜁
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾[1 − 𝑒 (cos 𝑤 𝑡 +   sin(𝑤 𝑡) ]
1−𝜁
 
𝑤 =𝑤 1−𝜁
• 𝑤 : Damped natural frequency
Or in a compact form:
𝑒
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐾[1 −   sin(𝑤 𝑡 − Φ) ]
1−𝜁
 
Φ = atan(𝜁/ 1 − 𝜁 )

Slide 14
Pole-Zero Map ( )
𝐾𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤
Poles:
 
𝑠 , = −𝜁𝑤 ± 𝑗𝑤 1−𝜁

Damping ratio:

𝜁 = cos(𝜃)

Slide 15
Connecting the pole-zero map to responses

Slide 16
Time Domain Specifications

Slide 17
Time Domain Specifications
• Evaluation of Tp: Tp is found by differentiating c(t) and finding the first zero crossing after
t=0.

• Two solution exits

• 𝑡 → ∞ and from which we get:

Slide 18
Time Domain Specifications
• Evaluation of % OS: Maximum overshoot is

The term 𝑐 is found by evaluating 𝑐(𝑡) at the peak time 𝑐 𝑇

For a step unit and 𝐾 = 1, 𝑐 = 1 and thus

Slide 19
Time Domain Specifications
For a step unit and 𝐾 = 1, 𝑐 = 1 and thus

Slide 20
Time Domain Specifications
• Evaluation of 𝑇𝒓 : Rise time is the time required for the system
to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value
0.8 + 2.5𝜁
𝑇 ≅
𝑤

Slide 21
Time Domain Specifications
• Evaluation of 𝑇 : we must find the time for which c(t) reaches
and stays within ±2% of the steady-state value cfinal.

Slide 22
Time Domain Specifications
• The settling time is the time it takes for the amplitude of
decaying sinusoid to reach 0.02.
𝒆 𝜻𝝎𝒏 𝒕  
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 −   cos 𝜔 1 − 𝜁 𝑡 − 𝜙
𝟏 − 𝜻𝟐
• Thus,
𝑒
 
= 0.02
1−𝜁
 
−ln 0.02 1 − 𝜁
𝑇 =
𝜁𝜔
• You can verify that the numerator varies from 3.91 to 4.74 as
 varies from 0 to 0.9. Let us agree on an approximation for
the settling time:
4
𝑇 =
𝜁𝜔
Slide 23
Connecting the pole-zero map to response specifications
𝐾𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤
Poles:
 
𝑠 , = −𝜁𝑤 ± 𝑗𝑤 1−𝜁
Response specifications:

Slide 24
Connecting the pole-zero map to response specifications
Lines of constant
• Peak time,𝑇𝑝
• Settling time,𝑇𝑠 ,
• Percent overshoot, %𝑂𝑆

𝑇 <𝑇
𝑇 <𝑇
%𝑂𝑆 < %𝑂𝑆

Slide 25
Connecting the pole-zero map to response specifications
Step responses of second-order underdamped
systems as poles move:
a. with constant real part;
b. with constant imaginary part;
c. with constant damping ratio

Slide 26
Connecting the pole-zero map to response specifications: Example-1
Given the pole plot shown in Figure, find , 𝑤 ,
𝑇 , % 𝑂𝑆 and 𝑇

Slide 27
C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems
• Let us handle the following system
𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 = ,0 ≤ 𝜁 < 1
𝑠(𝜏 𝑠 + 1)(𝜏 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
• For any input, the system response will include
• A constant term from the 𝑠 factor
• An 𝑒 / term from (𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
• The following two terms from (𝜏 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
 
/
𝑡 1−𝜉
𝑒 sin
𝜏
 
/
𝑡 1−𝜉
𝑒 cos
𝜏
• Not easy to comment on the system response!

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 28

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems
• We might also encounter zero dynamics
𝐾(𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
• The step response solution is quite simple in this case
𝜏
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀 1 − 1 − 𝑒 ⁄
𝜏
• What is the effect of the zero on the system response?

• It would be really nice if we could extract the dominant dynamics of the system to
comment on the system response

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 29

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems
• Before continuing further on, let us firstly define
𝑏 𝑠−𝑧 𝑠−𝑧 … 𝑠−𝑧
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑎 𝑠−𝑝 𝑠−𝑝 … 𝑠−𝑝
where 𝑧 and 𝑝 are the zeros and poles, respectively. They appear as real numbers or complex
conjugate pairs.
• Alternative representation
𝜏 𝑠+1 𝜏 𝑠+1 ⋯
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐾
𝜏 𝑠+1 𝜏 𝑠+1 ⋯
for this case where are all poles and zeros are real numbers
𝑧 = −1/𝜏 ,   𝑧 = −1/𝜏 , ⋯
𝑝 = −1/𝜏 ,    𝑝 = −1/𝜏 , ⋯

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 30

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Pole dynamics
• Lets use first try to answer
• What is the effect of the extra pole on the system response?
• for the following system with Matlab!
𝐾𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 𝑝 )(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤 )

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 31

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Types of poles
We observed that
• Slow (or dominant) poles:
• Poles that are closer to the imaginary axis
• Smaller real part means smaller exponential term 𝑒 / and thus slower decay
• Fast poles
• Poles that are further from the imaginary axis
• Larger real part means larger exponential term 𝑒 /
and thus faster decay

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 32

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Dominant poles
We can conclude that
• The poles that are “close“ to jw axis in the LHP give rise to transient responses that decay
slowly, whereas the ones far away correspond to fast decaying responses (as expected).
• In practice, if the magnitude of a pole is at least 5 to 10 times that of a dominant pole or
pair of complex dominant poles, then the pole may be regarded as insignificant.
• The relative dominance of the poles is determined by the ratio of the real parts of poles as
well as the corresponding residues!

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 33

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
• Now, let us first try to answer
• What is the effect of the zero dynamics on the system response?

• Let us start with a simple system

𝐾(𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
• The step response solution is quite simple in this case
𝜏
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀 1 − 1 − 𝑒 ⁄
𝜏
• What is the effect of the zero on the system response?

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 34

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
𝐾(𝜏 𝑠 + 1) 𝜏 ⁄
𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀 1 − 1 − 𝑒
(𝜏 𝑠 + 1) 𝜏
• What is the effect of the zero on the system response?
• Let us set 𝜏 = 4, and examine the system response for the following different values
Case i: 𝜏 = 8, 0 < 𝜏 < 𝜏
Case ii: 𝜏 = 1,2, 0 < 𝜏 < 𝜏
Case iii: 𝜏 = −1, −4, 0 < 𝜏 < 𝜏

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 35

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
𝐾(𝜏 𝑠 + 1) 𝜏 ⁄
𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀 1 − 1 − 𝑒
(𝜏 𝑠 + 1) 𝜏
Case i: 𝜏 = 8, 0 < 𝜏 < 𝜏
Case ii: 𝜏 = 1,2, 0 < 𝜏 < 𝜏
Case iii: 𝜏 = −1, −4, 0 < 𝜏 < 𝜏
• The initial value is changing!
• 𝑦 0 = 𝜏 /𝜏

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 36

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
• Now, lets use first try to answer
• What is the effect of the extra pole on the system response?
• for the following system with Matlab!
𝐾𝑤 (𝜏 𝑠 + 1)
𝐺 (𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤 )

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 37

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Types of zeros
We observed that
• Slow zeros are the ones that closer to the imaginary axis than the dominant poles of the transfer
function
• Affect the transient response but not the stability
• Results in overshoot (or undershoot)
• Fast zeros are further away to the imaginary axis
• have a negligible impact on dynamics
• Zeros with negative real parts
• Slow stable zeros lead to overshoot
• Zeros with positive real parts
• Slow unstable zeros lead to undershoot (or inverse response)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 38

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero Dynamics
• We can conclude that
• Zeros close to the dominant area in the LHP will cause extra overshoot!
• Zeros in the RHP will cause an inverse response!

An alternative analysis method:

𝐾𝑤 𝜏 𝑠 + 1
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤
𝐾𝑤 𝐾𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 = +𝜏 𝑠
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 + 𝜏 𝑠𝐺 𝑠
• Note that 𝐺 𝑠 is the model without zero dynamics

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 39

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
An alternative analysis method:
𝐾𝑤 𝜏 𝑠 + 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤
𝐾𝑤 𝐾𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 = +𝜏 𝑠
𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤 𝑠 + 2𝜁𝑤 𝑠 + 𝑤
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 + 𝜏 𝑠𝐺 𝑠
• Now the step response is
1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 + 𝜏 𝑠𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑌 𝑠
𝑠
• If we take now the inverse Laplace transformation
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑦̇ 𝑡
• the step response of the original system plus a scaled version of the derivative of the step
response of the original system

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 40

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
• If we take now the inverse Laplace transformation
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑦̇ 𝑡
• Now, as 𝜏 decreases, (i.e., as the zero moves further into the left half plane), the term 𝜏
becomes smaller, and thus the step response of this system starts to resemble the step
response of the original system.
• The initial slope of the system response is
𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑀 𝜏 𝑠 + 1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚   𝑠
𝑑𝑡 → 𝜏 𝑠+1 𝜏 𝑠+1
𝑑𝑦 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑀 𝜏 + 1/𝑠 𝐾𝑀𝜏
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚   =
𝑑𝑡 → 𝜏 + 1/𝑠 𝜏 + 1/𝑠 𝜏 𝜏
• 𝜏 is defining the direction! Thus, if 𝜏 < 0, then the system goes to the opposite direction
𝐾, 𝑀, 𝜏 𝜏 > 0 .

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 41

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
• Zero dynamics are a challenge and widely encountered in control
• First order systems in parallel

𝜏 𝑠+1
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐾
𝜏 𝑠+1 𝜏 𝑠+1
𝐾 𝜏 +𝐾 𝜏
𝐾 =𝐾 +𝐾 ; 𝜏 =
𝐾 +𝐾

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 42

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Zero dynamics
• Zero dynamics are a challenge and widely encounter in process control
• First order systems in parallel
𝜏 𝑠+1
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐾
𝜏 𝑠+1 𝜏 𝑠+1
𝐾 𝜏 +𝐾 𝜏
𝐾 =𝐾 +𝐾 ; 𝜏 =
𝐾 +𝐾
• If −𝐾 /𝐾 > 𝜏 /𝜏 , then 𝜏 < 0. Since 𝜏 , 𝜏 > 0, 𝐾 𝐾 must have opposite signs

• However, they are also quite useful in stabilizing closed loop control systems! 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 43

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: extra pole

Slide 44
C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: extra zero in the LHP

Slide 45
C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: extra zero in the RHP

Slide 46
C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Time Delay
• Time Delay: delay between the commanded response and the start of the output response
𝐺 𝑠 =𝑒 𝐺 𝑠
• This is NOT a rational transfer function!
• We know that it easier to work with polynomials
• Extracting poles and zeros
• Root-Locus, Routh-Hurwitz

Assoc. Prof. Dr. T. Kumbasar Slide 47

C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Time Delays

• Approximation as a ratio of polynomials.

• Taylor Series approximation
𝐿𝑆
𝑒 ≈ 1 − 𝐿𝑠 + − ⋯.
2!
• 1st order Pade approximation
𝐿
𝑒 / 1 − 2𝑠
𝑒 = ≈
𝑒 / 𝐿
1+ 𝑠
2
• 2 order Pade approximation
st

𝐿 𝐿𝑠
𝑒 / 1− 𝑠+
≈ 2 12
𝑒 / 𝐿 𝐿𝑠
1+ 𝑠+
2 12

Slide 48
C) Time Response of high-order/complex LTI systems: Time Delays
• Pole-Zero Maps
• 1st Pade approximation
𝐿
1− 𝑠
𝑒 ≈ 2
𝐿 −2 2
1 + 2𝑠 𝐿 𝐿

• 2st order Pade approximation

𝐿 𝐿𝑠
1 − 2 𝑠 + 12 −3 √3
± 𝑗
3 √3
± 𝑗
𝑒 ≈ 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿𝑠
1 + 2 𝑠 + 12

Slide 49
4.3 Steady State Responses and Errors
• The steady state error is a measure of the accuracy of the
control system
• In general, the steady state errors of LTI control systems
depend on the “type of the input” and “type of the system”.

Slide 50
4.3 Steady State Responses and Errors

• To find 𝐸(𝑠), the error between the input, 𝑅(𝑠), and the output, 𝐶(𝑠), we write

• Applying the final value theorem,

Slide 51
4.3 Steady State Responses and Errors

• To find 𝐸(𝑠), the error between the input, 𝑅(𝑠), and the output, 𝐶(𝑠), we write

• We now apply the final value theorem

Slide 52
4.3 Steady State Responses and Errors

• We now apply the final value theorem

• The steady state error depends on R(s) and G(s)

Note that 𝑠𝐸(𝑠) must have not any poles on 𝑗𝑤 axis or in the RHP of the s-domain (i.e. Stability).

Slide 53
4.3 Steady State Responses and Errors

Slide 54
A) Steady State Errors for Step Function Inputs
• Step Input with magnitude “1”, R(s)=1/s

• Position Error Constant

• In order to have zero steady state error

When can you guarantee this condition?

Slide 55
B) Steady State Errors for Ramp Function Inputs
• Ramp Input with magnitude “1”, R(s)=1/s2

• Velocity Error Constant

• In order to have zero steady state error

When can you guarantee this condition?

Slide 56
C) Steady State Errors for Parabolic Function Inputs
• Parabolic Input with magnitude “1”, R(s)=1/s3

• Acceleration Error Constant

• In order to have zero steady state error

When can you guarantee this condition?

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Example
Find steady-state errors for inputs of 5 u(t), 5t u(t) , and 5t2 u(t) to the system shown in Figure. The
function u(t) is the unit step.

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The Type of the Control System
• Since steady-state errors are dependent upon the number of integration in the forward path, we
give a name to this system attribute.
• We define system type to be value of 𝑛 in the denominator, or equivalently, the number of pure
integration in the forward path.

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The Type of the Control System
• We define system type to be value of 𝑛 in the denominator, or equivalently, the number of pure
integration in the forward path.

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Example: Steady State Specifications
Given the control system in Figure, find the value of K so that there is 10% error in the steady-state.

Since the system is Type 1, the error stated in the problem must apply to a ramp input; only a ramp
yields a finite error in a Type 1 system. Thus,

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D) Steady State Errors for Disturbances

• Feedback control systems are used to compensate for disturbances or unwanted inputs that
enter a system

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D) Steady State Errors for Disturbances

• To find a steady-state error, we apply the final value theorem

• eR(), is the steady-state error due to R(s), which have already obtained.
• eD(), is the steady-state error due to the disturbance.

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D) Steady State Errors for Disturbances

• Let us explore the conditions on eD() that must exist to reduce to error due to the disturbance.
• We must make an assumption on D(s) now
• Step disturbance, D(s) = 1 / s.
• Then,

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Example:
Find the steady-state error due to a step reference signal and disturbance for the system

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E) Steady State Errors for Nonunity Feedback Systems
• A general feedback system, showing the input transducer, G1(s), controller and plant, G2(s), and
feedback, H1(s), is shown in figure

• To employ the presented approach, we must forming an equivalent unity feedback system from
a general nonunity feedback system

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E) Steady State Errors for Nonunity Feedback Systems
• To employ the presented approach, we must forming an equivalent unity feedback system from
a general nonunity feedback system

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Example:
Find the system type, the appropriate error constant associated with the system type, and steady-
state error for a unit step input.

Thus, the system is Type 0, since there are no pure integrations. The appropriate static error
constant is then Kp, whose value is

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