Turbofan Engine

A turbofan is a type of aircraft engine consisting of a ducted fan which is powered

by a gas turbine. Part of the airstream from the ducted fan passes through the gas
turbine core, providing oxygen to burn fuel to create power. However, most of the
air flow bypasses the engine core, and is accelerated by the fan blades in much the
same manner as a propeller. The combination of thrust produced from the fan and
the exhaust from the core is a more efficient process than other jet engine designs,
resulting in a comparatively low specific fuel consumption.[1]
A few designs work slightly differently and have the fan blades as a radial
extension of an aft-mounted low-pressure turbine unit.
Turbofans have a net exhaust speed that is much lower than a turbojet. This makes
them much more efficient at subsonic speeds than turbojets, and somewhat more
efficient at supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6, but have also been found to
be efficient when used with continuous afterburner at Mach 3 and above.
All of the jet engines used in currently manufactured commercial jet aircraft are
turbofans. They are used commercially mainly because they are highly efficient
and relatively quiet in operation. Turbofans are also used in many military jet
aircraft.
 Turbofan

Schematic diagram of a high-bypass turbofan engine

A turbofan is a type of aircraft engine consisting of a ducted fan which is powered

by a gas turbine. Part of the airstream from the ducted fan passes through the gas
turbine core, providing oxygen to burn fuel to create power. However, most of the
air flow bypasses the engine core, and is accelerated by the fan blades in much the
same manner as a propeller. The combination of thrust produced from the fan and
the exhaust from the core is a more efficient process than other jet engine designs,
resulting in a comparatively low specific fuel consumption.[1]
A few designs work slightly differently and have the fan blades as a radial
extension of an aft-mounted low-pressure turbine unit.
Turbofans have a net exhaust speed that is much lower than a turbojet. This makes
them much more efficient at subsonic speeds than turbojets, and somewhat more
efficient at supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6, but have also been found to
be efficient when used with continuous afterburner at Mach 3 and above.

All of the jet engines used in currently manufactured commercial jet aircraft are
turbofans. They are used commercially mainly because they are highly efficient
and relatively quiet in operation. Turbofans are also used in many military jet
aircraft.

To move an airplane through the air, thrust is generated by some kind

of propulsion system. Most modern airliners useturbofan engines because of their
high thrust and good fuel efficiency. On this page, we will discuss some of the
fundamentals of turbofan engines.

A turbofan engine is the most modern variation of the basic gas turbine engine. As

with other gas turbines, there is a core engine, whose parts and operation are
discussed on a separate page. In the turbofan engine, the core engine is surrounded
by a fan in the front and an additional turbine at the rear. The fan and fan turbine
are composed of many blades, like the corecompressor and core turbine, and are
connected to an additional shaft. All of this additional turbomachinery is colored
green on the schematic. As with the core compressor and turbine, some of the fan
blades turn with the shaft and some blades remain stationary. The fan shaft passes
through the core shaft for mechanical reasons. This type of arrangement is called
a two spool engine (one "spool" for the fan, one "spool" for the core.) Some
advanced engines have additional spools for even higher efficiency.

How does a turbofan engine work?

The incoming air is captured by the engine inlet. Some of the incoming air passes
through the fan and continues on into the core compressor and then
the burner, where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs. The hot exhaust
passes through the core and fan turbines and then out the nozzle, as in a
basic turbojet. The rest of the incoming air passes through the fan and bypasses, or
goes around the engine, just like the air through a propeller.The air that goes
through the fan has a velocity that is slightly increased from free stream. So a
turbofan gets some of its thrust from the core and some of its thrust from the fan.
The ratio of the air that goes around the engine to the air that goes through the core
is called the bypass ratio.

Because the fuel flow rate for the core is changed only a small amount by the
addition of the fan, a turbofan generates more thrust for nearly the same amount of
fuel used by the core. This means that a turbofan is very fuel efficient. In fact, high
bypass ratio turbofans are nearly as fuel efficient as turboprops. Because the fan is
enclosed by the inlet and is composed of many blades, it can operate efficiently at
higher speeds than a simple propeller. That is why turbofans are found on high
speed transports and propellers are used on low speed transports. Low bypass ratio
turbofans are still more fuel efficient than basic turbojets. Many modern fighter
planes actually use low bypass ratio turbofans equipped with afterburners. They
can then cruise efficiently but still have high thrust when dogfighting. Even though
the fighter plane can fly much faster than the speed of sound, the air going into the
engine must travel less than the speed of sound for high efficiency. Therefore, the
airplane inlet slows the air down from supersonic speeds.

Early turbofans
Early turbojet engines were very fuel-inefficient, as their overall pressure ratio and
turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the
time. The very first running turbofan was the GermanDaimler-Benz DB 670 (aka
109-007) which was operated on its testbed on April 1, 1943. The engine was
abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved. The
British wartime Metrovick F.2axial flow jet was given a fan to create the first
British turbofan.
Improved materials, and the introduction of twin compressors such as in the Pratt
& Whitney JT3C engine, increased the overall pressure ratio and thus
the thermodynamic efficiency of engines, but they also led to a poor propulsive
efficiency, as pure turbojets have a high specific thrust/high velocity exhaust better
suited to supersonic flight.
The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve propulsive
efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft.
The Rolls-Royce Conway, the first production turbofan, had a bypass ratio of 0.3,
similar to the modern General Electric F404 fighter engine. Civilian turbofan
engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce
Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, but were not dissimilar to their military
equivalents.
The unusual General Electric CF700 turbofan engine was developed as an aft-fan
engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio. This was derived from the T-38 Talon and
the Learjet General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet (2,850 lbf or 12,650 N) to power
the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon
20 with about a 50% increase in thrust (4,200 lbf or 18,700 N). The CF700 was the
first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA). There are now over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around
the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700
turbofan engine was also used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as
the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle.

.Low bypass turbofans

Schematic diagram illustrating a 2-spool, low-bypass turbofan engine with a mixed

exhaust, showing the low-pressure (green) and high-pressure (purple) spools. The
fan (and booster stages) are driven by the low-pressure turbine, whereas the high-
pressure compressor is powered by the high-pressure turbine
A high specific thrust/low bypass ratio turbofan normally has a multi-stage fan,
developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus, yielding a high (mixed or
cold) exhaust velocity. The core airflow needs to be large enough to give
sufficient core power to drive the fan. A smaller core flow/higher bypass ratio
cycle can be achieved by raising the (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature.
Imagine a retrofit situation where a new low bypass ratio, mixed exhaust, turbofan
is replacing an old turbojet, in a particular military application. Say the new engine
is to have the same airflow and net thrust (i.e. same specific thrust) as the one it is
replacing. A bypass flow can only be introduced if the turbine inlet temperature is
allowed to increase, to compensate for a correspondingly smaller core flow.
Improvements in turbine cooling/material technology would facilitate the use of a
higher turbine inlet temperature, despite increases in cooling air temperature,
resulting from a probable increase in overall pressure ratio.
Efficiently done, the resulting turbofan would probably operate at a higher nozzle
pressure ratio than the turbojet, but with a lower exhaust temperature to retain net
thrust. Since the temperature rise across the whole engine (intake to nozzle) would
be lower, the (dry power) fuel flow would also be reduced, resulting in a
better specific fuel consumption (SFC).
A few low-bypass ratio military turbofans (e.g. F404) have Variable Inlet Guide
Vanes, with piano-style hinges, to direct air onto the first rotor stage. This
improves the fan surge margin (see compressor map) in the mid-flow range. The
swing wing F-111 achieved a very high range / payload capability by pioneering
the use of this engine, and it was also the heart of the famous F-14 Tomcat air
superiority fighter which used the same engines in a smaller, more agile airframe
to achieve efficient cruise and Mach 2 speed.
Afterburning turbofans
Since the 1970s, most jet fighter engines have been low/medium bypass turbofans
with a mixed exhaust, afterburner and variable area final nozzle. An afterburner is
a combustor located downstream of the turbine blades and directly upstream of the
nozzle, which burns fuel from afterburner-specific fuel injectors. When lit,
prodigious amounts of fuel are burnt in the afterburner, raising the temperature of
exhaust gases by a significant amount, resulting in a higher exhaust velocity/engine
specific thrust. The variable geometry nozzle must open to a larger throat area to
accommodate the extra volume flow when the afterburner is lit. Afterburning is
often designed to give a significant thrust boost for take off, transonic acceleration
and combat maneuvers, but is very fuel intensive. Consequently afterburning can
only be used for short portions of a mission. However the Mach 3 SR-71 was
designed for continuous operation and to be efficient with the afterburner lit.
Unlike the main combustor, where the downstream turbine blades must not be
damaged by high temperatures, an afterburner can operate at the ideal maximum
(stoichiometric) temperature (i.e. about 2100K/3780Ra/3320F). At a fixed total
applied fuel:air ratio, the total fuel flow for a given fan airflow will be the same,
regardless of the dry specific thrust of the engine. However, a high specific thrust
turbofan will, by definition, have a higher nozzle pressure ratio, resulting in a
higher afterburning net thrust and, therefore, a lower afterburning specific fuel
consumption. However, high specific thrust engines have a high dry SFC. The
situation is reversed for a medium specific thrust afterburning turbofan: i.e. poor
afterburning SFC/good dry SFC. The former engine is suitable for a combat
aircraft which must remain in afterburning combat for a fairly long period, but only
has to fight fairly close to the airfield (e.g. cross border skirmishes) The latter
engine is better for an aircraft that has to fly some distance, or loiter for a long
time, before going into combat. However, the pilot can only afford to stay in
afterburning for a short period, before his/her fuel reserves become dangerously
low.
Modern low-bypass military turbofans include the Pratt & Whitney F119,
the Eurojet EJ200 and the General Electric F110 and F414, all of which feature a
mixed exhaust, afterburner and variable area propelling nozzle. Non-afterburning
engines include the Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca Adour (afterburning in the SEPECAT
Jaguar) and the unmixed, vectored thrust, Rolls-Royce Pegasus.
High-bypass turbofan engines
.
A. Low pressure spool
B. High pressure spool
C. Stationary components
1. Nacelle
2. Fan
3. Low pressure compressor
4. High pressure compressor
5. Combustion chamber
6. High pressure turbine
7. Low pressure turbine
8. Core nozzle
9. Fan nozzle

Schematic diagram illustrating a 2-spool, high-bypass turbofan engine with an

unmixed exhaust. Again, the fan (and booster stages) are driven by the low-
pressure turbine, but more stages are required. A mixed exhaust is often employed
nowadays
The low specific thrust/high bypass ratio turbofans used in today's civil jetliners
(and some military transport aircraft) evolved from the high specific thrust/low
bypass ratio turbofans used in such aircraft back in the 1960s.
Low specific thrust is achieved by replacing the multi-stage fan with a single stage
unit. Unlike some military engines, modern civil turbofans do not have any
stationary inlet guide vanes in front of the fan rotor. The fan is scaled to achieve
the desired net thrust.
The core (or gas generator) of the engine must generate sufficient Core Power to at
least drive the fan at its design flow and pressure ratio. Through improvements in
turbine cooling/material technology, a higher (HP) turbine rotor inlet temperature
can be used, thus facilitating a smaller (and lighter) core and (potentially)
improving the core thermal efficiency. Reducing the core mass flow tends to
increase the load on the LP turbine, so this unit may require additional stages to
reduce the average stage loading and to maintain LP turbine efficiency. Reducing
core flow also increases bypass ratio (5:1, or more, is now common).
Further improvements in core thermal efficiency can be achieved by raising the
overall pressure ratio of the core. Improved blade aerodynamics reduces the
number of extra compressor stages required. With multiple compressors (i.e. LPC,
IPC, HPC) dramatic increases in overall pressure ratio have become possible.
Variable geometry (i.e. stators) enable high pressure ratio compressors to work
surge-free at all throttle settings.

Cutaway diagram of the General Electric CF6-6 engine

The first high-bypass turbofan engine was the General Electric TF39, designed in
mid 1960s to power the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy military transport aircraft. The
civil General Electric CF6 engine used a derived design. Other high-bypass
turbofans are the Pratt & Whitney JT9D, the three-shaft Rolls-Royce RB211 and
theCFM International CFM56. More recent large high-bypass turbofans include
the Pratt & Whitney PW4000, the three-shaft Rolls-Royce Trent, the General
Electric GE90/GEnx and the GP7000, produced jointly by GE and P&W.
High-bypass turbofan engines are generally quieter than the earlier low bypass
ratio civil engines. This is not so much due to the higher bypass ratio, as to the use
of a low pressure ratio, single stage, fan, which significantly reduces specific thrust
and, thereby, jet velocity. The combination of a higher overall pressure ratio and
turbine inlet temperature improves thermal efficiency. This, together with a lower

How does an axial compressor work?

The details are quite complex because the blade geometries and the resulting flows
are three dimensional, unsteady, and can have important viscous and
compressibility effects. Each blade on a rotor or stator produces a pressure
variation much like the airfoil of a spinning propeller. But unlike a propeller blade,
the blades of an axial compressor are close to one another, which seriously alters
the flow around each blade. Compressor blades continuously pass through the
wakes of upstream blades that introduce unsteady flow variations. Compressor
designers must rely on wind tunnel testing and sophisticated computational
models to determine the performance of an axial compressor. The performance is
characterized by the pressure ratio across the compressor CPR, the rotational
speed of the shaft necessary to produce the pressure increase, and an efficiency
factor that indicates how much additional work is required relative to an ideal
compressor.
Common types
There are two types of jet engine that are seen commonly today, the turbofan
which is used on almost all commercial airliners, and rocket engines which are
used for spaceflight and other terrestrial uses such as ejector seats, flares,
fireworks etc.
[edit]Turbofan engines
Main article: Turbofan
Most modern jet engines are actually turbofans, where the low pressure
compressor acts as a fan, supplying supercharged air not only to the engine core,
but to a bypass duct. The bypass airflow either passes to a separate 'cold nozzle'
or mixes with low pressure turbine exhaust gases, before expanding through a
'mixed flow nozzle'.
Turbofans are used for airliners because they give an exhaust speed that is better
matched for subsonic airliners, at airliners flight speed conventional turbojet
engines generate an exhaust that ends up travelling very fast backwards, and this
wastes energy. By emitting the exhaust so that it ends up travelling more slowly,
better fuel consumption is achieved as well as higher thrust at low speeds. In
addition, the lower exhaust speed gives much lower noise.
In the 1960s there was little difference between civil and military jet engines,
apart from the use of afterburning in some (supersonic) applications. Civil
turbofans today have a low exhaust speed (low specific thrust -net thrust divided
by airflow) to keep jet noise to a minimum and to improve fuel efficiency.
Consequently the bypass ratio (bypass flow divided by core flow) is relatively
high (ratios from 4:1 up to 8:1 are common). Only a single fan stage is required,
because a low specific thrust implies a low fan pressure ratio.
Today's military turbofans, however, have a relatively high specific thrust, to
maximize the thrust for a given frontal area, jet noise being of less concern in
military uses relative to civil uses. Multistage fans are normally needed to reach
the relatively high fan pressure ratio needed for high specific thrust. Although
high turbine inlet temperatures are often employed, the bypass ratio tends to be
low, usually significantly less than 2.0.