Internal combustion engine

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil fuel)

occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the
expansion of the high-temperature and -pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to
some component of the engine, such as pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the
component over a distance, generating useful mechanical energy.[1][2][3][4]

The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such
as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the Wankel
rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet
engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as
previously described.[1][2][3][4]

Animated two stroke engine in operation

The internal combustion engine (or ICE) is quite different from external combustion engines, such
as steamor Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with,
or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even
liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler.

A large number of different designs for ICEs have been developed and built, with a variety of different
strengths and weaknesses. Powered by an energy-dense fuel (which is very frequently gasoline, a liquid
derived fromfossil fuels). While there have been and still are many stationary applications, the real strength
of internal combustion engines is in mobile applications and they dominate as a power supply for cars,
aircraft, and boats, from the smallest to the largest.
An automobile engine partly opened and colored to show components.

Contents
 [hide]

1 Applications

2 History

3 Types of internal combustion engine

o 3.1 Principles of operation

4 Engine configurations

o 4.1 Four stroke configuration

 4.1.1 Operation

 4.1.2 Combustion

o 4.2 Two stroke configuration

o 4.3 Wankel

o 4.4 Gas turbines

o 4.5 Jet engine

5 Engine cycle

o 5.1 Two-stroke

o 5.2 Four-stroke

o 5.3 Diesel cycle

o 5.4 Five-stroke

o 5.5 Six-stroke

o 5.6 Brayton cycle

o 5.7 Obsolete

6 Fuels and oxidizers

o 6.1 Fuels

o 6.2 Hydrogen

o 6.3 Oxidizers

7 Engine starting

8 Measures of engine performance

o 8.1 Energy efficiency

o 8.2 Measures of fuel/propellant

efficiency

9 Air and noise pollution

o 9.1 Air pollution

o 9.2 Noise pollution
 o 9.3 Idling

10 See also

11 References

12 Further reading

13 External links

[edit]Applications

A 1906 gasoline engine

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable
machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-to-
weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy density. Generally using fossil fuel (mainly petroleum),
these engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats,
and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives).

Where very high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas
turbines. These applications include jet aircraft,helicopters, large ships and electric generators.

[edit]History

Main article:  History of the internal combustion engine

[edit]Types of internal combustion engine

At one time, the word, "Engine" (from Latin, via Old French, ingenium, "ability") meant any piece
of machinery—a sense that persists in expressions such assiege engine. A "motor" (from Latin motor,
"mover") is any machine that produces mechanical power. Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to
as "Engines"; however, combustion engines are often referred to as "motors." (An electric engine refers to
a locomotive operated by electricity.)

Engines can be classified in many different ways: By the engine cycle used, the layout of the engine,
source of energy, the use of the engine, or by the cooling system employed.

[edit]Principles of operation
Reciprocating:

 Two-stroke cycle

 Four-stroke cycle

 Six-stroke engine

 Diesel engine

 Atkinson cycle

Rotary:

 Wankel engine

Continuous combustion:
Brayton cycle:

 Gas turbine

 Jet engine (including turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, Rocket etc..
[edit]Engine configurations

Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration.

[edit]Four stroke configuration

Main article:  Four stroke engine

[edit]Operation
Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)
1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Power
4. Exhaust

As their name implies, operation of four stroke internal combustion engines have four basic steps that
repeat with every two revolutions of the engine:

1. Intake

 Combustible mixtures are emplaced in the combustion chamber

2. Compression

 The mixtures are placed under pressure

3. Combustion (Power)

 The mixture is burnt, almost invariably a deflagration, although a few systems

involve detonation. The hot mixture is expanded, pressing on and moving parts of the engine
and performing useful work.

4. Exhaust

 The cooled combustion products are exhausted into the atmosphere

Many engines overlap these steps in time; jet engines do all steps simultaneously at different parts of the
engines.

[edit]Combustion

All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the reaction

of a fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide in order to do more of
the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a
great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very
high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and
oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as well as by the compression and other factors.

The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil
fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasolineand petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane.
Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline
use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run
with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseousbiofuels, such
as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such
as soybean oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run
on hydrogen gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas made from other
convenient biomass.

Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression
ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used.

Gasoline Ignition Process

Gasoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination of a lead-acid battery and an induction
coil to provide a high-voltage electric spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery is
recharged during operation using an electricity-generating device such as an alternator or generator driven
by the engine. Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it to not more than 12.8
bar (1.28 MPa), then use a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is compressed by the piston head in
each cylinder.

Diesel Ignition Process

Diesel engines and HCCI (Homogeneous charge compression ignition) engines, rely solely on heat and
pressure created by the engine in its compression process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is
usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines will take in air only, and shortly before peak
compression, a small quantity of diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the
fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines will take in both air and fuel but continue to rely on an unaided
auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are
more susceptible to cold-starting issues, although they will run just as well in cold weather once started.
Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks employ glowplugs that pre-
heat the combustion chamber just before starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most
diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary and is added by
manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a
switch or mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most
new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine control units (ECU) that also adjust the combustion
process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions.
[edit]Two stroke configuration
Main article:  Two-stroke engine

Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power stroke. Since
there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods must be used toscavenge the
cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward motion of the
piston to pressurize fresh charge in the crankcase, which is then blown through the cylinder through ports
in the cylinder walls.

Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and mechanically very simple;
however, they are also generally less efficient and more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts. In
terms of power per cm³, a two-stroke engine produces comparable power to an equivalent four-stroke
engine. The advantage of having one power stroke for every 360° of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720°
in a 4 stroke motor) is balanced by the less complete intake and exhaust and the shorter effective
compression and power strokes. It may be possible for a two stroke to produce more power than an
equivalent four stroke, over a narrow range of engine speeds, at the expense of less power at other
speeds.

Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been less fuel-efficient than other
types of engines when the fuel is mixed with the air prior to scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of
the exhaust port. Modern designs (Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel injection which avoids this loss,
and are more efficient than comparably sized four-stroke engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern
two-stroke engine in order to meet ever more stringent emission standards.

Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors including direct fuel injection,
amongst other things. The initial results have produced motors that are much cleaner burning than their
traditional counterparts. Two-stroke engines are widely used in snowmobiles, lawnmowers, string
trimmers, chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard motors, and many motorcycles. Two-stroke engines have
the advantage of an increased specific power ratio (i.e. power to volume ratio), typically around 1.5 times
that of a typical four-stroke engine.

The largest internal combustion engines in the world are two-stroke diesels, used in some locomotives and
large ships. They use forced induction (similar to super-charging, or turbocharging) to scavenge the
cylinders; an example of this type of motor is the Wartsila-Sulzer turbocharged two-stroke diesel as used in
large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful internal combustion engine in the world with over
50% thermal efficiency.[5][6][7][8] For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke motors are around 43%
thermal efficiency (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of
volume to surface area.

Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V
configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt
aradial configuration which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X,
and W have also been used.

Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all because they can instead
have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an opposed piston design. Because here gas in- and
outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which is, like in
the four stroke engine, efficient over a wide range of revolution numbers. Also the thermal efficiency is
improved because of lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft
engine, using at either end of a single bank of cylinders with two crankshafts, and most remarkably in
the Napier Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended
cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-
bank locomotive engines, and continues to be used for marine engines, both for propulsion and for auxiliary
generators.

[edit]Wankel

Main article:  Wankel engine

The Wankel cycle. The shaft turns three times for each rotation of the rotor around the lobe and once for each orbital
revolutionaround the eccentric shaft.

The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston strokes. It operates with the same separation of
phases as the four-stroke engine with the phases taking place in separate locations in the engine.
In thermodynamic terms it follows the Otto engine cycle, so may be thought of as a "four-phase" engine.
While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor revolution due to the 3:1 revolution ratio of
the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft revolution actually occurs; this engine
provides three power 'strokes' per revolution per rotor giving it a greater power-to-weight ratio than piston
engines. This type of engine is most notably used in the current Mazda RX-8, the earlier RX-7, and other
models.

[edit]Gas turbines
Main article:  gas turbine

A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main
components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after being compressed in the
compressor is heated by burning fuel in it. About ⅔ of the heated air combined with the products of
combustion is expanded in a turbine resulting in work output which is used to drive the compressor. The
rest (about ⅓) is available as useful work output.

[edit]Jet engine
Main article:  Jet engine

Jet engines take a large volume of hot gas from a combustion process (typically a gas turbine, but rocket
forms of jet propulsion often use solid or liquid propellants, and ramjet forms also lack the gas turbine) and
feed it through a nozzle which accelerates the jet to high speed. As the jet accelerates through the nozzle,
this creates thrust and in turn does useful work.

[edit]Engine cycle

Idealised P/V diagram for two stroke Otto cycle

[edit]Two-stroke

Main article:  Two-stroke cycle

This system manages to pack one power stroke into every two strokes of the piston (up-down). This is
achieved by exhausting and re-charging the cylinder simultaneously.

The steps involved here are:

1. Intake and exhaust occur at bottom dead center. Some form of pressure is needed, either
crankcase compression or super-charging.

2. Compression stroke: Fuel-air mix compressed and ignited. In case of Diesel: Air compressed, fuel
injected and self ignited
 3. Power stroke: piston is pushed downwards by the hot exhaust gases.

Two Stroke Spark Ignition (SI) engine:

In a two strokes SI engine a cycle is completed in two stroke of a piston or one complete revolution (360º)
of a crankshaft. In this engine the suction stroke and exhaust strokes are eliminated and ports are used
instead of valves. Petrol is used in this type of engine.

The major components of a two stroke spark Ignition engine are: Cylinder: It is a cylindrical vessel in which
a piston makes an up and down motion. Piston: It is a cylindrical component making an up and down
movement in the cylinder. Combustion Chamber: It is the portion above the cylinder in which the
combustion of the fuel-air mixture takes place. Inlet and exhaust ports: The inlet port allows the fresh fuel-
air mixture to enter the combustion chamber and the exhaust port discharges the products of combustion.
Crank shaft: a shaft which converts the reciprocating motion of piston into the rotary motion. Connecting
rod: connects the piston with the crankshaft. Cam shaft: The cam shaft controls the opening and closing of
inlet and Exhaust valves. Spark plug: located at the cylinder head. It is used to initiate the combustion
process.

Working: When the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre, the fresh air and fuel mixture
enters the crank chamber through the valve. The mixture enters due to the pressure difference between the
crank chamber and outer atmosphere. At the same time the fuel-air mixture above the piston is
compressed.

Ignition with the help of spark plug takes place at the end of stroke. Due to the explosion of the gases, the
piston moves downward. When the piston moves downwards the valve closes and the fuel-air mixture
inside the crank chamber is compressed. When the piston is at the bottom dead centre, the burnt gases
escape from the exhaust port.

At the same time the transfer port is uncovered and the compressed charge from the crank chamber enters
into the combustion chamber through transfer port. This fresh charge is deflected upwards by a hump
provided on the top of the piston. This fresh charge removes the exhaust gases from the combustion
chamber. Again the piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead centre and the fuel-air mixture gets
compressed when the both the Exhaust port and Transfer ports are covered. The cycle is repeated.

[edit]Four-stroke

Main article:  Four-stroke cycle

Idealised Pressure/volume diagram of the Otto cycle showing combustion heat input Qp and waste exhaust output Qo,
the power stroke is the top curved line, the bottom is the compression stroke

Engines based on the four-stroke ("Otto cycle") have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-
down) and employ spark plug ignition. Combustion occurs rapidly, and during combustion the volume
varies little ("constant volume").[9] They are used in cars, larger boats, some motorcycles, and many
lightaircraft. They are generally quieter, more efficient, and larger than their two-stroke counterparts.

The steps involved here are:

1. Intake stroke: Air and vaporized fuel are drawn in.

2. Compression stroke: Fuel vapor and air are compressed and ignited.

3. Combustion stroke: Fuel combusts and piston is pushed downwards.

4. Exhaust stroke: Exhaust is driven out. During the 1st, 2nd, and 4th stroke the piston is relying on
power and the momentum generated by the other pistons. In that case, a four-cylinder engine
would be less powerful than a six or eight cylinder engine.

There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. The diesel
cycle is somewhat different.

[edit]Diesel cycle
Main article:  Diesel cycle

P-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction.

Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle, but with a
compression heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate ignition system. This variation is
called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder so that combustion
occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves.

[edit]Five-stroke
The British company ILMOR presented a prototype of 5-Stroke double expansion engine, having two outer
cylinders, working as usual, plus a central one, larger in diameter, that performs the double expansion of
exhaust gas from the other cylinders, with an increased efficiency in the gas energy use, and an improved
SFC. This engine corresponds to a 2003 US patent by Gerhard Schmitz, and was developed apparently
also by Honda of Japan for a Quad engine. This engine has a similar precedent in an Spanish 1942 patent
(# P0156621 ), by Francisco Jimeno-Cataneo, and a 1975 patent (# P0433850 ) by Carlos Ubierna-
Laciana ( www.oepm.es ). The concept of double expansion was developed early in the history of ICE by
Otto himself, in 1879, and a Connecticut (USA) based company, EHV, built in 1906 some engines and cars
with this principle, that didn't give the expected results.

[edit]Six-stroke

First invented in 1883, the six-stroke engine has seen renewed interest over the last 20 or so years.

Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular cylinder (Griffin six-stroke, Bajulaz six-stroke,
Velozeta six-stroke and Crower six-stroke), firing every three crankshaft revolutions. The systems capture
the wasted heat of the four-stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air or water.

The Beare Head and "piston charger" engines operate as opposed-piston engines, two pistons in a single
cylinder, firing every two revolutions rather more like a regular four-stroke.

[edit]Brayton cycle
Main article:  Brayton cycle

Brayton cycle

A gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three
main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after being compressed in
the compressor is heated by burning fuel in it, this heats and expands the air, and this extra energy is
tapped by the turbine which in turn powers the compressor closing the cycle and powering the shaft.

Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression, combustion, and
expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the engine—giving continuous power. Notably, the
combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the Otto cycle, constant volume.

[edit]Obsolete

The very first internal combustion engines did not compress the mixture. The first part of the piston
downstroke drew in a fuel-air mixture, then the inlet valve closed and, in the remainder of the down-stroke,
the fuel-air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for the piston upstroke. These attempts at imitating the
principle of a steam enginewere very inefficient.