Client & Owner

DELHI METRO BC-16 PROJECT

Contractor

CEC-SOMA JV

Concrete Durability Report

Document No. : CEC-SOMA/BC-16/MS-02
Revision No. : 0
DATE : 11.09.07

Name Date Signature:

th
Prepared by Prof .M.S.Shetty 11 , Sep,2007

th
Reviewed by Dy Project Leader Mr.T.S.B.Singh 11 , Sep,2007

th
Approved by Project Leader Mr .J.C.S. SWANSON 11 , Sep,2007

Copy No___12___________ Issued To___DMRC______ Dept.___QA/QC_____________

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DELHI METRO RAIL CORPORATION LIMITED
CEC-SOMA JOINT VENTURE
CONTRACT BC-16

CONCRETE DURABILITY (SERVICE LIFE)

REPORT
(July 2007)

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 DELHI METRO RAIL CORPORATION LTD.
CEC-SOMA JOINT VENTURE
CONTRACT BC-16

CONCRETE DURABILITY (SERIVCE-LIFE) REPORT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The term durability is defined in ASTM E 632 as the capability of maintaining the
serviceability of components of a construction over a specified time.
Serviceability is viewed as the capacity to perform the functions for which they
are designed and constructed.

Service-life (of building, component or material) is the period of time after

installation (or incase of concrete, placement) during which all the properties
exceed the minimum acceptable values when routinely maintained.

Throughout history, service-life predictions of structures were generally

qualitative and empirical. The understanding of the mechanism and kinetics of
many degradation process of concrete has formed a basis to enable us for making
quantitative predictions of the service-life of structures and components made of
concrete.

Service-life methodologies start from design stage of structures where certain

parameters are established, such as selection of water-cementatious material ratio,
concrete cover and admixtures used. Service-life also depend upon operation
phase where inspection and maintenance strategies are involved for life-cycle
cost analysis. Service–life design includes the architectural and structural design,
selection of materials, maintenance plans, quality assurance and quality control
plans. Further, the mixture proportioning, selection of concrete constituents,
expected service environment, structural detailing (such as concrete cover),
construction methods, projected load history, care taken in all the stages of
production and placing of concrete contribute to the reasonable assurance for the
service-life of concrete structures.

This document includes an overview of important factors controlling the service-

life of Delhi-Metro Corridor between Udyog Bhawan and Green Park Stations
(Contract BC-16), executed by CEC-SOMA Joint Venture. The tender
documents stipulates the following service-life requirement :

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1.1 Design Life Requirements:

i) The service-life of all buried civil engineering structures shall be a minimum of

120 years with appropriate maintenance.
ii) The service-life shall be a minimum of 50 years for all civil engineering structures
above ground level.
iii) Bored Tunnels and other main structures resisting ground and ground water loads
shall have service life of 120 years.
iv) Non-structural components shall have service life of 50 years.

1.2 Approach adopted for expected service-life.

For dealing with durability of concrete and service-life of structures in DMRC,

Contract BC-16 portion of the project, firstly, various factors that are responsible
for degradation and deterioration of concrete, are briefly discussed in Chapter I.
In chapter 2 the considerations given and steps taken to counter all these factors of
degradation processes at various stages, starting from planning, design and
execution of the project, are described. The remedial measures instituted, would
ensure the durability of concrete and service-life of structures in the project.

Amongst many factors, the following factors mainly responsible for degradation
of concrete are briefly discussed.

CHAPTER – I

2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING DURABILITY OF CONCRETE:

i) Design deficiencies
ii) Environmental conditions (exposure conditions)
iii) Sulphate attack
iv) Chloride attack
v) Carbonation
vi) Permeability
vii) Leaching
viii) Alkali-aggregate reactions
ix) Thermal damage
x) Construction Materials used in concrete –
Cement
Water
Aggregate
Chemical admixtures
Mineral admixtures
Fly ash
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)
Silica fume

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 xi) Delayed Ettringite Formation
xii) Acid attack
xiii) Plastic shrinkage
xiv) Drying Shrinkage
xv) Joints
xvi) Workmanship (lack of quality control at various stages of production of
concrete)

2.1 Design Deficiencies:

Reinforced concrete structures are designed in accordance with national or

international codes and specifications. Although the vast majority of designs
meet their functional and performance requirements, it is possible, in some
cases, certain lapses may creep in with respect to estimation of load coming
on the structures, provision for earthquake intensity, design detailing, cover
and crack width, fire safety, assumptions of safe bearing capacity of soil on
founding strata and the like. If at all some deficiencies have erupt in, they
affect the structural durability.

2.2 Environmental or Exposure Conditions:

Some years back concrete mix was designed only from the consideration of
strength. Whereas now, durability aspect is being given considerable
importance in mix design having experienced a number of premature failures
of concrete structures made in different environmental conditions. The
environmental conditions play a very important role for the durability of
concrete structures. IS 456 of 2000 considers the general environment to
which concrete will be exposed during the service-life. They are classified
into five levels of severity.

i) Mild
ii) Moderate
iii) Severe
iv) Very severe
v) Extreme

The above five-exposure conditions are indicating the possible severity of

conditions to which concrete will be exposed during the life time of the
concrete structures. The description of the above five exposure
conditions are further described in IS 456 (2000) under Clause 8.2.2. This
is attached in Annexure-I.

2.2.1 Other Aspects of Environmental Conditions :

There are other aspects of environmental conditions such as sulphates and

chlorides in underground soil and water, concentration of carbon dioxide and

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 relative humidity in atmosphere. They are discussed under respective heads
later.

2.3 Sulphate Action

Sulphate attack is one of the most common occurrence for the deterioration of
concrete. Most soils contain some sulphate in the form of calcium, sodium,
potassium and magnesium. They occur in soil or ground water.

The term sulphate attack denote an increase in the volume of cement paste in
concrete or mortar due to the chemical action between the products of
hydration of cement namely Ca(oH)2 and solution containing sulphates. The
product of reaction is calcium sulphoaluminate, forming within the frame
work of hydrated cement paste. Because of the increase in volume of the
solid phase, a gradual disintegration of concrete takes place.

Calcium suplhate attacks only calcium aluminate hydrate producing calcium

sulphoaluminate known as ettringite.

On the other hand magnesium sulphate has a more far reaching action as it
attacks C-S-H gel, a backbone product of cement hydration, and reduce the
concrete into a friable mass.

Concentration of sulphates, expressed as SO3 , in soil and ground water and

the amount of C3 A present in the cement, contribute to the sulphate attack
and deterioration of concrete.The sulphate in concrete is contributed by
various constituent materials of concrete and also sulphates infiltrated into
concrete. IS 456(2000) stipulates that the total water-soluble sulphate content
of concrete mix, expressed as SO3, should not exceed 4 percent by mass of
cement in the mix. The sulphate content should be calculated as the total
from the various constituents of the mix.

In addition to the sulphate content in the concrete at the time of placing,

sulphate also can enter into the concrete when placed in sulphate infested soil.
IS 456-2000 give recommendations for the type of cement, maximum free
water/cement ratio and minimum cement content, which are required at
different sulphate concentration in soil, in soil water extract and in ground
water. This information as given in table 4 of IS-456 (2000) and the same is
attached as Annexure - 2.

2.4 Chloride Attack:

Statistics have shown showed that forty percent of the failure of concrete
structures were due to corrosion of reinforcement. Chloride attack is one of
the most important factors for causing corrosion of steel reinforcement and
subsequent failure of structures.

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2.4.1 Mechanism of Chloride – induced Corrosion.

The reinforcement embedded in fresh concrete will always have a protective

passivity layer on the surface of steel. This layer is self generated due to
hydration of cement, consisting of - Fe2O3 tightly adhering to the steel. As
long as that oxide film is present, no corrosion takes place. However, chloride
ions destroy this protective film, in the presence of water and oxygen.

Corrosion of steel reinforcement is an electrochemical action. For this process

of electrochemical action water and oxygen are required. There is no
corrosion if concrete is dry or say if the relative humidity is less than 60
percent. Also no corrosion takes place if concrete is fully immersed in water
as there is no oxygen is available for corrosion reaction.

Electrochemical cells form due to variation in salt concentration in the pore

water or due to a non uniform access to oxygen. For corrosion to be initiated,
the passivity layer must be destroyed. Chloride ions activate the surface of the
steel to form an anode, and the passivated surface become cathode.

The consequences of corrosion is that the rust occupy a volume 6 to 7 times

larger than the original volume of steel. This expansion of rust volume causes
cracking, spalling and delamination. Thus, there will be progressive corrosion
and the section of steel is progressively reduced until eventual inevitable
failure.

The foregoing discussion point out that chloride in concrete should be viewed
seriously. Different codes stipulates the chloride in concrete in different way.
Some code limits the chloride content expressed in term of certain percent by
mass of cement and there are other codes limit the chloride in terms of
kg/m3 of concrete.

Chloride in concrete will be contributed by the chloride content of constituent

materials and also it can ingress from external sources. IS 456(2000) limits
the chloride content (as Cl.) in the concrete at the time of placing as given in
Table No. 1. The total acid soluble chloride content should be calculated from
the mix proportions and the measured chloride contents of each of the
constituent. Wherever possible, the total chloride content of the concrete
should also be determined.

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 Table No. 1
Limits of Chloride Content of Concrete

Sl. Type or Use of Concrete Maximum Total Acid

No. soluble chloride content,
expressed as Kg/m3 of
concrete

(i) Concrete containing metal and steam cured at 0.4

elevated temperature and prestressed concrete
(ii) Reinforced concrete or plain concrete 0.6
containing embedded metal
(iii) Concrete not containing embedded metal or any 3.0
material requiring protection from chloride

2.5 Carbonation

Carbonation of concrete is a process by which carbon dioxide from the air

penetrates into concrete and reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium
carbonate. The conversion of Ca(OH)2 into Ca CO3 by CO2 results in a small
shrinkage which is known as carbonation shrinkage.

Another aspect of action of CO2 with Ca(OH)2 is more important from the
point of view of durability of concrete. We know that hydration of C3S and
C2S produces considerable amount of Ca(OH)2. The fresh concrete may
contain Ca(OH)2 upto 25 percentage and as such the alkalinity of freshly
made hardened concrete in terms of pH value is around 12.5 to 13.5
depending upon the alkali content of cement. The high alkalinity forms a
thin passivating layer around steel reinforcement and protect it from
corrosion. As long as the steel is placed in such alkaline condition, it is not
going to corrode.
In actual practice C02 present in atmosphere in smaller or greater
concentration, permeates into concrete and in the presence of water or
moisture forms weak carbonic acid which results in lowering the pH value of
concrete from around 13 to 9 or below. In such a low pH value, the
protective layer gets destroyed and the steel is exposed to corrosion. The
carbonation of concrete is another reason for corrosion of reinforcement
affecting durability of concrete.

2.5.1 Rate of Carbonation

The rate of carbonation depends on the following factors :-

i) The level of pore water ie. Relative humidity
ii) Grade of concrete

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 iii) Permeability of concrete
iv) Whether the concrete is protected or not
v) Depth of cover
vi) Time
In one estimate, the depth of carbonation D, in millimeters is given as
D = k t 0.5
where k = carbonation coefficient in mm/ year 0.5,
t = time of exposure in years.
The value of k are often more than 3 or 4 mm/year 0.5
for low strength concrete. Another way of giving a broad picture is to say that
for concrete with w/c ratio of 0.60, a depth of carbonation of 15 mm would
be reached after 15 years, but at a w/c ratio 0.45 carbonation depth of 15
mm would be `reached only after 100 years. From the above estimate,
Contract BC-16 structures will be very safe from the depth carbonation
consideration.

The rate of carbonation depth will be slower in case of stronger concrete for
the obvious reason that stronger concrete is much denser with lower w/c
ratio. It again indicates that the permeability of concrete, particularly that of
skin concrete or what is “ covercrete”, is much less at lower w/c ratio,
provided it is well cured. Depth of cover plays an important role in protecting
the steel from carbonation.

2.5.2 Measurement of Depth of Carbonation

A common and simple method for establishing the extent of carbonation is to

treat the freshly broken surface of concrete with a solution of phenophthalein
in dilute alcohol. If the Ca(OH)2 is unaffected by C02 the colour turns out
to be pink. If the concrete is carbonated it will remain uncoloured. It should
be noted that pink colour indicates that enough Ca(oH)2 is present but it may
have been carbonated to a lesser extent. The colour pink will show even
upto a pH value of about 9.5

2.6 Permeability

Permeability of concrete is the root cause for lack of durability of concrete.

When we talk about the durability of concrete, the first thing that is to be
discussed is the permeability of concrete as it promotes almost all the factors
affecting the durability. Permeable concrete is not only a weak concrete to
start with, but also it makes the concrete progressively weak. It is well known
that water is a friend and also a foe of concrete. Friend for the hydration
process initially and also during life time of concrete for continued
hydration, specially in case of low w/c ratio and high strength concrete –
where water is used in excess quantity for making concrete it causes such
large capillary cavities or capillary pores that not only reduces the strength
but also it remains highly permeable through out its life time and helps in

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 the transportation of all aggressive chemicals into the concrete for causing
progressive degradation of concrete. When you consider sulphate action,
chloride action, corrosion of reinforcement and consequent destruction of
concrete structures, alkali-aggregate reaction, carbonation of concrete,
disruption through freezing and thawing or for that matter any other
degradation process, water or moisture becomes the centre of the issue.
Therefore, it can be seen that higher permeability of concrete is the mother of
all kinds of degradation of concrete.

Initially higher permeability is caused by the use of higher w/c ratio in the
concrete mix. Other factors that affects the permeability is the use of
unsound material, in-sufficient compaction, segregation, excessive bleeding,
plastic and drying shrinkage cracks, insufficient curing, thermal effects, and
aggressive chemical actions during the service life of concrete. Permeability
and cracks follow chicken and egg theory. It is difficult separate the cause
from the effect. Instead of writing volumes on the harmful effect of higher
permeability in concrete, suffice it to say that producing highly impermeable
concrete in any project is of absolute necessity for long term durability of
concrete and service-life of structures in a project.

2.6.1 Assessment of Permeability

Testing permeability of concrete has not been generally standardized.

Different procedures are adopted by different countries. The main difficulty is
the magnitude of pressure to be applied in the testing. In one of the test
methods, a hydraulic head is applied by pressure. The usual range is between
0.1 and 0.7 MPa. The depth of penetration of water is found by observation
of the split surface of the test specimen. A depth of penetration of water less
than 50 mm is considered as “impermeable” and a depth less than 30 mm as
“impermeable under aggressive conditions”.

2.6.2 Air, Gas and Vapor Permeability.

Permeability of concrete to oxygen and carbon dioxide is of practical

importance in connection with corrosion of steel reinforcement and
carbonation. The values obtained for water permeability and gas permeability
has been found to be different, as the air permeability of concrete is strongly
affected by its moisture content. Standard tests are not in vogue for air
permeability.

2.6.3 Chloride Ions Penetrability Test

A rapid test for the penetrability of concrete to chloride ions is prescribed by

ASTM C 1202 (94). It is often called as RCPT. It measures the electrical
conductance, expressed as the total electrical charge in coulombs (ampere-
seconds) passed during a certain time interval through a concrete disc

10
 between solutions of sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide when a potential
difference of 60V direct current is maintained. The change is related to the
penetrability of the concrete to chloride ions, so that the test can be of help, in
a comparative manner, in selecting a suitable concrete mix. Lower the
charges passed (coulombs) better is the concrete.

2.7 Leaching

Calcium hydroxide is one of the products of hydration. When cement is fully

hydrated, the total quantity of calcium hydroxide could be about 20 to 25
percent of the total product of hydration. Calcium hydroxide do not contribute
to the strength. On the other hand it is soluble in water and gets leached out
making the concrete porous and permeable in course of time. It also reacts
with sulphate and is responsible for sulphate attack. The adverse effect of
carbonation is also on account of the presence of Ca(OH)2 . The only useful
part is that it protects the steel from corrosion.

Calcium hydroxide can be converted to form a cementitious product (C-S-H

gel) with the use of pozzolanic material. The pozzolanic activities of this kind
can transform the intrinsic shortcoming of using only OPC in making
concrete. Use of fly ash, GGBS, silica fume, metakaoline etc. have become
all important ingredients in modern concrete for increasing durability of
concrete.

2.8. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

For a long time aggregates have been considered as inert material. But
somewhere in 1940’s some aggregates containing reactive silica showed
reaction with alkalis present in cement ( K2O and Na2O). The reactive
constituents may be in the form of Opals, cherts, chalcedony, zeolites etc.
The reaction starts with the attack of reactive part of the silicious minerals in
the aggregate by the alkaline hydroxide derived from the cement. As a result,
the alkali silicate gels of unlimited swelling type are formed. When the
conditions are favourable this reaction continues till such time the concrete is
completely disrupted. Expansive reaction can also occur as a result of
interaction of alkali ions and carbonate constituents of aggregate.

2.8.1 Conditions Favourable for Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Three requirements are essential for disintegration due to alkali-aggregate

reaction. They are:
(i) Presence of sufficient alkali
(ii) Availability of moisture
(iii) Presence of reactive silica, silicate or carbonate in the aggregate.

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 Enough attention was not given in the past to the aspects of alkali-aggregate
reaction in India. Often expansion and cracks were attributed to some other
causes. Whereas in depth studies were carried out in USA and other countries
in this direction and have come to realize that this is one of the potential
causes of degradation of concrete, if not immediately, may be later during the
life time of concrete structures. Therefore, it is essential to consider this aspect
of deterioration of concrete. It is something like the effect of slow poison.

2.8.2 Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

Alkali-aggregate reaction can be controlled by the following methods:

(i) Selection of non-reactive aggregates

(ii) By the use of low alkali cement
(iii) By the use of corrective admixtures such as pozzolana
(iv) By controlling the void space in the concrete
(v) By controlling moisture condition and temperature of concrete (if and
where possible)
The presence of reactive minerals in aggregate can be identified by
petrographic examination, mortar bar test, chemical method or by going into
the proven case histories of aggregates. Mortar bar expansion test devised by
Stanton has proved to be very reliable test in assessing the reactivity or
otherwise of aggregates. When tested as per the procedure laid down, the
aggregate under test is considered harmful if it expands more than 0.05
percent after 3 months or more than 0.1 percent after 6 months.
Potential reactivity of aggregate can also be found out by chemical method.
The procedure is covered in IS 2386 (Part VII 1963). In this test two
parameters are found out in a standard test. They are reduction in alkalinity
and silica dissolved. When this two parameters are plotted in a standard
graph, one can identify whether the aggregate is deleterious or innocuous.

Of all the above steps, the pragmatic method to avoid alkali-aggregate

reaction is to go for low alkali cement. The general specifications restrict the
alkali content in cement to be less than 0.6 per cent. Alkali content is
expressed as Na2O equivalent ( Na2O+0.658 K2O). Although, cement having
alkali content less than 0.6 per cent, has not exhibited serious deterioration, it
is always desirable to go for a cement containing lowest percentage of alkali
content out of the available cement.

Use of lithium salts, air-entrainment in concrete, use of barriers to restrict or

eliminate the moisture which is a pre-requisite for progress of alkali-aggregate
reaction, are some of the other steps that can be taken to reduce the magnitude
of alkali-aggregate reaction.

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2.9 Thermal Damage

Under this heading it is not intended to discuss about the effect of elevated
temperature on concrete. The two aspects considered under thermal damage
are the early thermal cracks (ETC) in massive sections of concrete and the
effect on hardened concrete exposed to daily temperature variations. The
latter aspect is considered at the design stage and provision is made by the
way of temperature reinforcement to cater for expansion and contraction. The
important point considered here is with respect to generation of high
temperature in the core area of thick sections exceeding 600 mm and
relatively low temperature at the surface of such members.

On account of heat of hydration , the core temperature of thick sections, as

adopted in DMRC project may reach as much as 70oC at an age of about 36
to 40 hours. The surface temperature will be almost ambient temperature or
even less if high wind is blowing over the surface being cured with water.
There exists a considerable temperature difference between hot core and cool
surface. This results in tensile stress more than the tensile strength of the
young concrete, resulting in the development of early thermal cracks (ETC)
not only near the surface but also in the body of the concrete mass. This is an
unacceptable situation as it affects the total integrity of concrete.

It has been experimentally found out by many research workers, taking

coefficient of expansion of concrete to be the order of 10 x 10 – 6 per 0 C, that
the differential temperature between core and surface should not be more
than 20 0C to avoid early thermal cracks.

Various steps, such as use of chilled water, ice flakes, pre-chilling of

aggregate, use of low heat cement, use of low cement content, use of fly ash
or GGBS as replacement of cement etc., are considered to mitigate ETC. All
the above steps have certain limitations and not cost effective. One of the cost
effective and pragmatic step is to insulate the surface with appropriate
material and in an appropriate manner, which ensures the differential
temperature between core and surface to less than 20oC or even 10oC in the
early period of hardening and thereby eliminate the surface cracks and micro
cracks in the body of the concrete. The effective insulation also prevents the
evaporation of water from concrete surface and thus promotes the hydration
process. The heat contained in the concrete produces early maturity to the
young concrete. The insulation may be maintained for 3 to 4 days and then the
normal wet curing should be continued. It is pointed out that the above
procedure can be adopted when the w/c ratio used in the concrete is not less
than 0.4. The above method is a cost effective method to avoid degradation of
concrete due to ETC.

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2.10 Constituent Materials Used in Concrete.

The most important and the primary considerations for making durable
concrete is to use the best materials for making concrete. It is fundamentally
the constituent materials used bestow the intrinsic durability to the concrete.

2.10.1 Cement

Of all the materials, cement is the most important factory made material.
Other materials are natural and local which can vary in their properties.
Inspite of the fact that cement is factory made product, it has not shown to be
a standard material. Inspite of the fact that their physical and chemical
properties are governed by standard specifications, different brands of cement
while satisfying the specifications, show the properties surpassing the
specification limits and therefore good judgment is required in the matter of
choosing the brand and type of cement for various concrete structures of a
project. The right range of composition, compound composition, chloride
content, alkali content, fineness, soundness etc.go a long way for the
durability of concrete.

The testing of Birla plus PSC and Vikram OPC-53 grade cement, carried out
by Sriram Institute for Industrial Research is attached as Annexure-3 and 4
respectively. IS 456(2000)has given a table prescribing minimum cement
content for different exposure conditions, for plain and reinforced concrete
.This table is attached as is attached as Aannexure-5.The various parameters
given Annexure 5 are considered as a backbone of durability issue.
.
2.10.2 Water

Another fundamental consideration for making durable concrete is the quality

and more importantly, the quantity of water used in the mix. The quantity of
water which is expressed in relation to the quantity of cement ie. w/c ratio.
This is one of the most important single factor which is responsible for the
durability of concrete. W/C ratio is considered at the mix design stage for
strength and durability considerations. The maximum w/c ratio for various
exposure conditions, plain and reinforced concrete as dictated in IS
456(2000) is attached as Annexure 5.

The source of water for Diaphragm wall construction is bore well water from
Sarai Kale Khan .The test report of the bore well waters is shown in
Annexure-6.The result shows that the quality of water is of acceptable
standard.

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2.10.3 Aggregates

Aggregatesconstitutes about 75 per cent of the volume of concrete.

Aggregates are generally durable. But some of their properties are harmful
and affect the durability of concrete. For example, if they are badly graded or
flaky in nature, the voids will be relatively high which is required to be filled
up by non-durable paste volume. Therefore, various properties of aggregates
are to be tested and due considerations are to be given for making durable
concrete. The properties like chloride content and reactivity of aggregates are
to be considered seriously from durability considerations. Aggregates being
natural material, derived from rocks of different origin, can greatly vary in
their petrographical and mechanical properties. In view of this there are
number of specifications and codes of practices to assess their suitability for
making durable concrete.

Aggregate properties of 20 mm, 10 mm and sand as tested by Spectro

Analytical Labs (P) Ltd. is attached as Annexure 7,8 and 9 respectively.

2.10.4 Chemical Admixtures

Chemical admixtures have become part and parcel of modern concrete. Super
plasticizers have revolutionized the art and science of making modern
concrete. It is the use of superplasticizers that has made it possible to make
high performance concrete, self compacting concrete, tremie concrete,
pumpable concrete and the like. In essence, the use of superplasticizers
permits reduction of w/c ratio while maintaining the required workability.
Since superplasticizers permits reduction in w/c ratio, its use results in
increase of strength, durability and all other desirable properties of concrete.
Therefore, in particular impermeability and durability of structures.
Therefore when we are considering the durability and service-life of concrete
structures, the role played by superplasticizers assumes great importance.
Retarding superplasticizer which helps in maintaining slump for required
period of delay in placing from the time of its production at Ready Mix Plant
is the one type of superplasticizer which is important in any project or in the
operation of RMC Plant. The properties of plasticizers, superplasticizers are
specified in IS 9103(1999). Superplasticizers are being manufactured by
number of construction chemical manufacturing companies. One of the
difficulties in the selection of superplasticizers is the compatibility problem
with cement. Plasticizers by themselves may be of right quality but they fail
to show required performance when used with certain brand of cement. An
extensive laboratory trials are required to solve the incompatibility problem of
admixtures and cement. The test report of superplasticizer selected for use in
the contractBC-16 is placed in Annexure-10.

15
2.10.5 Mineral Admixtures

Mineral admixtures are also called Pozzolanic admixtures. Pozzolanic

admixtures have been used even by Greeks and Romans. But their uses have
been revived in modern concrete on realization of a number of benefits it
offers when used in conjunction with modern Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC). One of the most commonly used pozzolanic materials in concrete is
Fly ash. There are other pozzolanic materials such as Ground Granulated
Blast furnace Slag (GGBS) , Silica Fume, Metakaoline, Burnt Rice Husk ash
are also being used.

2.10.5.1 Fly Ash

Fly ash is the fine spherical particles collected by electro static precipitation
(ESP) from flue gas in coal fixed thermal power plants. They are collected in
different stages or bins. The bins in 1st stage collects every coarse particles
and the subsequent bins collect progressively finer particles . Good fly ash,
fit for concrete, should be selected from second stage or third stage onwards
which are finer in nature and contains low percentage of unburnt carbon
particles.

Pozzolanic materials, say, fly ash are essentially a silicious or aluminous

material which while by themselves possessing no cementitious properties,
will, in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react with calcium
hydroxide, liberated in the hydration process, at ordinary temperature, to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties. It is well known that calcium
hydroxide, a product of hydration, is soluble in water, do not contribute to the
strength and as such is an undesirable substance from the durability
considerations. Fly ash not only combine with such an undesirable product,
but also produces secondary C-S-H gel which is the back bone of strength and
durability of concrete. The progressive pozzolanic reaction of fly ash
continuously reduce the quantity of calcium hydroxide and improve the pore
structure of concrete. For continued pozzolanic action moisture is necessary
and therefore concrete with fly ash needs little longer curing.

It has been amply demonstrated that the use of best fly ash in optimum
proportions mixed in concrete improves many qualities of concrete such as

i) Lower heat of hydration and thermal shrinkage

ii) Increased impermeability
iii) Improved resistance to sulphate attack
iv) Lower the susceptibility to dissolution and leaching.
v) Improved workability
vi) Reduced water demand
vii) Lower costs

16
 The specification limit as specified in IS 3812(2003) is placed in Annexure-
11. In Annexure-11, the specification limit of fly ash is also shown as per
ASTM, EN and BS. It can be seen that specification limits specified in IS
3812(2003) is generally more rigid than ASTM, EN and BS.

2.10.5.2 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)

Ground granulated blast furnace slag is a nonmetallic pozzolanic material

consisting essentially of silicates and aluminates of calcium and other bases.
The molten slag, produced in the manufacture of Pig iron, is rapidly chilled by
quenching in water to form a glassy sand like granulated material. This
granulated material when further ground to less than 45 micron will have
specific surface of about 400 to 600 m2/kg (Blaine). GGBS exhibits very
good pozzolanic properties. This can be used as an admixture at the time of
mixing concrete or can be interground with cement clinker at the time of
cement manufacturing process. When GGBS is interground with OPC
clinker, it is called slag cement. Addition of GGBS in cement or concrete can
be of much higher proportions than fly ash. Indian Standard permits the
addition of GGBS upto 70%. The use of slag cement is recommended when
soil or ground water contains higher level of chlorides. Similarly, slag
cement is the best choice for concrete in sea water or marine conditions.

Exclusive research works have shown the following enhancement of

properties in both fresh and hardened concrete :

(i) Reduced heat of hydration

(ii) Refinement of pore structures
(iii) Reduced permeabilities to the external agencies
(iv) Increased resistance to chloride attack

The specification limits of slag cement is governed by IS 455 (1989).

Annexure-11 show the comparison of physical properties of slag cement and
specification limits of ASTM C 150 type IP and EN 197-1.

2.10.5.3 Silica Fume

Silica fume, also referred to as micro silica or condensed silica fume, is

another important pozzolanic admixtures. It is a product resulting from
reduction of high purity quartz with coal in an electric arc furnace in the
manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. It consists of extremely fine
particles less than 1 micron and with an average size of about 0.1 micron. In
other words the particle size is about 75 to 100 times smaller than cement
particles. Silica fume has specific surface of about 20,000 m 2/kg as against
225 to 300 m2/kg of OPC.

17
 Silica fume being a very fine pozzolanic material, the pozzolanic activity i.e.
strength development property is faster than fly ash. Silica fume by itself, do
not contribute to the strength dramatically, although it does contribute to the
strength property by being very fine pozzolanic material and also by creating
dense packing and pore filler of cement paste.

Silica fume increases the water demand. The increase in water demand will
be about 1% for every 1% of cement substituted by silica fume. Generally
silica fume is added anything from 5 to 10% of cement. To maintain the
workability, high dosage of plasticizers are required. Even lesser percentage
can be used for limited advantages.

Silica fume is an imported material. It is difficult to handle and uniformly

mix it in concrete. Therefore, silica fume is mixed in slurry form. A slurry is
made in the ratio of 1:1 for facilitating handling and mixing. Making slurry in
which silica fume particle do not get settled, is a technique by itself and the
process is a costly method to produce in large scale.

Use of silica fume is essential for producing high strength high performance
concrete. Its use is not considered essential for strength upto 50- MPa
concrete.

2.11 Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)

The reaction between tricalcium aluminate C3A and gypsum produces,

calcium sulphoaluminates, known as ettringite. Ettringite is an expansive
product. If it happens in the early stage of hydration when the concrete is in
plastic condition this expansive product does not cause any harm. Some time
due to slow rate of solubility of gypsum or some other reasons, there is delay
in the formation of ettringite. By that time concrete will have been completely
transformed into a solid state. Structures undergoing delayed ettringite
formation (DEF) can exhibit expansion and cracking. Use of cement with
high sulphate contents of low solubility can also lead to DEF. If structures
susceptible to DEF are later exposed to water, ettringite can reform in the
paste as a massive development of needle like crystals, causing expansive
forces that result in cracking. Delayed ettringite formation leads to
degradation of mechanical properties, such a compressive strength and
increased permeability.

2.12 Acid Attack

Concrete is not fully resistant to acids. Concrete can be attacked by liquids

with pH value less than 6.5 and severely at a pH value below 4.5. The most
vulnerable part of the cement hydrate is Ca(OH)2, but C-S-H gel can also be
attacked by aggressive acids. Silicious aggregates are more resistant than

18
 calcareous aggregates. Concrete with low water/cement ratio can resist mild
acid attack.

2.13 Plastic Shrinkage

In a freshly placed concrete water can be lost by evaporation from surface, or

by absorption by the dry soil if placed on the ground. The loss of water from
fresh concrete results in contraction. Under the condition that certain amount
of rigidity has developed, the contraction results in cracks which is known as
plastic shrinkage cracks. The extent of plastic shrinkage and the consequent
cracks depends upon temperature, ambient relative humidity and wind
velocity. It is seen that the plastic shrinkage cracks takes place, if the rate of
water loss is greater than the amount of bleeding water coming to the surface.
One of the effective measure is to cover the surface of concrete by tarpaulin or
polyethylene sheets. Placing concrete on dry subgrade should also be
avoided.

2.14 Drying Shrinkage

Just as the hydration of cement is an ever lasting process, the drying

shrinkage is also an ever lasting process when concrete is subjected to drying
conditions. It is due to loss of water held in gel pores that causes the change
in the volume. The long term drying shrinkage in concrete is an inherent
property of concrete. It is one of the most important factors contributing to
the lack of durability of concrete. The aspect of cracking in concrete is very
complex, involving many factors such as magnitude of shrinkage, degree of
restraint, extensibility of concrete, extent of stress relaxation by creep and at
what age shrinkage is appearing etc. the magnitude of shrinkage is depending
upon cement content, water content, w/c ratio, aggregate/cement ratio, relative
humidity etc.

It is theoretically estimated that the total linear change due to long term drying
shrinkage could be of the order of 10,000 x 10-6. But the values upto
4000x10-6 Have been actually observed. IS 456(2000), makes the following
statement. In the absence of test data, the approximate value of total shrinkage
strain for design may be taken as 0.0003

2.15 Joints

Joints are provided to relieve the stress and to direct the possible cracks
towards the predetermined places or to reduce the magnitude of cracks. If
proper preplanned joints are not provided, cracks are formed not only in a
haphazard manner but also of greater width affecting the durability of
structure.

19
 Joints can be broadly classified into four categories;
i) Construction joints
ii) Expansion joints
iii) Contraction joints
iv) Isolation joints

Construction joints are the temporary joints left between subsequent

concreting operation. Care must be taken and certain established, time proven
procedure must be adopted when subsequent concrete is placed at the joint.

Expansion joints are made to cater for the volume change or length change to
relieve the stresses produced. With regard to the spacing of expansion joint,
IS 456 (2000) recommends that the spacing of expansion joints should be left
to the discretion of the reinforced concrete designer. For purposes of general
guidance, however, it is recommended that the structures exceeding 45 m in
length shall be divided by one or more expansion joints.

Contraction joints are provided to cater for plastic shrinkage and drying
shrinkage. Normally, the interval at which these joints are provided will vary
from 5 to 10 m. Contraction joints are some time called dummy joints or
control joints. Contraction joints will not be necessary if sufficient
reinforcement is provided to take up the shrinkage stresses. The contraction
or dummy joints are generally provided in un-reinforced floors and
pavements.

2.15.1 Isolation Joints

Isolation joints as the name indicates, is provided where the concrete floor
meets the permanent structural elements such as walls, columns, foundation
blocks, machine foundations etc. Since the movements associated with these
structural elements are different from those of the concrete floor, isolation
joints are provided between them. It is provided to full depth of the concrete
floor. The width ( the gap) of such joint is kept about 10 to 12 mm.

2.16 Workmanship (Lack of Quality Control in Various Stages of Production

of Concrete)

The workmanship is one of the most important factors responsible for

production of high quality concrete and therefore increased durability.
Concrete is a site made material. At every stage of its production ample care
should be taken and good rules must be followed, however, insignificant it
may seems to be.

To describe all the care to be taken in the matter of Batching, Mixing,

Transporting, Placing, Compacting and Curing, it will be voluminous to write
and as such for the sake of brevity it is not described here. However, some

20
 of the important points considered in various stages of production of concrete
will be described later under the Chapter No. 3 when describing steps taken to
remediate the factors responsible for lack of durability.

CHAPTER 2

3.0 MEASURES TAKEN TO ENSURE DURABILITY OF CONCRETE IN DMRC

CONTRACT BC-16.

In the preceding pages of Chapter 2 various factors responsible for

deterioration of concrete have been described. Many of the factors descried
above are applicable in smaller or greater degree in degrading and affecting
the durability of concrete and hence the service-life of structures in DMRC
project. Such degrading factors are recognized in the planning and
specification drafting stage to ensure the required durability standards.
Whenever it is found difficult to record all the minor details in the form of
specifications, then such details are recorded in the method statements
prepared prior to the execution of jobs such that every care, however minute
in nature, is taken care in the execution of concrete and related works.

The following pages describes the measures taken in design, selection of

materials, execution etc. in respect of some of the major factors responsible
for degradation of concrete during the service life of the structures.

3.1 Design Considerations

Structures and structural elements are designed by limit state design method
by experienced designers using accepted theories, experiment and experience
not only for strength but also from durability considerations. For example
earthquake forces in Delhi Region is considered according to Code of
Practice for earthquake resistant design and construction IS 4326 (1993),
Fire Resistance in accordance with Code of practice for fire safety IS 1641
(1988), permissible crack width for “moderate” exposure conditions as
applicable to Delhi Metro Project, and cover depth as applicable to
appropriate exposure conditions are taken from relevant codes. Other design
detailing which includes maximum deflection, Development Length,
Anchoring Reinforcement bars, Splicing of Reinforcement, Lap splice in
tension, in compression, spacing of reinforcement and many other such
details are strictly adhered and shown in the working drawing for long term
durability point of view. No scope was left for any structural design
deficiencies at the design stage.

21
3.1.1 Cover to Reinforcement

Of all the other aspects in structural designing there are two aspects which
need special deliberations for durability considerations. They are voer depth
and crack width.

Adequate cover to the reinforcement is of special significance to durability of

concrete structures. The cover to reinforcement is given from two
considerations namely environmental exposure condition and fire resistance.
The exposure conditions to which structures or structural elements required to
face during the service-life in case of contract BC-16 is not hostile. The
geological investigations based on the bore holes taken at certain intervals,
and exposure conditions shown in Annexure1, the structures in contract BC-
16 can be categorized as placed in “Moderate” conditions. For moderate
exposure conditions the Nominal Cover to meet durability requirement is not
less than 30 mm. This is shown in table No.2 reproduced from IS 456(2000).
The cover provided to DMRC structures is more than what is specified in IS
456 (200).Therefore structures are safe from cover point of view.

Table 2

Normal Cover to Meet Durability Requirement as per4 IS 456(2000)

Exposure Nominal Concrete Cover in mm not

less than
Mild 20
Moderate 30
Severe 45
Very Severe 50
Extreme 75

Notes: 1. For main reinforcement up to 12 mm diameter bar for mild exposure the
nominal cover may be reduced by 5 mm.
2. Unless specified otherwise, actual concrete cover should not deviate from the
required nominal cover by + 10 mm
3. For exposure Condition “severe” and “very severe” reduction of 5 mm may be
made, where concrete grade is M 35 and above.

The cover specified in IS 456(2000) reproduced in table 2 is a general

specification and not specific to the quality or grade of concrete. The quality
of concrete produced in contract BC-16 is good and the grade of concrete is M
35 or of higher grade. Therefore, the quality of “covercrete” is of much
higher quality which ensures much higher protection to the steel
reinforcement in addition to higher cover depth. While the provision of
greater cover depth is helpful and desirable from many point of view, it is

22
 undesirable from crack width point of view. The higher the cover depth, the
greater will be the crack width at the surface. This negative effect of higher
cover depth is considered and taken care.

It is not out of place to mention that the cover depth to various structures is
meticulously maintained by provision of well made cover blocks. With the
help of appropriate cover blocks, the theoretical cover depth is translated
exactly to the structures at the time of construction.

3.1.2 Crack Width

Cracks in concrete are an inherent phenomena but it should not adversely

affect the appearance or durability of structures. The acceptable limit of
cracking would vary with the type of structure and environment. IS
456(2000) specifies that the surface width of cracks should not, in general,
exceed 0.3 mm in members where cracking is not harmful. In members
cracking of tensile zone is harmful in situation where concrete is exposed to
moisture or concrete in contact with soil or ground water (as in our tunnel
segment), an upper limit of 0.2 mm may be permitted.

Some specifications limit the crack widths at points around the reinforcement
instead of at the surface. FIP (International Prestressing Federation) suggests
the crack width to be 0.004 mm around steel. That means for 50 mm cover
the surface crack width comes to 0.004 x 50 = 0.2 mm. (This agrees more or
less with Indian Standards limit of 0.2 mm).

FIP limitation of crack width is particularly attributed to prestressed concrete

members where the prestressed cables are of smaller diameter and the cables
are already stressed which are highly prone to corrosion. In case of RCC a
minor relaxation can be allowed. Therefore in DMRC concrete structures in
Contract BC-16 permitted surface crack width of not more than 0.2 mm is
well within permissible limit.

It is relevant to point out that fine cracks in concrete structures are inevitable.
These fine cracks, when moisture is available, will get closed due to what is
called “autogenous healing”. Autogenous healing is due to the hydration of
hitherto unhydrated coarse cement particles, which become exposed to
moisture upon the formation of cracks. Healing is also aided by the formation
of insoluble calcium carbonate formed at the surface by the reaction of
Ca(OH)2 and CO2. The autogenous healing and formation of insoluble
CaC03, help in reducing the corrosion of reinforcements.

The maximum width of cracks which can undergo autogenous healing, is

estimated to be between 0.1 and 0.2 mm (Properties of concrete by Neville,
4th edition).

23
 It can be further pointed out that concrete made from low w/c ratio, (as in the
case of DMRC Contract BC-16) undergoes greater extent of autogenous
healing and as such greater durability is extended to structures of DMRC
Contract BC-16.

3.2 Environmental Exposure Conditions.

Environmental exposure conditions will have great bearing on the durability

of structures. Concrete is more vulnerable to deterioration due to chemical or
climatic attack when placed in aggressive exposure conditions. The rate of
deterioration is more in thin sections, in sections under hydrostatic pressure
from one side only, in partially immersed sections and at corners and edges of
elements. The life of structures can be lengthened by providing extra cover to
steel.

In the project under consideration, the above factors are applicable to

Diaphragm wall, base slab and walls. In all these cases the sections are quite
massive and cover depth provided is more than what is dictated by codal
provisions. It may also be mentioned that in some of the elements or part of
the elements, as there is nil or negligible availability of CO2 and oxygen, there
is no likelihood of corrosion of reinforcement or deterioration of concrete.
Further the structures are placed in non aggressive soils. Therefore,
structures in Contract BC-16 are very much safe from deleterious effects of
environments.

As a part of sub-soil investigation, chemical analysis of soil/water of six bore holes

were carried out and analyzed in the laboratory. Table No. 3 shows the result. It is
seen that the concentration of Sulphates & Chloride are very moderate.

Table No. 3
Sub-soil Investigation
Bore hole Depth pH value Sulphates Chloride
No. Meters % %
AB-03 15.00 7.8 0.027 0.013
AB-07 15.00 7.89 0.029 0.011
AB-11 15.00 7.75 0.034 0.016
AB-16 15.00 7.77 0.030 0.015
AB-19 15.00 7.56 0.037 0.014
AB-20 15.00 7.76 0.040 0.015
Recommendations Alkaline soil Class 1 Low
As per table 4 of
IS 456 (2000)

Four samples of ground water collected from bore hole was also analysed
chemically in the laboratory. The results are given in Table No. 4

24
 Table No. 4
Chemical Analysis of Ground Water from Boreholes taken at Sarai Kale Khan
Bore hole pH value Sulphates Chlorides
No. (ppm) (ppm)
AB-03 7.50 20.01 33.02
AB-07 7.50 19.46 32.39
AB-11 7.70 20.19 36.51
AB-16 7.60 21.45 35.68
Recommendations Alkaline soil Class 1 of Table 4 Less than 500 ppm
of IS 456(2000) Table 1 of IS 456
(2000)

It can be seen from the result of chemical analysis of soil and subsoil ground
water are not aggressive to concrete and corrosive to reinforcement. Hence it
is appropriate to attribute “Moderate Exposure Condition” for the concrete in
DMRC Contract BC-16.

Annexure-2 gives the requirement for concrete exposed to sulphate attack.

This table is reproduced from Table 4 of IS 456(2000). As per this table also,
the concrete exposed to sulphate attack in DMRC Contract BC 16 come
under Class 1 which is very moderate condition as far as concentration of
sulphates in soil and ground water is concerned.

3.3 Sulphate Attack

The term sulphate attack denote an increase in volume of cement paste in

concrete or mortar due to the chemical action between the products of
hydration of cement Ca(OH)2 and solution containing sulphates. Solid
sulphate do not attack concrete severely but when sulphates are in solution
form, they enter into porous concrete and finally cause disintegration of
concrete.

Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) in the cement is one of the compounds in cement

which is mainly responsible for sulphate attack. Lesser the C3A content in
cement, more resistant is the concrete to sulphate attack. The cement that is
being used in the Contract BC-16 contains C3A in moderate percentage and
therefore the concrete is not susceptible sulphate attack.

3.3.1 Sulphates in Concrete

Sulphates are present in most cements and in some aggregates. Excessive

amount of water-soluble sulphate from these or other mix constituents can
cause expansion and disruption of concrete. To prevent this, the total water-
soluble sulphate content of the concrete mix, expressed as SO3, should not

25
 exceed 4 per cent by mass of the cement in the mix. The sulphate content
should be calculated as the total from the various constituents of the mix.

Table No. 5 shows the sulphate content, expressed as SO3 of the constitutent
materials (column 3) as tested by approved material testing laboratories, in
the concrete used in DMRC Contract BC 16. Concrete mix design worked
out by Sriram Institute is given in Annxure-14. For sulphate content
calculation reference should be made to Annexure-3, 4, 7, 8, 9 & 14.

Table No . 5
Calculation of Sulphate Content in the Concrete Mix.

Ingredients Quantity of materials in Sulphate as per Sulphate content in

approved mix design, kg. Test Reports Kg.
1 2 3 4

Cement 400 1.10 % 4.4

Water 161 0.008 % 0.013
Sand 672 0.01 % 0.067
10 mm 515 0.01 % 0.052
20 mm 629 0.01 % 0.063
Admixture 4.8
Total 2382 4.595

Sulphate in one cubic meter of concrete = 4.595

Sulphate in terms of %age by mass of cement in the mix = 4.595 x 100

400

= 1.15 %

1.15 % is less than 4% as permitted in IS 456.

Acid soluble sulphate content is also found out directly in the concrete. The
acid-soluble sulphate content in concrete was reported to be less than 0.01 %
(Annexure-13)
i.e. 0.01 x 2382 = 0.238 kg in m3 of concrete.
100
Or 0.238 x 100 = 0.06 percent by mass of cement.
400
This is less than 4 percent admissible in IS 456 (2000).

The above calculations show that the sulphate content of the concrete is
much less than the permissible limit in both the cases, i.e. when sulphate

26
 content is calculated from constituent materials, also from sulphate content
found out from the concrete itself.

In addition, a good quality dense concrete with very low permeability made
by using fly ash and GGBS will be a good safeguard for any kind of sulphate
attack in any part of the project executed by Contract BC-16l

3.4 Chloride Attack

The adverse effect of chlorides in concrete and the mechanism by which

chloride attack the reinforcement and cause failure of structures have been
described in Chapter 2. Chloride is the enemy number one for the durability
of reinforced concrete structures. Therefore it is essential to take effective
measures to see that the chloride content in DMRC Contract BC -16 for
durability of structures and structural elements.

Regarding Chloride content of concrete, IS 456 ( 2000) specify the limit as

given in Table 1 given in Chapter 2. Referring to table 1, the chloride content
is specified as 0.6 kg/m3 of concrete in respect of reinforced concrete.
Earlier chloride content was expressed in terms of percent by weight of
cement.

IS 456(2000) suggests that, all constituents may contain chlorides and

concrete may be contaminated by chlorides from the external environment.
To minimize the chances of deterioration of concrete from harmful chemical
salts, the levels of such harmful salts in concrete coming from concrete
materials, that is, cement, aggregates, water and admixtures, as well as by
diffusion from the environment should be limited. The total acid soluble
chloride content should be calculated from the mix proportions and the
measured chloride contents of each of the constituents. Wherever possible,
the total chloride content of the concrete should also be determined. Towards
the above requirements, the chloride content in concrete used in DMRC
Contract BC-16, is calculated as under:-

The table No. 6 shows the chloride content of the various constituents of the
concrete as given by the test reports by laboratory and the quantity of
materials that go into for making one cubic meter of concrete as given in Mix
design (Annexuire-4).

27
 Table No. 6
Calculation Of Acid Soluble Chloride Content in Concrete

Ingredients Quantity in KG/m3 Chloride as per test Chloride content

as per mix design Reports from in Kg/m3
ANNXURE 14 Laboratory
Cement 400 0.02 0.080
Water 161 0.017 0.027
Sand 672 0.011 0.007
10 mm aggregate 515 0.017 0.087
20 mm aggregate 629 0.015 0.094
Admixtures 4.8 0.01 0.001
Total 2382 0.296

The total acid soluble chloride content in m3 of concrete = 0.296 kg.

This is less than 0.6 kg/m3 as limited by IS 456(2000)
It can also be further mentioned that the conditions, where the concrete is
going to be placed during the life time, the chlorides in soil or ground water is
low. Refer table Nos 3 and 4 in this connection.
Therefore, the concrete used in contract BC-16 is safe against chloride attack.

3.4.1 Corrosion Resistance

For practical purpose, prevention of corrosion lies in controlling the ingress

of chlorides by the thickness of cover to reinforcement and by making good
quality of concrete with low w/c ratio to reduce the penetrability of chloride
ions.

Chloride is present in the concrete in two forms namely bound chloride and
free chloride. One part of the total chlorides are chemically bound, being
incorporated in the products of hydration of cement. Another part of the total
chlorides are physically bound, being adsorbed on the surface of the gel pores.
It is only the third part of the total chlorides namely free chlorides,that are
available for the corrosion of steel.

3.4.2 Binding of Chloride Ions

The main form of binding of chloride ions is by reaction with C 3A to form

calcium chloroaluminate. Similar reaction also takes place with C4AF to form
calcium chloroferrite. It follows that more chloride ions are bound when
cement contains higher C3A content and also when cement in the mix is
higher. In the case of the project under consideration, 400 kg of slag cement is
used for diaphragm wall construction. It is also reported that slag cement is
also binding the chlorides. Due to the combined effect of higher C3A content

28
 and use of slag cement, certain amount of chloride gets bound with C3A and
slag.

Another point for consideration is the relative humidity for promotion of

corrosion. Corrosion progresses rapidly only at higher humidities say above
70%. At lower humidities the corrosion rate is slow. In Delhi during
significant part of the year the relative humidity remains below 70%.
Therefore, climatically the corrosion rate is of low order.

Efficient and prolonged curing with good water significantly improve the
quality of “cover crete”. In addition, with the provision of cover depth more
than what is specified in the code, and good quality, well compacted concrete,
the corrosion potential is significantly low.

3.4.3 Test for Penetrability of Concrete by Chlorides Ions

The evaluation of permeability of concrete to chloride ions is an essential

step for cocnrete exposed to chloride ions. The parameter obtained indicates
the quality of concrete in terms of durability. Quality of concrete samples can
be evaluated by “Rapid Chloride Permeability Test” (RCPT). ASTMC 1202
and AASHTO T-277 are the tests widely used. DMRC specify this test to
ensure the durability parameter of the concrete used in Contract BC-16.

AASHTO T-277 classifies the chloride permeability of concrete in five

classes as shown in Table No.7.
Table No.7
Five Classes of Chloride Ion Permeability

Charge passed Chloride ion

coulombs permeability
More than 4000 High
2000 – 4000 Moderate
1000 – 2000 Low
100 - 1000 Very low
Less than 100 Negligible

DMRC specify Chloride Ion Permeability Value as found out by RCPT to be

less than 1000 i.e. “Very Low” chloride ion permeability.

The RCPT test conducted on the standard specimen of concrete used in the
Diaphragm Wall concrete, at 21 days of curing, has given a value of 842.4
coulombs. This shows that the quality of concrete is very good as the RCPT
value is very low. Had the specimen been tested after 28 days of curing, the
value would have been much lower than 842.4.

29
 In the concrete used for diaphragm wall construction fly ash is not used.
Portland slag cement is used. But in all other structural concrete including
concrete for tunnel segments fly ash will be used. The incorporation of right
quality and quantity of fly ash, is going to accrue many good properties to
the concrete in particular improvement in the pore size distribution and
thereby improving the gel structure and lower the chloride ion permeability of
concrete.

It may be concluded from all-round considerations, starting from low

chlorides in concrete, low chloride content in soil and ground water, by the
type and composition of cement used, on account of low relative humidity
prevailing in Delhi for most part of the year, by good workmanship, by
efficient prolonged curing, with the provision of higher cover than codal
requirements and by the use of good quality of fly ash in appropriate quantity,
the durability of concrete is assured for designed service-life of concrete
structures built by Contract BC-16.

3.5 Carbonation

The detrimental effect of carbonation has been discussed in Chapter 2. To

recaptulate, the effect of carbonation, firstly concrete suffers from
carbonation shrinkage, secondly carbonation reduces the pH value of concrete
to make the steel susceptible to corrosion. For these reasons, it is important to
know the depth of carbonation and also whether the carbonation has reached
the surface of the embedded steel.

When we are considering the service-life of DMRC structures built through

contract BC-16, it is important to consider the depth of carbonation that is
likely to take place.

Under this topic the following factors which effect the depth of carbonation is
briefly discussed :
i) Intensity of CO2 in the atmosphere.
ii) Relative humidity
iii) Grade f concrete
iv) Curing condition
v) Moisture content of concrete
vi) Carbonated surface
vii) Quality of concrete
viii) Cover depth
ix) Use of blended concrete

Atmospheric air contains CO2 in different intensities. Rural air contains 0.03
per cent by volume. It is assumed that air in Delhi may contain 0.06 per cent
of CO2. The rate of carbonation increases with an increase in the
concentration of CO2, especially at higher w/c ratio. The w/c ratio used in

30
 concrete of BC-16 contract is generally not more than 0.40 and as such
carbonation is not likely to be high.

Effect of carbonation will have bearing on relative humidity. At higher

relative humidity say around 80 per cent as well as at lower relative humidity
around 50 per cent the carbonation is low. The highest rate of carbonation
occurs at a relative humidity of between 50 and 70 per cent. On this count the
carbonation may higher in Delhi region.

In wet concrete as it is used in diaphragm wall or in other wet conditions the

carbonation will be slow as entry of CO2 in to the pore structure is hindered.

Carbonation will be faster to start with. But when the surface is carbonated,
calcium carbonate is formed. This carbonated surface being dense, the further
diffusion of CO2 is subsequently slow down and as such the rate of
carbonation will be progressively slower and slower.

The concrete under Contract BC-16 is made with good workmanship with
respect to efficient curing, more than required cover depth, good quality of
concrete made with higher grade of concrete M 35 and above. Therefore, the
rate of carbonation and carbonation depth is likely to be of low order.

In the Contract BC-16, blended cement or blended concrete is used. On

account of pozzolanic action of blended concrete, there is a depletion of
Ca(OH)2 in the concrete. This is not a good situation from the point of view of
corrosion of reinforcements. But many experts are of the opinion that the
pozzolanic reaction produces dense structure in concrete on account of
generation of secondary C.S.H gel. This dense pore structure do not allow
the penetration of CO2 and oxygen easily into the concrete. The predominate
effect of dense microstructure of concrete due to pozzolanic action of the
blending materials like fly ash and GGBS will have pre-dominant effect on
the corrosion resistance, then its susceptibility to corrosion on account of
reduced Ca(OH)2.

3.5.1 Depth of Carbonation Calculation

Many theories have been put forward by many experts on the subject of rate
of carbonation and depth of carbonation with age. But it will be difficult to
relate all the hypothesis to the conditions existing in Delhi Metro Project.
One of the equations suggest that the increase in depth of carbonation (D) is
proportional to square root of time
i.e. D = Kt 0.5
where K = Carbonation coefficient in mm/year 0.5
t = time of exposure in years

31
 The value of K is often more than 3 or 4 mm/year 0.5 for low strength concrete
(M 20 grade). It can be assumed that the value of K for M 35 or higher grade
to be not more than 2 mm/year 0.5

Applying the equation, depth of carbonation (D) in 120 years,

D = K x 120 0.5
= 2 x 10.95
= 21.90 mm

This is much less than the cover provided i.e. 40 mm. Therefore in 120 years
the depth of carbonation will not have reached steel reinforcement.

Another example has been given regarding depth of carbonation, i.e. in

concrete with a w/c ratio of 0.60, a depth of carbonation of 15 mm would be
reached after 15 years, but at a w/c ratio of 0.45, it took 100 years to reach 15
mm carbonation depth. But when w/c ratio of 0.40 is used, it may not be
wrong to infer that 15 mm carbonation depth would be reached not earlier
than 120 years. .As the cover depth given to structure is more than 40 mm, the
structures will be very safe from depth of carbonation.

The above examples indicate that there is no fear of corrosion of

reinforcement on account of carbonation during the service-life of 120 years.

3.6 Permeability

Permeability is another root cause for deterioration of concrete. When we

talk of permeability it refers to penetrability of concrete for water, pure or
carrying aggressive chemicals, carbon dioxide and oxygen. All these three
elements are complimentary to each other to degrade and deteriorate the
concrete throughout the service-life.

We have already discussed in Chapter 2 that principally the permeability

originate from the extent of capillary cavities formed in the fresh cement
paste which depends on the w/c ratio used. It is worthwhile recalling that
when w/c ratio higher than 0.38 (later on modified to 0.4) is used, permanent
capillary cavities will remain through out the life span of concrete. Therefore,
in the first place, this fundamental principle is taken care to see that all the
structural concretes are designed basically with w/c ratio o.40 or less. In the
casting of the tunnel segment much lower w/c ratio than 0.4 will be used (at
this point of time, the mix design is not finalized) so that the pore structure of
the paste is of such quality that continuous capillary cavities are non-
existent in the paste structure of the concrete to make the concrete basically
impervious.

The use of comparatively higher quantity of cement improves the paste

structure at the “transition zone” i.e. interface zone. This reduces the micro

32
 cracks in the transition zone. In addition, good workmanship, good
compaction, reduced bleeding, uninterrupted curing, protecting concrete from
hot sun and drying wind should really contribute to the impermeability of
concrete.

It is known that rich concrete, subjected to prolonged curing will show greatly
reduced diffusion coefficient to oxygen and CO2. This reduces the scope for
corrosion of reinforcement and carbonation of concrete.

It is also well known that use of pozzolanic materials such as fly ash and
GGBS improves the pore structure, pore spacing, reduction in leachable
Ca(OH)2 and increasing the quantity and quality of C-S-H gel. All these
improve the permeability characteristics of concrete.

3.6.1 Permeability Test

The permeability testing of concrete has not been generally standardized.

Different procedures are adopted by different countries. In the test method
prescribed in DIN standard 1848 (1991) has been modified by Velenta. He
classified that the penetration depth less than 50 mm as “impermeable” and a
depth less than 30 mm as “impermeable under aggressive conditions”.

Ministry of Surface Transport (MOST) has suggested certain procedure for

permeability test and prescribed a value of penetration depth to be not more
than 25 mm . DMRC has been much stricter in this regard. They have
stipulated depth of penetration not more than 10 mm for all contract under
DMRC.

3.7. Alkali-Agg Reaction

As mentioned earlier in Chapter 2, alkali-agg reaction manifests in unlimited

expansion and subsequent disruption of concrete. Of late it is considered as
one of the potent causes for reducing the durability of concrete in the long run.
To overcome the expansion due to alkali-aggregate or alkali-carbonate
reaction, the following steps have been taken in the Contract BC-16 in the
production of concrete:
i) Selection of cement with alkali content less than 0.6
ii) Selection of non reactive aggregate
iii) Use of slag cement or fly ash in concrete

With the above steps, the possibility for alkali-aggregate reaction is nearly
eliminated.

The Indian Standard 2386 (Part-7) 1963 gives the method of test for aggregate
in respect of alkali-aggregate reactivity by finding dissolved silica and
reduction in alkalinity. If the above two value are plotted in a standard curve,

33
 one can know about whether the aggregate is deleterious or innocuous. The
above two parameters in respect of all aggregates(sand, 10 mm and 20 mm)
have been found out in approved laboratory and when plotted in the standard
graph they fall on the innocuous side of the curve, showing that the
aggregates used are inactive in nature.

For the alkali-aggregate reaction to progress with time availability of

continuous moisture is necessary. Time and again it is mentioned earlier that
the use of pozzolanic admixtures reduces the permeability of concrete and
thereby reduces the scope for progressive alkali-aggregate reaction even if
there is any remote tendency for such reaction.

3.8 Thermal damage

The integrity of concrete can be impaired when concrete is subjected to

external temperature, or external variations in temperature. The above aspects
are taken care of in structural design of concrete by way of sufficient cover
and provision of temperature reinforcement to avoid or restrict the crack
width.

Another important aspect is the generation of early thermal cracks in concrete

which can damage the integrity of concrete. Towards this, appropriate
measures are taken by way of insulating the surface of the concrete to reduce
the difference in temperature between core and surface within 20 0 C during
the early age of concrete. This precaution is necessary only to the concrete
members of sizeable cross section. Elaborate insulating measures will be
followed in concreting roof slab 1.5 m thick and other members of sizeable
cross section, to eliminate early thermal cracks (ETC) to improve the integrity
of concrete. A mock trials simulating thickness of roof slab will be conducted
well in advance of pouring concrete in the roof to study the temperature
history at the core and surface of the concrete 1.5 m thick. The trial will
indicate the duration for which the insulation should be maintained for the
difference in temperature to be less than 20O C.

3.9 Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)

It has been discussed in Chapter 2 that ettringite is the product of the reaction
between sulphate ions, tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and water. If the reaction
between the above three is not completed in the early period due to low
solubility of gypsum or any other reasons, ettringite can reform in the
hardened paste as massive development of needed like crystals, causing
expansive forces that results in cracking of hardened concrete.

The use of good cement where in the percentage of gypsum is proper in

relation to the percentage of C3A content, avoids the formation of DEF. It is
also important to select the type of gypsum which will have expected rate of

34
 solubility to react with C3A present so that all the ettrigite formation will have
taken place during early hydration process. A good quality cement eliminates
the scope for DEF.

3.10 Plastic Shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage of high magnitude takes place if concrete in plastic condition

is subjected to drastic drying conditions of hot sun and drying winds coupled
with low amount of bleeding. In the case of diaphragm wall construction
there is no problem of plastic shrinkage. In casting of tunnel segments and in
placing concrete in station structures enough care will be taken following all
the good rules for eliminating plastic shrinkage cracks, by spraying membrane
forming curing compound and covering concrete surface by polyethylene
sheet.

3.11 Drying Shrinkage

Drying shrinkage of concrete is an inherent problem. It is connected with loss

of moisture from capillary cavities and later from gel pores, slowly, due to
continuous drying. Drying shrinkage is a function of cement content, quantity
of water used and w/c ratio. Drying shrinkage can not be avoided, but it can
be minimized. A well made concrete with low w/c and lowest possible cement
content exhibit reduced drying shrinkage.

Drying shrinkage causes micro cracks in the body of concrete which reduces
the durability of concrete structures. In the Contract BC-16, having
recognized the various factors contributing to long term drying shrinkage, all
care is taken in producing concrete with least amount of drying shrinkage.
Specification generally restrict the drying shrinkage to 0.05% which will be
adhered to.

3.12 Joints

The joints are inevitable in any construction. It is also well known that joints
are generally weak spots. A considerable forethoughts are required in
planning joints. In Contract BC-16, for construction joints, contraction joints
and expansion joints, a separate method statements will be prepared and
issued at the time of construction bringing out all the minor details and
precautions required to be taken for such joints.

With respect to structural joints, such as joint between diaphragm wall and
slab etc they are structurally analyzed at the time of structural design and
appropriate joint design was done for transfer of loads and rigidity of
connections.

35
 With respect to joints in tunnel segment, high quality gasket is used to prevent
water ingress, and provision is kept for grouting after the segments are
assembled.

In other joints calculated number and diameter of dowel bars are provided as
per design. Water stops of approved type and sizes are also provided.

In diaphragm wall the joints ae well designed with end blocks to make them
watertight. The end joints are made as per proven international practice.

3.13 Constituent Materials Used in Concrete.

It goes without saying that if concrete is to be durable for over 120 years, the
constituent materials used for making concrete should be of highest quality to
withstand all the degrading factors, chemical, physical and environmental, that
are likely to act during service-life of concrete. The above considerations were
given due importance in selecting the materials for production of concrete.
The following materials are used in concrete.

3.13.1 Cement

Of all the types of cement available in Delhi, two types of cement has been
considered for use based from previous experience. They are Birla Plus PSC
and Vikram OPC-53 grade cement. In addition to the test certificates supplied
by the manufacturers, the samples of the above cement were got tested,
independently at Sriram Institute for Industrial Research (SIIR) according to
IS 455-1989 and IS 12269-1987 respectively. The test results are reproduced
in Annexure – 3 and 4.

From the test results it can be seen that many of the chemical and physical
parameters surpasses the requirements specified in the respective
specifications. The low values of chloride and sulphate contents are of
importance to long term durability.

3.13.2 Aggregates (Sand and Coarse Agg.)

Delhi region is known for poor quality of sand and coarse aggregates. The
locally available sand is of poor quality from many considerations. The
coarse aggregates produced from striated, metamorphosed parent rock is also
of very poor quality, unfit for making good durable concrete. Good quality
fine aggregate and coarse aggregate had to be procured from Panchkula and
Thosam respectively. The properties of these F.A and C.A are tested by
Spectro Analytical Lab approved by DMRC. The results of testing as per IS
383- 1970 for coarse aggregates 20 mm & 10 mm and fine aggregate are
placed in Annexures – 7, 8 & 9.

36
 Of all the properties, the low chloride and sulphate content is of significant for
long term durability. The parameters like silica dissolved and reduction in
alkalinity are also of importance from alkali-aggregate reaction point of view.
The soundness values show that aggregates are exceptionally sound. It also
can be seen from test reports (Annexure-8) that grading pattern of 10 mm
aggregate is not satisfactory. This deficiency will be taken care in the future
supply of 10 mm aggregate.

3.13.3 Water

The sample of water to be used for mixing and curing concrete as taken from
Bore well at Sarai Kale Khan was tested at SIIR as per IS 456(2000) and the
test result is shown in Annexure-6. The test results show the low sulphate ( as
SO3) and low chloride content which are of significant interest from
durability point of view.

The Bore well water for casting and curing of segments at Nangaloi has been
found unsuitable from excessive chloride content as per earlier experience.
Therefore freshwater will be procured by tanker and used for mixing, curing
and steam curing of concrete.

3.13.4 Admixtures

Admixture supplied by Fosroc, one of the well known manufacturers in India,

by brand, name Conplast SP 432 BS has been selected and tested by SIIR as
per IS 9103-1999 for it quality, required retention of slump for placing of
concrete by tremie method. The test result is placed in Annexur-10. Use of
this retarding superplasticizer (type G) enabled to reduce the water/cement
ratio to 0.40 while retaining the slump around 150 mm after two hours for
tremie concreting. On placing, concrete developed strength without undue
delay when used at a dosage of 1.2% by weight of cement.

For segment casting, high range water reducer ((type F) will be used as the
RMC will be established very near to the place of casting. The right type of
superplasticizer will be tried out by series of trial at the site of work before
segment casting work begins. Selection of admixture and dosage of
admixture for M 50 concrete, with as low a w/c ratio as possible, will be
found out by series of trials for extending long term durability for this
important component in the whole project.

It is a fundamental fact in concrete technology that lower the w/c is used, in

consistent with required workability, the better will be the quality of concrete
in all respects, in particular, for long term durability. Since it is the plasticizer
that helps in reducing the w/c ratio, while maintaining slump, considerable
attention is given in respect of selection of superplasticizer in the execution of
Contract BC-16.

37
3.13.4.1 Fly ash

It has been globally recognized that use of good quality fly ash in optimum
quantity improves many qualities of concrete notably improvement in pore
structure which leads to long term durability and development of higher
strength with age. Therefore, in modern concreting practice fly ash is always
on integral part of concrete. In the Contract BC-16, fly ash from Dadri Power
Station (a proven product) is used in all concrete except in Diaphragm wall
concrete where in slag cement is used.

Properties of Dadri fly ash is given in Annexure-12. It can be seen that the
properties of Dadri fly ash is much superior than what is specified in IS
3812-2003.

The incorporation of good quality fly ash in optimum proportion is one of

the important positive steps taken for extending the following advantages to
the concrete :

i) Lower the heat of hydration and thermal shrinkage

ii) Increase water tightness
iii) Reduce the alkali-aggregate reaction
iv) Improve resistance to sulphate attack
v) Lower susceptibility to dissolution and leaching
vi) Improve workability
vii) Reduce water demand.

It can be noticed that all the above contribution of fly ash tantamount to
improving durability of concrete.

The only disadvantage is that fly ash reduces the alkalinity in concrete on
account of which corrosion resistant to reinforcement is reduced. But the
improvement in pore structure and improved impermeability more than
compensate for the reduction in corrosion resistance.

3.13.4.2 Silica Fume

Silica fume is another pozzolanic material which extends useful properties to

concrete. Silica fume is a very fine material having specific surface 75 to 100
times more than cement particle. It improves the properties of concrete by
faster pozzolanic action, by making dense micro structure and also by
reducing the micro cracking at transition zone.

In the contract BC-16 the use of silica fume has been considered. As the
good quality concrete has been produced with normal constituents to achieve
the RCPT value less than 1000 coulombs, as specified by DMRC, there is no

38
 necessity for use of silica fume. The mix design for diaphragm wall
construction has been tested for RCPT. The RCPT value at 21 days of
curing has come to be 842.4 coulomb. At 28 days of curing the RCPT value
will be much less than 842.4 . Therefore no silica fume will be used for
diaphragm wall.

For M 50 concrete to be used for tunnel segment, the decision for using micro
silica will be considered at the time of mix design trail.

3.13.4.3 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)

In this part of the project GGBS is not being used in powder form. It is used
in the form of slag cement for the construction of diaphragm wall. The effect
is nearly the same. The use of slag cement in concrete contributes to the
following advantages amongst others:

i) Reduced heat of hydration

ii) Reinforcement of pore structures
iii) Increased resistance to chloride attack
iv) Reduced permeability

All the above factors and many more other minor advantages contribute to the
durability of concrete.

3.14 Workmanship in various stages of production of Concrete.

Control exercised and care taken in all the stages of concrete making namely
batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting, curing and finishing will
be of utmost practical importance for the quality nd durability of concrete
structures. Every stage involves many minor points. It is only when those
minor points are taken care of, the resultant products will be of high quality.
If they are neglected it will result in poor concrete. The analogy that “little
drops of water make the mighty ocean” is aptly applicable to concrete.
Therefore, good workmanship at all stages really contribute to the quality and
durability.

3.14.1 Batching

As the batching is done by world famous batching equipment manufacturers,

there can be little scope for error more than permissible amount. The batching
plant is calibrated from time to time to limit the batching error of not more
than + 2% in case of cement, + 2% in case of aggregates, + 2% in case of
water and + 5% in case if admixtures.

39
 One of the most important aspect in batching is the adjustment of actual
quantity of water after giving due allowance to surface moisture and
absorption of aggregates. There are sensors inbuilt in the system for taking
care of surface moisture in sand. But surface moisture in C.A and absorption
of C.A has got be estimated manually and the net result will be fed into
computer. This step is very important as quantity of water used will make all
the fundamental difference in the quality of concrete. A very good, well
equipped laboratory, well trained staff and a fool proof system established at
the RMC plant will take care of this important step in the production of
concrete.

3.14.2 Mixing

Very efficient mixing is carried out in Pan mixer or shaft mixer for the
designed duration automatically. It is only when fly ash or silica fume slurry
is added mixing time is required to be readjusted. Mixing time can be adjusted
and preset. Repetitive dosing of admixtures or addition of water to retrieve
the lost workability is prohibited for any incidental mistake or unexpected
delay in placing concrete.

3.14.3 Transporting

As the transporting is done by well designed transit mixer there is hardly any
mistake for segregation or loss of homogeneity. Generally not more than two
hours delay is permitted between mixing and placing. The transit mixer drum
is wrapped with two layers of hessain cloth which is kept damp all the time
to reduce the temperature of concrete inside the transit mixer.

3.14.4 Placing

There are many minor details in all the stages of production but in placing
there are too many such details such as placing under water or in trench filled
with bentonite slurry, placing below ground level, placing inside formwork or
in highly congested reinforcement etc. It is too much to write all the good
practices to be followed. Out of all these only one important situation where
concrete is to be placed in thick raft and other massive sections, where thermal
consideration required to avoid early thermal cracks in concrete is highlighted.
If care is not taken the concrete is sure to suffer from significant tensile
cracks. In such situations the surface of the freshly laid concrete is effectively
insulated for about 4 days to reduce the temperature difference between the
core and surface to be less than 20 0C. This measure improves the integrity
of such structural members to help long term durability. Likewise many good
rules are taken care of for making sound concrete.

40
3.14.5 Compaction

Hundred percent compaction is yet another important step to be taken in

placing of concrete. No doubt, compaction does not become very critical
issue in pumpable concrete, as the slump of pumpable concrete is high and
many times it is as much as flowing concrete. However, some time on
account of heavy reinforcement even high slump flowing concrete may not
get fully compacted. Internal vibration often becomes necessary. Another
difficulty arises in high slump concrete is the tendency for segregation,
specially when controlled vibration is not adhered to. Men on the job is
trained to the correct extent of vibration having regard to the high workability
of pumpable concrete being used on the job.

3.14.6 Curing

Curing is the most important stage of all the stages of production of concrete.
Curing is nothing but maintaining a condition wherein uninterrupted, effective
hydration process can go on. As the hydration process is faster in the early
period, a sufficiently moist condition must be maintained during the first few
days. Men on the job are particularly trained to understand the importance of
curing. The surface of the concrete members and the cover portion of the
concrete what is called “ cover crete” are more important to the durability of
concrete. Unfortunately it is the above mentioned parts only are vulnerable to
rapid drying, and insufficient hydration which affects fundamentally the
durability of concrete structures. The cracks on the surface or cover zone are
the ones which admits moisture, aggressive chemicals in solution, oxygen and
carbon dioxide and other destructive agencies to impair the durability of
concrete. A good curing process is something like providing a protective
shield for the concrete durability.

In this part of the project particular attention is paid to the aspect of sustained
curing of all the concrete, for achieving long term durability of all the
structures and structural elements.

3.15 Concrete Mix Proportioning

Concrete Mix Proportioning is one of the important steps for making durable
concrete. Mix designing involves selection of good well graded aggregates,
selection of w/c ratio considering strength and durability, cement content
considering strength and durability, quantity of water, considering size of
aggregate and workability requirement for placing and compaction. A good
mix design will go a long way for making durable concrete. One of the
important considerations in making durable concrete at the time of mix design
is to make concrete having minimum paste content in the mix i.e. minimum
voids in aggregate. A mix containing minimum paste will have both
economical and technical advantage, particularly with respect to durability.

41
 The paste (cement and water) is the most vulnerable part to the lack of
durability. It is the paste that shrinks, creeps, cracks, permeable, leaching,
susceptible to degradation by aggressive chemicals, and all other modes of
deterioration. Whereas the aggregate component are much durable material
than the paste. Therefore in mix design process, it is desirable to include more
of aggregate and less of paste content (good grading) for making durable
concrete. In other words a durable concrete is one which contain more of
aggregates and less of paste ( within limits).

The mix design parameter will vary for different structural elements. The
constituent materials and design parameter will be different for different
structures. The design parameter for Diaphragm wall will be different from
base slab or that of tunnel segments. A thorough considerations will be
given in trial mix design for various structures with full understanding of
durability requirements for these structures.

3.16 Precautions to be Exercised in Hot Weather Concreting

Concreting in summer months in Delhi, when the temperature is high will

present some problems. It will be necessary to take precautions for mitigating
the adverse effect of hot weather. It is difficult to define what is hot weather
condition. However, just for convenience it is regarded that concrete placed at
an atmospheric temperature about 40 0C
is considered as hot weather concreting. At this temperature certain special
problems are usually encountered. They are :

i) Rapid rate of hydration of cement, quick setting and early stiffening

ii) Rapid evaporation of mixing water
iii) Greater plastic shrinkage
iv) Less time for finishing
v) Reduced relative humidity
vi) Absorption of water from the concrete by the sub grade
vii) Difficulty in continuous uninterrupted curing

To avoid the adverse effects on the quality and durability of the finished
structure, the following precautions will be taken. First of all the initial
temperature of the concrete will be kept below 300C or lower. This will
be done by taking the following precautions:

i) The stockpiles of aggregates will be covered and not exposed to direct

sun
ii) The stockpiles of aggregates will be lightly sprinkled with water. When
wind blows over this the aggregate will get cooled. This will present
problems for estimating surface water for adjustment of mixing water.
However, by estimating the surface moisture 4-5 times in a day, mixing
water is very closely controlled.

42
 iii) Cooled water or ice flakes will be used for mixing concrete to reduce the
initial temperature of the concrete.
iv) Transit mixer drum will be wrapped by two or three layers of hessain
cloth and it will be kept wet all the time.
v) Immediately when the concrete is placed on a slab or raft it will be
covered by one or two layers polyethylene sheet to prevent the
evaporation of water from fresh concrete. Even in other situations
evaporation or removal of water from the wet concrete is prevented by
suitable means.
vi) Fly ash has been always one of the ingredients in the BC-16 contract.
This cement replacement material reduce the heat of hydration.
vii) The use of retarding superplasticizer is also helpful in hot weather
concreting
viii) Where possible concreting operation will be carried out in the early
morning, late in the evening or at night avoiding hotter part of the day.

For hot weather concreting in the summer a method statement will be

prepared and issued to the field staff. This method statement will contain all
the precautions to be taken, however insignificant it may look like, for
exercising effective quality control in this regard. This method statement
when followed strictly by all concerned will take care of the process for
making good quality durable concrete.

CHAPTER -3

4.0 METHODS FOR PREDICTING THE SERVICE-LIFE OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURE.

So far in Chpter-2, the steps taken and measures adopted for overcoming the
possible degradation process of concrete structures used in Contract BC-16 of
DMRC Project have been discussed. Keeping this part of the discussion
apart, it is now proposed to look into some of the methods followed for
predicting the service-life of concrete structures.

It is generally assumed that the concrete mix design carried out using
established empirical relationships between w/c ratio, strength, durability and
the selected materials, will perform up to the desired service-life of the
structures.

Another approach for predicting service-life is to use calculations based on

likely degradation mechanisms that manifest in the structures and the reaction
rates of these mechanisms. With the increased use of concrete, the
requirement of significantly increased service-life in harsh environment, the
development of high performance concrete for which records of long-term
performance is not yet available, making the applicability of calculations to

43
 estimate the degradation mechanism to predict service life has become
difficult.

Many service-life prediction methods focus on the effect of one degradation

process. Experiences have shown that the degradation results when one or
more degradation process are operative at the same time. This synergistic
effect complicates the degradation process making it difficult to assess the
service-life prediction. Primary factors that can limit the service-life of
reinforced concrete structures include the presence of chlorides, carbonation,
aggressive chemicals, such as acids and sulphates, freezing and thawing and
mechanical loads, such as fatigue, vibration and local overloads. Limited
information is available on the synergistic effect when more than one factor is
operative on the concrete structures. Not withstanding the above, a few
methods were used for predicting the service life, which is briefly discussed
below.

4.1 Predictions Based on Experience

Semi-quantitative predictions of the service-life of concrete based on the

accumulated knowledge from laboratory, field testing and experience have
been used. This contains both empirical knowledge and heuristics.
Collectively these provide the largest contribution to the basis for standards
for concrete. It is assumed that if concrete is made following good rules and
established practices, it will have required life. This approach gives an
assumed service life prediction. The concrete can perform adequately for its
design life, especially if the design life is fairly short and the service
conditions are not too severe. This approach fails when it becomes necessary
to product the service life of concrete that is required to be durable for a time
that exceeds our experience with concrete; when new or aggressive
environments are encountered, or when new materials are to be used. Several
examples have shown that this method of predicting service-life have not
proved reliable and have helped only as an estimate (This method may have
general applicability for the Contract BC-16).

4.2 Predictions Based on Comparison of Performance.

In this approach, it is assumed that if concrete has been durable for certain
time, a similar concrete exposed to a similar environment has the same life.
Problem with this approach is that each concrete structures has certain
variability in materials, size geometry, construction practices, and exposure to
loads and environments. Also over the years, the properties of concrete
materials have changed. For example fineness of cement 40 years go and
now is different. The advancement in chemical and mineral admixtures have
led to the improvement in performance and durability. Therefore, comparing
the durability of old concrete and new concrete will not yield straight forward
deductions for service life predictions.

44
4.3 Accelerated Testing

Most durability tests for concrete use higher loads and severe environments,
such as a higher concentration of reactants, temperature, humidity, to
accelerate degradation. Accelerated testing programme if properly designed,
performed and interpreted, can help predict the performance and service life
of concrete. The durability factor estimate for freeze-thaw cycles for
concrete, or the durability of concrete for the continuous immersion in a 2.1%
sodium sulphate solution until failure, are some of the examples of accelerated
testing for concrete durability.

4.4 Mathematical Models

Mathematical models are no better than their underlying conceptual base.

Therefore, any solution calculated using a model has uncertainties related to
the model as well as the material and environmental parameters. Many models
made to study the effect of sulphate attack, corrosion of reinforcement,
leaching and freeze-thaw attack, did not give reliable data.

4.5 Model of Corrosion of Reinforcement

Cracking of Concrete
reched at reinforcement
Corrosion threshold
Corrosion

Fe+1/ 2+O 2+H 2O -Fe(O H ) 2

D iffusion

C O 2,C l

Tim e

Initlation P ropagation
S ervice Life

S chem atic of C onceptual m odel of corrosion of

steel reinforcem ent in concrete

Fig 1

Most of the corrosion models for reinforced concrete follow the same
approach. They are based on a model that has been developed to predict the
service-life of reinforcing steel by Thuutti in 1982. The model is based on
the corrosion sequence schematically shown in Fig.1. In the figure it can be
seen that active corrosion (propagation) starts after the end of initiation period
of no corrosion. The corrosion process is initiated by the diffusion of chloride

45
 ions unto depth of cover or by carbonation reducing the pH of the concrete
unto steel reinforcement or by the combination of both.

Similar to Thuutti model shown in Figure 1 P.K. Mehta gives a two stage
damage model for predicting the service life of a concrete structure based on
the holistic approach. The model is shown in Fig 2.

Damage

Acceptable
Damage Limit

Propagation of damage

Initlation of damage

Gradual Loss of
Water -Tightness

Service life of a structure with an

acceptable damage limit "D"
Service life in years

Stage -1 Stage - 2

A Two Stage Damage model for predicting the

service life of a concrete structure

Fig 2

From Fig. 2, it can be noted that the dormant period of damage corresponding
to stage 1 and the gradually escalating period of damage corresponding to
stage 2 of the environmental action. Due to variation in microclimate at
different points within a given concrete structure, a precise determination of
the length of each stage is difficult. However, the two stage model of
deterioration is helpful in designing cost effective strategies for prolonging the
service life of concrete exposed to aggressive environments.

There are other models to predict service-life. They are just mentioned below:

i) Sulphate attack model

ii) Leaching model
iii) Stochastic method
iv) Reliability method

It can be said that all these models for predicting the service life have limited use and can
not be used as reliable method for predicting the service life of concrete structures.

46
 CHAPTER 4

5.0 SUMMARY

This document is prepared to support the view that the concrete structures
used in the Contract BC-16 of the DMRC is sustainable and will have
designed service-life of 120 years for all the civil engineering structures
buried below ground level and 50 years service-life for all the structures built
above ground level with nominal maintenance wherever required.
Assumptions made is that the construction materials are not indestructible
and the change in environmental or exposure conditions for such a long period
as 120 years is difficult to foresee.

With the above two assumptions, a brief survey of the possible degradation
process of concrete is described in Chapter one, in the light of the present day
knowledge on concrete technology.

In the chapter two, the various measures employed and care taken, to make
concrete and concrete structures, in this part of DMRC project so that all
degradation process are countered to keep the concrete structures in
satisfactory serviceable conditions for the designed life of 120 years.

American Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 365 have published “service-

life prediction – State-of-the-Art” Report. In this report, the Committee have
described a few methods and approaches for predicting service-life of
concrete structures. There are other experts in the field of concrete
technology who have also given well recognized durability models for
concrete structures. In Chapter three a few of the approaches described in ACI
Committee repot for the service life estimate is given.

In the Chapter four, it is intended to briefly summarise what has been written
in Chapter two to reinforce the steps taken to make durable concrete
structures to last for 120 years of designed service-life.

5.1 Design Considerations

Structures involved in this part of the DMRC Project have been designed by
specialist structural designers who have thorough knowledge in this kind of
civil engineering project. From durability point of view two parameters
namely cover depth and crack widths have been considered in detail in the
light of site and environmental conditions. Major design details are included
in the working drawings and for taking care of the minor details a separate
method statements are prepared in detail and issued to site executives at the
time of execution of works.

47
5.2 Environmental Conditions

Based on the bore hole, soil and ground water have been analyzed. From the
results it could be inferred that the exposure condition can be categorized as
“Moderate”. Many of the important durability parameters namely maximum
w/c ratio, minimum cement content, grade of the concrete, cover depth and
crack width etc. are fixed based on “moderate” exposure condition. The pH
value of ground water, sulphate and chloride contents are not hostile and
therefore the durability of buried concrete structures will not be seriously
affected. The use of GGBS and fly ash will further help for long term
durability. Low relative humidity in the atmosphere that prevails in most part
of the year at Delhi are helpful from the depth of carbonation point of view.

5.3 Sulphate Attack

It is already mentioned that there is no fear of sulphate attach from subsoil or

ground water for the long term durability of concrete structures built below
ground level. The laboratory report also confirm that the sulphate content of
the constituent materials do not show any objectionable level of sulphates.
The sulphate content as assessed separately from the sulphate content of the
constituent materials found to be only 1.5% as against 4% permitted in IS
456(2000). Acid soluble sulphate in concrete was also independently fund
out. This was found to be 0.06% by mass of cement as against 4% admissible
in IS 456(2000).

5.4 Chloride Attack:

The chloride content of soil and ground water was found to be very nominal.
The chloride content estimated from the constituent materials of concrete was
fund to be 0.296 kg/m3 which is less than 0.6 kg/m 3 as permitted in IS
456(2000). Therefore chloride which is the most potent agency for the
deterioration of reinforcement, has been found to be in such a low level that it
will not have any significant effect on the durability of concrete.

5.5. Test for the penetrability of Concrete by Chlorides

Rapid chloride permeability Test (RCPT) has been conducted on the approved
mix design recently. The RCPT value has been found to be 842.4 coulomb
which showed that the chloride ion permeability of concrete was “very low”
which indicates very good quality of concrete.

48
5.6 Carbonation

On account of the combined effects of greater cover depth and good quality
well cured concrete, the carbonation will not be of a serious problem for
durability of concrete. There are many theories and calculations for
calculating the depth of carbonation. One of the calculations applied to the
present case indicated a depth of carbonation of 21.9 mm in the course of 120
years. As the cover depth provided is 40 mm or more the structures are safe
against carbonation. .

5.7 Permeability

A concrete with low w/c ratio made with considerable care in all stages of
production, particularly, with respect to compaction, curing and to make it
free from micro cracks, it is likely to be impermeable. The impermeability
will further improve on account of the use of pozzolanic admixtures. Care
taken in making good joints, provisions adopted for mitigating thermal cracks
and all types of shrinkage cracks should go a long way in making the concrete
impervious. The water penetration test value of less than 10 mm is an
indication in totality that the concrete used is highly impermeable.
Impermeability greatly contributes to the long term durability.

5.8 Alkali Agg. Reaction

The use of low alkali cement and non reactive aggregate will give no scope
for any tendency for alkali aggregate reaction. The test conducted on
aggregate showed that the aggregates are innocuous. The use of pozzolanic
material and low permeability of concrete will be a good safeguard against
any tendency for alkali agg. reaction.

5.9 Thermal Damage

Early thermal cracks (ETC)is of serious concern for concrete structures of

large cross section. Differential temperature between core and surface is
reduced to less than 200C by effective insulation at the surface. Seasonal or
diurnal thermal variation affecting the structure is taken care during the
structural design.

5.10 Delayed Ettringite Formation(DEF)

A good brand of cement made with appropriate quality and quantity of

gypsum in relation to the quantity of C3A present in the clinker is taking care
against the delayed ettrigite formation. Therefore DEF will not be a factor for
deterioration of concrete in this case.

49
5.11 Miscellaneous Factor

Concrete with low water/cement ratio not so high cement content and low
water content are the appropriate measures for reducing the long-term drying
shrinkage. Protection of freshly laid concrete to inhibit the faster evaporation
of water from the concrete surface will be an important step for limiting the
plastic shrinkage cracks. Well established spacing of contraction, expansion
and construction joints and strict adherence to the detailing of structural joints
will maintain the integrity of concrete.

5.12 Constituent Materials used in Concrete

Fundamentally the long term durability of concrete largely depends upon the
quality of the materials incorporated in the concrete. The above in mind, the
best cement available in this part of the country has been selected for use. The
local aggregates available in Delhi has been rejected and coarse and fine
aggregates available in far off places with proven case history, have been
selected irrespective of the cost. Fly ash and GGBS are also procured from
well established sources. On the whole considerable importanc have been
given in the selection of constituent materials, which form the backbone of
durability issue.

5.13 Workmanship

Workmanship is another issue that needs sustained care in all the stages of
production and placement of concrete. As Prof Neville puts it “we have the
knowledge and capability to make durable concrete, but we do not always do
so”. The reason is mostly bad workmanship. We do not follow good rules,
proven procedure, however in significant it may seems to be. The result will
be bad concrete. Therefore in this project, method statements are drawn up
describing all the meticulous care to be taken in all the stages of production
of concrete which will help the people to take all the minute care in the
execution of concreting work. The method statements prepared for hot
weather. Concreting is more in detail to take care of the special problems
encountered.

5.14 Training

Cost of concrete accounts for nearly fifty per cent of the cost of any project.
Enough importance is not being given in the academic institutions. Poorly
trained fresh graduates or diploma holders cannot make or handled the
concrete of the quality envisaged in the execution of DMRC Project. There is
a great responsibility on the part of CEC-SOMA JV to train all concerned
who are executing contract BC-16. It is largely those persons on the job who
make the concrete of quality to last for 120 years.

50
 Making durable concrete is not one man’s job. It is a team work. Every body
starting from concrete mix designers upto men in charge of compaction and
curing should be knowledgeable to play his part in the concreting work.
There is an imperative need to train all those engaged in the execution of this
part of the DMRC Project. Having recognized above, CEC-SOMA JV are
planning training courses for all their technical personnel to give better
knowledge of concrete and their job.

In North American Coast, if they can build a concrete foundation for a Hindu Temple to
last for 1000 years, definitely we can make concrete structures involved in DMRC
Project to last for 120 years. All that is needed is understanding, love and care for making
concrete of quality.

****************

51
 Annexure-11:

Specifications for Fly ash in Cement and Concrete

(Values are % unless other units are indicated)
Item ASTM European IS 3812
C-618 EN-450 BS-3892-1
S102, mm - - - 35
Reactive/soluble S102 mm 2 25 - 25
S+A+F, min 70 - - 70
Mgo, max. - - - 5
Lo1 ( 1 hr) max 6 5-7 7 5
Total Alkalis, max 1.5 -0 - 1.5
S03, max. 5 3 2 2.75
Free cao, max. - 1 - -
Total/reactive cao max - 10 10 -
Fineness, 45 micron max. 34 # 40 @
Blains m2/kg min - - - 320
* **
Cement activity, 28 days 75 * 75 80 80 ***
Lime reactivity N/mm2 - - - 4.5
Soundness Lechatelier mm 10 10 - 10
Autoclave % 0.8 - - 0.8

Note (i) # Permitted variation + 5% of average

@
(ii) Permitted variation + 10 % of average

(iii) * 25% fly ash

** 30% fly ash

*** 20% fly ash

(iv) Drying shrinkage is less than 0.15 in IS 3812.

It can be seen from the above that the specification of IS 3812 is more rigid than

ASTM C-618, EN standard 450 and British Standard BS 3892-1

52
 Annexure-5

Minimum cement content, maximum water-cement ratio and

minimum grade of concrete for different exposures with normal
weight aggregates of 20 mm nominal maximum size

S.No. Exposure Plain Concrete Reinforced Concrete

Minimum Maximum Minimum Minimum Maximum Minimum
cement free water grade of cement free water grade of
content cement concrete content cement concrete
kg/m3 ratio kg/m3 ratio
i) Mild 220 0.60 - 300 0.55 M 20
ii) Moderate 240 0.60 M 15 300 0.50 M 25
iii) Severe 250 0.50 M 20 320 0.45 M 30
iv) Very severe 260 0.45 M 20 340 0.45 M 35
v) Extreme 280 0.40 M 25 360 0.40 M 40

53
 Annexure-13

Comparison of physical requirements of slag cement

Item ASTM C-150 EN 197-1 strength IS 435 (1989)

class 32.5, 42.5, 52.5
Fineness, M2/kg @ All requirements are 225
identical to OPC
Initial setting time
minutes 45(min) 30 (min)
Final setting time
minutes 420 (max) 600 (max)
Compressive
strength MPa
(minimum) at
3 days 13 16
7 days 20 22
28 days 25 33

Note: @ denotes no value specified.

54
 Annexure - I
Environmental Exposure Conditions

S.No. Environment Exposure Condition

(i) Mild Concrete surface protected against weather or aggressive
conditions, except those situated in coastal area.
(ii) Moderate Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing
whilst wet.
Concrete exposed to condensation and rain.
Concrete continuously under water
Concrete in contact or buried under non-aggressive
soil/ground water
Concrete surfaces sheltered from saturated salt air in
coastal area.
(iii) Severe Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate
wetting and drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or
severe condensation.
Concrete completely immersed in sea water
Concrete exposed to coastal environment
(iv) Very severe Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive
fumes or severe freezing conditions whilst wet.
Concrete in contact with or buried under aggressive sub-
soil/ground water
(v) Extreme Surface of members in tidal zone
Members in direct contact with liquid/solid aggressive
chemicals.

55
 Annexure- 2
Requirement for Concrete Exposed to Sulphate Attack.

S. Class Concentration of Sulphates, Type of Cement Dense, Fully Compacted

No. Expressed as SO3 Concrete. Made with 20 mm
Nominal Maximum Size
Aggregates Complying with
IS 383

In soil
Total SO3 SO3 in In Ground Minimum Maximum
2.1 water Water Cement Face Water
Soil extract Content Cement Ratio
kg/m3
Present g/l g/l
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
i) 1 Traces Less than Less than Ordinary Portland cement or 280 0.55
(<0.2) 1.0 0.3 Portland slag cement or
Portland pozzolana cement
ii) 2 0.2 to 1.0 to 0.3 to Ordinary Portland cement or 330 0.50
0.5 1.9 1.2 Portland slag cement or
Portland pozzolana cement
Supersulphated cement or 310 0.50
sulphate resisting Portland
cement
iii) 3 0.50 to 1.9 to 1.2 to Supersulphated cement or 330 0.50
1.0 3.1 2.5 sulphate resisting Portland
cement
Portland Pozzolana cement or 350 0.45
Portland slag cement
iv) 4 1.0 to 3.1 to 2.5 to Supersulphated or sulphate 370 0.45
2.0 5.0 to 5.0 resisting Portland cement
v) 5 More than More than More than Sulphate resisting Portland 400 0.40
2.0 5.0 5.0 cement or supersulphated
cement with protective
coatings

Notes:
1. Cement content given in this table is irrespective of grades of cement.
2. Use of supersulphated cement is generally restricted where the prevailing temperature is above 40o C
3. Supersulphated cement gives an acceptable life provided that the concrete is dense and prepared with a water-
cement ratio of 0.4 or less, in mineral acids, down to pH 3.5
4. The cement contents given in col 6 of this table are the minimum recommended. For SO3 contents near the
upper limit of any class, cement contents above these minimum are advised.
5. For severe conditions, such as thin sections under hydrostatic pressure or one side only and sections partly
immersed, considerations should be given to a further reduction of water-cement ratio.
6. Portland slag cement conforming to IS 455 with slage content more than 50 percent exhibits better sulphate
resisting properties.
7. Where chloride is encountered along with sulphates in soil or ground water, ordinary Portland cement with C3A
content from 5 to 8 percent shall be desirable to be used in concrete, instead of sulphate resisting cement.
Alternatively, Portland slag cement conforming to IS 455 having more than 50 percent slag or blend of ordinary
Portland cement and slag may be used provided sufficient information is available on performance of such
blended cement in these conditions.

56
 Annexuere-12

Properties of Dadri Fly ash used in Contract BC-16

Sl.No. Description Requirements as per Dadri Fly ash Field

IS 3812-2003 for 3
Grade-I Fly ash
A) Physical Properties
1. Fineness- specific (m3/kg) > 320 437
surface
2 Lime Reactivity N/mm2 > 4.5 4.8
3 Compressive strength at 28
days as % of strength to plain > 80 86
mortar
4 Soundness by Auto claving < 0.80 0.04

B) Chemical Properties
1 Loss of Ignition (% by wt.) <5 1.06
2 Silica as S10 >35 57.31

2 (% by wt.)
3 Iron oxide as Fe2O3 (% by -- 4.52
wt.)
4 Alumina as Al2O3 (% by wt.) -- 30.02
5 Total of SiO2, Fe2O3 & Al2O3 >70 92.45
6 Calcium Oxide CaO (% by
wt.)
7. Magnesium Oxide MGO(% by <.50 0.46
wt)
8. Sulphur as SO3(% by wt) <3 Traces
9 Alkali (% by wt) Sodium <1.50 0.08
Oxide Na2o Potassium 1.11
Oxide(K2O)

57
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58
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59