LABORATORY PROPOSAL FOR MECHANICS OF MATERIAL

LABORATORY

CODE OF COURSE BFC 21201

HYDRAULICS AND MECHANICS OF

NAME COURSE MATERIAL LABORATORY

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN AWAM DAN

FACULTY ALAM SEKITAR (FKAAS)

1. MUHAMMAD NASRULLAH BIN RIDZUAN

(CF180101)

2. MUHAMMAD IJLAL BIN ALIAS (CF180129)

3. MOHAMMAD ATIF BIN ZAKARIA

NAME & MATRIC NO (CF180056)

4. NAWAL SYAHIRAH BINTI ABU SOID

(CF180050)

5. NURMIRA UMAIRAH BINTI MAHIRAN

(CF180034)

SECTION 7

LECTURE NAME DR NOOR AZLINA BINTI ABDUL HAMID

DATE SUMMIT 04 APRIL 2019

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO CONTENTS PAGE

1 LIST OF CONTENT 2

2 LABORATORY 1 - FORCE AND DEFLECTION IN BEAM

* EXPERIMENT SHEAR FORCE OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED 3 - 37
BEAM
* EXPERIMENT BENDING MOMENT OF SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAM
* EXPERIMENT DEFLECTION OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED
BEAM

3 LABORATORY 2 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF 38 - 78

ALUMINUM

4 LABORATORY 3 - BUCKLING OF COMPRESSIVE 79 - 95

MEMBERS

2
 FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT STRUCTURAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Subject Code BFC 21201

Title Laboratory LABORATORY 1 - FORCE & DEFLECTION IN BEAM
Course Code 2 BFF
Date 05 MARCH 2019
Group 2
Name & No Matric MUHAMMAD NASRULLAH BIN RIDZUAN (CF180101)

MUHAMMAD IJLAL BIN ALIAS (CF180129)

MOHAMMAD ATIF BIN ZAKARIA (CF180056)

NAWAL SYAHIRAH BINTI ABU SOID (CF180050)

NURMIRA UMAIRAH BINTI MAHIRAN (CF180034)

Lecture DR NOOR AZLINA BINTI ABDUL HAMID
Received Date 04 APRIL 2019

3
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO CONTENTS PAGE

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4

2 ABSTRACT 5

3 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL 6
1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES 6
1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE 7 - 10
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY TESTING 10

4 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEWS 11 - 12

5 CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY 13 - 24

6 CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND 25 - 36

DISCUSSIONS

7 CONCLUSIONS 37

8 REFERENCES 37

4
 ABSTRACT

This Mechanics of Materials open ended laboratory is designed to construct an

integrated laboratory exercise on beam element subjected to external and internal
forces and deflection. Other than that mechanical properties of aluminum material and
also the Euler’s theory and application on compression member. Next, aim of this
laboratory are to investigate the existence of internal shear force and bending moment
developed in beam based on external loading that been applied. Second objective is to
identify the relationship between load and displacement, and estimate the modulus of
elasticity of the materials. The scope for this laboratory are focuses on the analysis of
the existence of internal shear force and bending moments developed in the beam
based on the external loading used. Next, identify the relationship between the load
and the displacement, and the estimated modulus of material elasticity. The tools we
use to run this experiment include support frames, weight sets, record sheets,
measuring tape, a pair of simple support and vernier calipers. This experiment uses 3
different load types such as 100g, 200g, 300g. We convert the mass (g) into the burden
of Newton (N). After that, compare the data of theory and experiment. It may get
different values because some error during the experiment such systematic error,
parallax error and random error. Overall, we can conclude that Theoretical calculation
of shear force show that there is a direct relation between load and shear force but the
experimental shear force shows some errors which can be due to personal error or
faulty apparatus.

5
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

In the vicinity of our area, there are many things that cannot be seen. As a
result, there has always been a mistake that engineers have used their physics
knowledge to improve the situation. In civil engineering, shear force and bending
time teach how the force used between two proponents can cause flexibility. As
large and tall buildings are built by engineers, some collapse is caused by this
phenomenon. To find out more about the problem, engineers apply their
knowledge to investigate problems through trial. Various experiments were
conducted by establishing two side support on the basis of two structural frames
with the same separation distance at both ends. Today's sophisticated equipment
allows us to know the reading when the load is applied at a certain distance
measured from the left beam. Shear force is the internal force acting
perpendicular to the beam.

1.2 MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THIS LABORATORY ARE AS FOLLOW:

i. To investigate the existence of internal shear force and bending moment

developed in beam based on external loading applied.

ii. To identify the relationship between load and displacement, and estimate the
modulus of elasticity of the materials.

6
1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE

This project focuses on the analysis of the existence of internal shear force
and bending moments developed in the beam based on the external loading used.
In addition, the structure of a structure. After that, calculate the shear force and
bending force produced. Next, identify the relationship between the load and the
displacement, and the estimated modulus of material elasticity. The tools we use
to run this experiment include support frames, weight sets, record sheets,
measuring tape, a pair of simple support and vernier calipers. This experiment
uses 3 different load types such as 100g, 200g, 300g. We convert the mass (g)
into the burden of Newton (N). Then, we use the same distance from the left
150mm. Then, make sure the digital power used works well. Avoid parallax
errors when taking experiments.

1.3.1 TYPE OF TESTING

Shear Force

The beam fits onto a Structures Test Frame. A mechanism bridges

the cut, which stops the beam collapsing and allows movement in the
shear direction only. An electronic load cell measures the force, and
connects to a Digital Force Display.

Instrument

1. Shear Force in a Beam Apparatus (STR3)

2. Weight (Loading)

3. Aluminium Strut

7
 Figure 1.1 - Shear Force In A Beam (STR3)

Bending Moment

The experiment hardware is a simply supported beam ‘cut’ by a

pivot. The beam fixes to the Structures Test Frame. Students apply loads
at set positions using hangers holding various masses. To stop the beam
collapsing, a moment arm bridges the cut onto a load cell thus reacting
(and measuring) the bending moment force. A Digital Force displays
forces during experiments.

Instrument

1. Bending Moment in a Beam Apparatus (STR2)

2. Weight (Loading)

3. Aluminium Strut

8
 Figure 1.2 - Bending Moment In A Beam (STR2)

Deflection Force Moment

Test beams fit onto the backboard using a rigid clamp and
knife-edge supports. Students apply loads at any position using hangers
holding various masses. Mounted on a trammel, a digital deflection
indicator traverses the beam. The indicator measures beam deflection.
Scales on the backboard show the position of the indicator, the loads and
supports.

Instrument

1. Deflection of beam and cantilever apparatus (STR4)

2. Weight (Loading)

3. Aluminium Strut

9
 Figure 1.3 - Deflection Of Beam & Cantilever (STR4)

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY

The importance of laboratory testing during this experiment is that we learn

how to handle laboratory equipment, for example, and read digital power meters.
Subsequently, we learn about the mechanics of material knowledge on how
theoretical shear, deflection, bending and buckling results are calculated using the
shear force formula. Therefore, we can compare the results of theoretical data
with the results of the experimental data. In this case, we can use lecture
knowledge to solve this problem. Then we know about the type of trial of the
shear pressure and the safety measures should be considered during the trial. In
addition, to avoid parallax errors we do not record the shear force of reading
when the load is still vibrating or oscillating. Therefore, the apparatus should be
screwed or fixed firmly on the table.

10
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Many studies related to 'Mechanics of Materials' have been studied around

the world. Mechanics of Materials has been taught pretty much the way for many
years, using topics and methods described beautifully over 50 years ago in classic
texts by Stephen Timishenko. The study was conducted in several places by
different parties. Any force that is transmitted to a body from another body by
means of direct contact over an area on the surface of the first body is a load due
to body contact. Beams are long and slender structural elements, differing from
truss elements in that they are called on to support transverse in addition to axial
loads. Their attachment points can also be more complicated than those of truss
elements: They may be bolted or welded together, so the attachments can transmit
bending moments or transverse forces into the beam. Studied by Galileo, beams
are among the most common of all structural elements, being the supporting
frames of airplanes, building, cars, people, and much else.

Among them is R.C Hibbeler, Book : ‘Mechanics of Materials Editions 8th’

who said in a beam transverse load is acted, which in fact comes from the slabs to
the column or walls. It is clear that, beams are integral part of building structure.
This way can determine external load acting on individual beams. Shear force is a
force that acts on a plane passing through the body. Shear forces are forces that
are unaligned and separates structure in to two different parts in inverse direction.
Shear force acts in a perpendicular direction to the large part (length) of the
structure. The deflection of a beam or shaft must often be limited in order to
provide integrity and stability of a structure or machine, and prevent the cracking
of any attached brittle materials such as concrete or glass. Furthermore, code
restrictions often require these members not vibrate or deflect severely in order to
safely support their intended loading. Most important, though, deflections at
specific points on a beam or shaft must be determined if one is to analyze those
that are statically indeterminate.

11
 The study conducted by B. Horowitz, F. A. N. Silva (2008), ‘Bending
Moments in Beams of Reinforced Concrete Buildings’ has provided some
research to clarify that residential buildings with slab systems supported by
reinforced concrete beams are widely used in building industry. For design
purposes, the computation of the loads on supporting beams is performed using
simplified procedures, in which the slab is analyzed as an isolated element. In a
simplified way, it is still allowed that these reactions may be considered as
uniformly distributed on the slabs supports. Bending Moments are rotational
forces within the beam that cause bending. At any point within a beam, the
Bending Moment is the sum of each external force multiplied by the distance that
is perpendicular to the direction of the force.

12
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 FLOWCHART / FRAMEWORK

START

MEASURE THE DISTANCE OF 150MM FROM

LEFT SUPPORT AND MARK THE POINT

CHECK THE DIGITAL FORCE DISPLAY METER

READS ZERO WITH NO LOAD

PLACE A HANGER WITH DIFFERENT LOAD

 100 g

 200 g

 300g

CONVERT A MASS INTO A LOAD IN NEWTON

MAKE A CALCULATION FOR RESULT

13
3.2 EQUATION / THEORIES-DERIVATION

Experiment 1 :- Shear Force In A Beam

Beams are classified according to their supports. A simply supported

beam as shown in Figure 3.1. The pin support prevents displacement of the
end of the beams, but not its rotation. The term roller support refers to a pin
connection that is free to move parallel to the axis of the beam, this type of
support suppresses only the transverse displacement. In engineering practice
the loading on a body can be represented as a system of coplanar forces. If
this is the case, and the forces lie in the x-y plane, then the conditions for
equilibrium of the body can be specified by only three scalar equilibrium
equations; that is:-

 Fx  0;  Fy  0;  M  0

x - cut
P

RAx

Figure 3.1 - Simply Support Beam

14
 Tips for sketch the shear force diagram (SFD)

a) Draw the free body diagram (Refer Figure 3.1)

b) Use Equilibrium Equation (ΣM, ΣFy, ΣFx)

- Moment Equation, ΣM

+ M  0 ; RA ( L)  P ( L )  0
B 2

- Fy Equation, ΣFy

+ F y  0; R A  RB  P

- Fx Equation, ΣFx

+ F x 0; R AX = 0

c) Draw shear force diagram with connected values obtained from

calculated

Experiment 2 :- Bending Moment In A Beam

In simple words bending moment is the product of force applied on

beam with the distance between the point of application of force and fixed
end of the beam. In this experiment load of different magnitude will applied
on beam at the same place and bending moment will be calculated using the
following formula. For design purpose, value of bending moment used is
maximum value. Value of maximum bending moment can be decided with
determine location from shear force diagram. Shear force line cut axis x = 0,
is the position that occurrence of maximum moment. Flexible Contra Point
can be decided from bending moment diagram. It is point of bending moment
that exchange from negative to positive or positive to negative. So, the total
moment in that point is equal to zero.

15
 Figure 3.2 - Diagram Bending Moment

Bending moment = PL/4

Here

P is a the applied load on beam

L/2 is the distance between the pivot point and point of force application.

L is the total length of the beam

16
 Experiment 3 :- Span Deflection

A beam must possess sufficient stiffness so that excessive deflections do

not have an adverse effect on adjacent structural members. In many cases,
maximum allowable deflections are specified by Code of Practice in terms of
the dimensions of the beam, particularly the span. The actual deflections of a
beam must be limited to the elastic range of the beam, otherwise permanent
distortion result.

Figure 3.3 - Beam with point load at mid span

a) The bending moment at a point:

Mx-x = EI d2y = P L

dx2 2 2

b) Integrating the above equation

V x-x = EI dy = PLx – Px2 + A slope equation

dx 4 4

c) Integrating the above equation once again

Y x-x = EIy = PLx2 – Px3 + Ax + B deflection equation

8 12

17
 When x = 0 ; dy = 0 ; A = 0

When x = L / 2 ; y = 0; 0 = PL3 – PL3 + B

32 96

B = - PL3

48

When x=0 ; Ymax = - PL3 (mid span; c)

48EI

x = L / 2 ; Vmax = PL2 (at support)

16EI

When E can be obtained from the backboard

Figure 3.4 - Moment of Inertia for Rectangular Section (Russ Elliot,-2000)

18
3.3 PROCEDURE

Experiment 1 :- Shear Force In A Beam

Part 1

1. Check the Digital Force Meter reads zero with no load.

2. Place hanger with any mass range between 100g to 300g at the first
Force reading.

3. Repeat the procedure to the next grooved hanger until to the last
grooved hanger at the right hand support.

4. Complete and calculate.

Part 2

1. Place three load hangers with 100g, 200g, and 300g mass
respectively at any position between the supports. Record the
positions and the Digital Force Display reading.

2. Repeat the procedure with three other locations.

3. Complete and calculate.

19
PICTURES DETAILS

1. Measure the length of beam which are

440mm

2. Prepare the load 100g, 200g 300g

3. Make sure the Digital Force Meter

equal to zero

4. Place the load 100g, 200g, 300g with

length which been decided 150mm from
left side of the beam

20
 5. Record the reading

Experiment 2 :- Bending Moment In A Beam

Part 1

1. Check the Digital Force Display Meter read zero with no load.

2. Place a hanger with a 100g mass to the left of the ‘cut’. Record the
Digital Force Display reading Table 1, repeat using any mass masses
between 200g and 300g.

3. Convert the mass into a load in Newton (multiply by 9.81) and the
force reading into a bending moment (Nm) using the following
expressions.

4. Calculate the theoretical bending moment at the cut and complete.

Part 2

1. Check the Digital Force Display meter zero with no load.

2. Carefully load the beam with the hangers in any positions and loads.

3. Convert the force reading into bending moment (Nm) using;

Bending moment at a cut (Nm) = Display Forces x 0.125.

21
PICTURES DETAILS

1. Measure the length of beam

which are 440mm

2. Prepare the load 100g, 200g 300g

3. Make sure the Digital Force

Meter equal to zero

4. Place the load 100g, 200g, 300g

with length which been decided
150mm from left side of the beam

5. Record the reading

22
Experiment 3 :- Span Deflection

1. Positioned the moveable knife-edge supports so that they are

400mm

2. Place the chosen beam on the support.

3. Place the hanger and the digital dial test Indicator at the mid span.
Zeroed the digital reading.

4. Apply an in incremental load record the deflection for each

increment in the table.

5. Repeat the above using span of 300mm and 500mm.

23
PICTURES DETAILS

1. Measure the length of strut. It is to

find the value of Second Moment
of Area, I by using rectangular
formula of Second Moment of
Area

2. Setup apparatus and prepare load

100g, 200g, 300g

3. Make sure the Digital Force

Meter equal to zero

4. Place the load 100g, 200g, 300g

with length which been decided
150mm from left side of the beam

5. Record the reading

24
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 EXPERIMENT 1: SHEAR FOR IN A BEAM

Case 1 Load = 0.981N

Case 2 Load = 1.962N

Case 3 Load = 2.943N

25
 4.1.1 DATA AND RESULTS

CASE MASS LOAD THEORY EXPERIMENT PERCENTAGE

(g) (N) (N) (N) (%)

1 100 0.981 0.335 0.500 49

2 200 1.293 0.669 0.800 20

3 300 2.943 1.003 1.000 1

4.1.2 CALCULATION: EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION CASE 1

 Theory shear force at support A and B:

∑MB = 0, -Ay(440) + 0.981(290) = 0,

Ay = 0.646N

∑Fy = 0, 0.646 - 0.981 + By = 0,

By = 0.335N

26
 Theory shear force at cut section X-X;

∑Fy = 0, 0.646 – 0.981 + Vx = 0

Vx = 0.335N

27
 Calculate Percentage

alculace c u 
Percentage = c u 
× 100

㜷㜮 㜷吾吾㜮
= 㜷吾吾㜮
× 100

= 49%

28
4.2 EXPERIMENT 2: BENDING MOMENT IN A BEAM

Case 1 Load = 0.981N

29
Case 2 Load = 1.962N

30
Case 3 Load = 2.943N

31
 4.2.1 DATA AND RESULTS

CASE MASS LOAD THEORY EXPERIMENT PERCENTAGE

(g) (N) (Nm) (Nm) (%)

1 100 0.981 0.047 0.030 36

2 200 1.293 0.094 0.088 7

3 300 2.943 0.141 0.138 2

4.2.2 CALCULATION: EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION CASE 1

∑Mx = 0,

-0.646(300) + 0.981(150) + Mx = 0

Mx = 46.65Nmm/ 0.04665Nm

32
 Theory Bending Moment at cut section x-x:

/ -0.04665Nm

 Calculation for Percentage:

alculace c u 
Percentage = c u 
× 100

(0.030  0.047)
 x100%
0.047

= 36%

33
 0.047 Nm

MA = 0

M Load = 0.646×150 = 96.9Nmm

MB = (0.646×440) - (0.981×290) = 0.25Nmm = 0

Mx = 96.9 -(0.335x150) = (46.65Nmm/1000mm) = 0.047Nm

DISCUSSIONS

Based on the data analysis, when the load applied increase, the shear
force in a beam also increase which mean it directly proportional. Next,
based on graph load (y-axis) against shear force (x-axis) comparison
between theoretical shear force and experimental shear force show a
difference. Actual difference is in experimental values as they don’t show
linear relationship between load and shear force. This error is due to many
reasons like personal error due to unexperienced worker and faulty
apparatus.

34
4.3 EXPERIMENT 3: SPAN DEFLECTION

4.3.1 DATA AND RESULTS

CASE MASS LOAD THEORY EXPERIMENT PERCENTAGE

(g) (N) (N) (N) (%)

1 100 0.981 - 4.723 - 5.24 11

2 200 1.293 - 9.436 - 8.27 12

3 300 2.943 - 14.154 - 10.89 23

35
 4.3.2 CALCULATION: EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION CASE 1

I. Material = Aluminium
吾
II. Young Modulus, E = 69 R a = 69× R a = 69× R aa
III. Length aluminium, b = 19mm
IV. Width aluminium, d = 1.5mm
吾 㜷 㜷 㜮 吾
V. 2nd moment area, I = = = 㜮㜷吾͵͵ a͵
͵
VI. EI = (69× )( 5.344× ) = 0.369 Ra = 㜷吾͵ Raa
th吾 㜷 t ͵͵ 吾
VII. Deflection for first case, = ͵t
= ͵t 㜷吾͵ ͵ = -4.723mm

 Calculation for Percentage:

alculace c u 
Percentage = c u 
× 100

㜮㜷 ͵ ͵㜷 吾
= ͵㜷 吾
× 100

= 11%

DISCUSSION

Based on the data analysis, we can conclude that a linear relationship

between deflection and applied load. From the results, it can be seen that the load
and deflection are directly proportional. As the load is raised, the deflection also
increases. Vice versa, when the load is removed, the deflection decreases as well.
It can also be noted that the theoretical deflection is lower and high than the
experimental deflection. This can be due to the errors committed during the lab
work as well as the effect of limiting factors such as inaccuracy of readings for
more than two decimal places. The percentage error is slightly different and it
proves that the experiment wasn’t done as cautiously as it should be. This could
be due to the zero error which means that the arrow was not placed to zero before
the experiment began or it could be due to some defects in the apparatus.

36
CONCLUSION

Therefore, we reach to the conclusion that the experiment above was conducted
fairly and with maximum accuracy as possible. It is true that errors cannot be avoided
so, we take several ways to reduce the error are by repeating the experiment for three
times or more and then taking the average readings by being extra cautious during the
experiment, by asking more than one person to record the readings and carry out the
experiment. The aim is to reduce the error as much as possible to obtain accuracy in
work. The reasons are that students were performing the experiments and not
professionals so mistakes were made. Obviously, the tests were carried out in a rush
since there were many groups waiting to perform it.

REFERENCES

Arni Rahida binti Abd Rafal, Siti Zawiyah binti Husain, Jusmine Valerie (Jun
2001). Mechanics of Structure: Civil Engineering Department,
Politeknik Melaka.

David Roylance (1993). Mechanics of Material. By John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

R.C. Hibbler (2018). Mechanic of Materials ,Tenth Edition in SI Units

37
 FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT STRUCTURAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Subject Code BFC 21201

Title Laboratory LABORATORY 2 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ALUMINUM
Course Code 2 BFF
Date 05 MARCH 2019
Group 2
Name & No Matric MUHAMMAD NASRULLAH BIN RIDZUAN (CF180101)

MUHAMMAD IJLAL BIN ALIAS (CF180129)

MOHAMMAD ATIF BIN ZAKARIA (CF180056)

NAWAL SYAHIRAH BINTI ABU SOID (CF180050)

NURMIRA UMAIRAH BINTI MAHIRAN (CF180034)

Lecture DR NOOR AZLINA BINTI ABDUL HAMID
Received Date 04 APRIL 2019

38
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO CONTENTS PAGE

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 39

2 ABSTRACT 40

3 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL 41
1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES 42
1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE 42 - 44
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY TESTING 44

4 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEWS 45

5 CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY 46 - 52

6 CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND 53 - 57

DISCUSSIONS

7 CONCLUSIONS 58

8 REFERENCES 59

9 ATTACHMENT 60 - 78

39
 ABSTRACT

This experiment was conducted so as compare the theory and experiment data based
on the mechanical properties of aluminium. The modulus of elasticity (= Young’s
modulus) E is a material property, that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of
the most important properties of solid materials. Mechanical deformation puts energy
into a material. The energy is stored elastically or dissipated plastically. The way a
material stores this energy is summarized in stress-strain curves. The objective of this
experiment is to investigate the mechanical properties of steel reinforcement under
tensile test by using universal testing machine and to To investigate the mechanical
properties of steel reinforcement under tensile test by using universal testing machine.
The experiment begin with setting up the cross section of thickness 2 mm and width
19mm. Place the aluminium under a Universal Tensile Machine (UTM INSTRON).
The machine will provide a threaded attachment to connect the aluminium. Turn on
the machine, and it will exert a tensile force on the aluminium causing it to extend.
The force exerted to create each increment of extension is displayed on the machine
along with the total extension. The data theory for Young Modulus 'E' of the bar is
69GPa. Then subjected to same amount of load. Changes in length indicate the
ductility of the material when loaded. After this experiment, it can be seen that Young
Modulus 'E' compare data theory and experiment.

40
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

In concrete construction, the use of steel reinforcement is important to be

rejected voltage action. It is mandatory to verify the true strength (yield strength,
fy) steel material through stress test before construction. The Universal Testing
Machine is widely used in identifying mechanical properties (such as Modulus of
Elasticity) of reinforced steel. Determination of yield strength will lead to elastic
and plastic welding area, where the elongation of the material is measured by the
extensometer equipment attached to the specimen.

The tensile test is the most commonly performed and is the simplest among
of all themechanical tests. In this experiment, a specimen is subjected to a
gradually increasing uniaxialload until failure occurs. The typical testing
procedure is to deform or stretch the material at aconstant speed. A circular and
rectangular cross section will be use as tested specimen which ismade of steel and
copper or aluminum. The load-deformation data is recorded during theexperiment
so this data can be plotted once the procedure is complete. The student will
learnhow to properly conduct a tensile test and obtain the relevant material
properties from theresults. Further, the student will discover how different
materials as well as different crosssection behave under similar loading
conditions

41
1.2 MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THIS LABORATORY ARE AS FOLLOW:

I. To investigate the mechanical properties in terms of tensile strengths and

MOE of aluminum strut under tensile test by using Universal Testing
Machine.

II. To adapt the application of Hooke’s law and characterize the behavior of a
material under stress and strain action.

1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE

Tensile testing is a way of determining how something will react when it is

pulled apart - when a force is applied to it in tension. Tensile testing is an
important part of design as well as quality control, avoid mode of failure , and is
an essential part of testing consistency in manufacture and construction. This
project about the tensile test, the shapes of the specimen have to standard in
accordance with BS EN ISO 6892-1:2016 (UTM INSTRON) for standardization.
During testing, deformation is confined to the narrow centre region of the sample,
which has a uniform cross section along its length.

My team choose one aluminium strut after buckling test that is width 19mm,
and depth 2mm. Next, identify the relationship between modulus of material
elasticity (E), which is used for buckling test. The mechanical properties of the
metals determine the kind of engineering application to be used for. Experiments
on tensile tests can be used to predict the tensile properties and they are
conducted by application of axial or longitudinal forces to a specimen with
known dimensions.

42
 These forces are applied on the specimen until deformation causes failure.
The tensile load and corresponding extensions are then recorded for calculations
and determination of stress- strain relationship of the material specimen. The
tensile test experiment can be used to determine other mechanical characteristics
of the specimen life yield strength, percentage elongation, and ultimate strength
among others. The original gauge length, diameter or cross sectional area also
used in calculations hence should be recorded.

Figure 1.1 Stress-strain curve

Figure 1.2 Machined Test Pieces of Round Cross-Section

43
 1.3.1 INSTRUMENT

1. Universal Tensile Machine (UTM INSTRON)

2. Aluminium Strut

Figure 1.3 - Universal Tensile Machine (UTM INSTRON)

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY TESTING

For safe design of structural components in bridges, railway lines, marines

ships, air crafts, pressure vessels etc, the tensile properties of materials used
should be analyzed. Hence the tensile strength of the materials should meet the
strength requirements of the structural applications. The mechanical properties of
the metals determine the kind of engineering application to be used for. Therefore,
we can compare the results of theoretical data with the results of the experimental
data. In this case, we can use lecture knowledge to solve this problem. Then we
know about the type of trial of the shear pressure and the safety measures should
be considered during the trial. In addition, to able to learn on relationship between
the stress, strain and modulus under elastic and plastic region. Next, able to use
Hooke law in construction to able determine right strength to make sure the
structure safe. Lastly we to able to construct the structure with lower cost and
have a strength that can be support the building.

44
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Mechanical testing play an important role in evaluating fundamental

properties of engineering materials (i.e: modulus of elasticity, Poisson`s ratio,
ultimate strength, yield strength, fracture strength, resilience, toughness, %
reduction in area, and % elongation) as well as in developing new materials and
in controlling the quality of materials for use in design and construction. Tensile
test is one of the basic mechanical tests performed on a steel material. The pull
force applied on the material causes the material to elongate. When the material
can not longer withstand tensile applied on it, it will causes failure or fracture.

Studied by J.R. Davis, Book : ‘Tensile Testing Edition 2nd’, tensile test were
performed for several reasons. The result of tensile test were used in selecting
materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently were
included in material specifications to ensure quality. Tensile properties often were
measured during development of new materials and processes. Finally, tensile
properties often were used to predict the behavior of a material under forms of
loading other than uni-axial tension. A more generally useful experiment involves
measuring the load needed to increase the displacement continuously, so that a
full stress-strain curve is obtained as shown as Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Full stress-strain curve

45
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 FLOWCHART / FRAMEWORK

START

MEASURE THE SECOND MOMENT OF AREA

ALUMINIUM STRUT

CHECK THE DIGITAL MAXIMUM FORCE

DISPLAY METER READS ZERO WITH NO
LOAD

PLACE WITH DIFFERENT LENGHT OF

STRUT

 STRUT 1

 STRUT 3

 STRUT 5

MAKE A CALCULATION FOR RESULT

46
3.2 EQUATION / THEORIES-DERIVATION

The data from experiment will be interpreted into stress - strain curve. By
apply Hooke’s law which is proportional limit, elastic limit, and yield stress point
based on this experimental data will be discussed in terms properties and
behavior of material. Specimen (Steel Bar) is set in one size diameter and length.
Experiment follow the standard code practise, Metallic materials-tensile test (BS
EN ISO 6892-1:2016). Young’s modulus was important where deflection of
material was critical for the required engineering application. Yield strength was
considering stress – strain curve beyond the elastic portion, if tensile loading
continues, yielding occurs at beginning of plastic deformation.

Most of these engineering values are found by graphing the stress and strain
values from testing. A number of experimental techniques are developed for
mechanical testing of engineering materials subjected to tension, compression,
bending and torsion loading. Ductile materials will neck down through the plastic
range before rupture (Figure 1a). Brittle materials do not neck down significantly
(Figure 1b). Instead they fail sharply and abruptly at the maximum load because
brittle materials do not exhibit much plasticity.

Figure 3.1 Typical of Failure of Materials

47
 When a specimen is loaded so that the resultant force passes through the
centroid of the specimen cross section, the loading is called as axial and can be
either tensile or compressive. The test measures force and change of length of the
specimen which are used to calculate nominal stress and nominal strain. The term
nominal (or engineering) is used to indicate that the stress is based on the original
test specimen cross section area and the strain is based on the original gage length.
Stress is a measure of the intensity of an internal force.

 Stress is defined as the force P per unit area A:

P
Stress ,  
A

 Strain is a measure of the deformation that has occurred in a material. In

the case where themagnitude of deformation is the same over the entire
length of a body, strain is defined as:


Strain 
Lo

where - Lo = the initial length

Young`s Modulus (Modulus of elasticity), Young`s Modulus is the ratio of

stress to strain for the initial straight line portion of the stress-strain curve
(slope of the straight line). Determined by:

 Proportional limit is the value of engineering stress (the load is divided

by the initial cross-sectional area) at the point where the straight-line
portion of the stress-strain curves ends.

48
 Yield point is a point on the stress-strain curve, after which there is a
significant increase in strain with little or no increase in stress. The
corresponding stress is called the Yield strength/Stress of the material.
For materials that do not possess well-defined yield point, “offset
method” (0.2%) is used to determine it.
 Elastic limit is the value of stress on the stress-strain curve after which
the material deforms plastically (maximum stress for which stress will be
directly proportional to strain).
 Ultimate strength is the highest value of apparent stress on the
stress-strain curve. It is also known as the tensile (or compressive)
strength.
 Fracture strength is the value of stress at the point of final fracture on
the stress-strain curve.
 Percent elongation is the measure of the deformation at the point of
final fracture. Determined by:

 Percent reduction of area is the measure of the fracture ductility.

Determined by:

 Ductility is the characteristic of a material where the material can

undergo large plastic deformations before fracture, especially in tension.
Ductility of materials is measured by ductility ratio;

49
Figure 3.2 A Typical Stress-Strain Diagram For A Ductile Material

50
 3.3 PROCEDURE

1. Select the desired test specimen

2. Measure the diameter and the length of the test specimen

3. Install the test specimen in the testing machine with bottom

connection first.

4. Press the START but ton

5. Apply the load to the test specimen at a very slow rate

6. Record down the elongation of the material (mm) to the table until it
fracture.

7. Measure the length of the material

8. Repeat the step using other material

9. Take test data from computer

10. After finish the experiment, switch off the machine

Note:
Important!! Step by step procedure to run the machine and experiments should be
followed the instructions as stated on the machine.

51
 PICTURE AND DETAILS

Step 1: Step 2:

Measure the dimensions of the each test Install the test specimen in the testing
specimen before and after test and fill in the machine with bottom connection first
table 4.1 and press START.

Step 3: Step 4:

Mount the test specimen in the grips of the Apply and record load and the
machine. corresponding deformation. Repeat steps (1)
to (4) for various type of the test specimen
and take test data from computer

52
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 DATA AND RESULTS

* Table 4.1 Data which is entered into the system

MEASUREMENT NO ALUMINIUM

Width, b (mm) 19 mm

Depth, d (mm) 2 mm

Specimen (mm) 420 mm

Cross-head Speed (mm/min) 5 mm/min

* Table 4.2 Results obtained from test data

DETAILS ALUMINIUM

Spec Gauge Length (mm) 130 mm

Ext. Gauge Length (mm) 50 mm

Number of data points 809

Maximum Load (kN) 4.89097 kN (Point: 770)

Maximum Extension (mm) 18.68562 mm (Point: 809)

Cross section Area ( mm 2 ) 38 mm

Young Modulus , E 138.571 MPa

Yield Strength  y 107 MPa

53
 * Table 4.3 Comparison For Young Modulus (E) Between Theory and
Experiment

THEORY EXPERIEMENT

69000 MPa 138.571 MPa

Noted: For the whole data can be seen in the attachment.

4.2 CALCULATION FOR TENSILE TEST

* Refer Data Point 2

1. Cross Section Area:

Area  bd

 19mm 2mm 
 38mm 2

2. Stress:

P
Stress ,  
A

0.018187

38
 0.000478605 kN/mm 2

3. Strain:


Strain 
Lo

0.00575

1.30
 0.004%

54
 4. Young’s Modulus ‘E’

97  0

0 .7  0
 138.571MPa

4.3 GRAPH FOR TENSILE TEST

Figure 4.1 Graph Based On Data Universal Tensile Machine

55
 Figure 4.2 Stress-Strain Diagram

DISCUSSION

The data obtained from the universal testing machine shows the difference in
rates theory and experiment of extensions in aluminium samples. From data on cross-
sectional area, length, extension and axial loads, the strains and stress for sample
specimens were calculated. The changes encountered in cross sectional area cannot be
influenced by engineering stress-strain relationship: the changes can only be posibble
for true stress-strain curves. Normally, true strains are of higher values than those of
engineering strains. In the graph, it can be seen that for engineering stree-strain curves,
the curves drop downwards after necking has occured. However, this phenomenon
cannot be seen in normal true stress-strain curves, the curves would reach the higher
region of fracture.

56
 Engineering stress and strains were calculated after the extensometers on the
universal testing machine measured the strain that was applied on sample specimen.
The data on strain was obtained on the cross head after necking had occured. The
engineering stress was then calculated by dividing the applied load by original
cross-sectional area. For engineering strain, the changes in length (extensions) were
divided by the original length. In calculations of true stress, the load applied could be
divided by the instantaneous area. True strain is calculated by dividing the change in
length by the instantaneous final length. Aluminium often does not have a
well-defined yield point but define a yield strength using a graphical procedure called
the offset method (0.2% or 0.002mm/mm).

Based on theoretical and experimental comparisons are far different because the
value of Young Modulus (E) for the theory (69GPa) is used during the experiment
buckling test set on the Buckling machine (STR12). Error which may be occurred
during this experiment includes parallax error during reading of measurement. We are
advice to measure the test specimen parameters more than twice using vernier caliper
to ascertain the reading. Besides, zero error may also occur due to the lack of vernier
caliper calibration. In order to avoid this to happens, we are advice to check the
vernier caliper before measuring. If the vernier caliper is not showing absolute zero
reading when it is totally closed, we have to minus or add the particular value in each
of the measurements. Moreover, the consideration of putting the test specimen on
the universal testing machine is also important. We have to make sure the test
specimen is tied orderly at grips for holding test specimen firmly at fixed head in
order to avoid the specimen became loosen from that machine during the experiment.

57
CONCLUSION

Tensile testing is a way of determining how something will react when it is pulled
apart when a force is applied to it in tension. Tensile testing is one of the simplest and
most widely used mechanical test. By measuring the force required to elongate a
specimen to breaking point, material properties can be determined that will allow
designers and quality managers to predict how materials and products will behave in
their intended applications.

In this experiment we intended to assess the stress-strain behaviour in mild and

high yield steels. Hooke’s law can define the characteristic the behavior of material
based on data of stress and strain curve by using universal testing machine.
Aluminium however has found many uses in designs that require low density
materials like in aerodynamics and some motor vehicles. Aluminium experiences high
ductility rates compared to mild steel and have therefore low level values of Young’s
Modulus, a factor that determines deflections in structural components. This
experiment therefore gives close relationship of tensile strength to the theoretical data
and experiment buckling test.

58
REFERENCES

Arni Rahida binti Abd Rafal, Siti Zawiyah binti Husain, Jusmine Valerie (Jun
2001). Mechanics of Structure: Civil Engineering Department,
Politeknik Melaka.

David Roylance (1993). Mechanics of Material. By John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Hazriel (20 Jan 2015). Experiment 1-Tensile Test. Retrieved from

https://www.scribd.com/document/253129861/Experiment-1-Tensile-Test

Mechigan Tech. Tensile Test Experiment, Department of Materials Science and

Engineering. Retrieved from
https://www.mtu.edu/materials/k12/experiments/tensile/

R.C. Hibbler (2018). Mechanic of Materials ,Tenth Edition in SI Units

59
ATTACHMENT

EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS

STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
1 0 0.000 0.000007 1.84211E-07 0.00
2 0.00575 0.004 0.018187 0.000478605 0.48
3 0.016187 0.012 0.085693 0.002255079 2.26
4 0.024562 0.019 0.142008 0.003737053 3.74
5 0.033187 0.026 0.196314 0.005166158 5.17
6 0.041687 0.032 0.248479 0.006538921 6.54
7 0.049937 0.038 0.296485 0.007802237 7.80
8 0.058125 0.045 0.348413 0.009168763 9.17
9 0.066687 0.051 0.398302 0.010481632 10.48
10 0.07525 0.058 0.445006 0.011710684 11.71
11 0.083125 0.064 0.492971 0.012972921 12.97
12 0.091812 0.071 0.541447 0.014248605 14.25
13 0.10025 0.077 0.588419 0.015484711 15.48
14 0.10825 0.083 0.634222 0.016690053 16.69
15 0.116687 0.090 0.681506 0.017934368 17.93
16 0.125125 0.096 0.726974 0.019130895 19.13
17 0.133375 0.103 0.767269 0.020191289 20.19
18 0.1415 0.109 0.812684 0.021386421 21.39
19 0.150062 0.115 0.857149 0.022556553 22.56
20 0.1585 0.122 0.89995 0.023682895 23.68
21 0.166437 0.128 0.943723 0.024834816 24.83
22 0.175062 0.135 0.98869 0.026018158 26.02
23 0.1835 0.141 1.031204 0.027136947 27.14
24 0.1915 0.147 1.073578 0.028252053 28.25
25 0.200062 0.154 1.118032 0.029421895 29.42
26 0.208437 0.160 1.160094 0.030528789 30.53
27 0.216687 0.167 1.200461 0.031591079 31.59
28 0.224937 0.173 1.244163 0.032741132 32.74
29 0.233375 0.180 1.285352 0.033825053 33.83
30 0.241812 0.186 1.324781 0.034862658 34.86
31 0.249937 0.192 1.365988 0.035947053 35.95
32 0.258437 0.199 1.406198 0.037005211 37.01
33 0.266875 0.205 1.447412 0.038089789 38.09
34 0.274937 0.211 1.486965 0.039130658 39.13
35 0.283312 0.218 1.52786 0.040206842 40.21
36 0.291812 0.224 1.568343 0.041272184 41.27
37 0.300062 0.231 1.60633 0.042271842 42.27
38 0.308125 0.237 1.646617 0.043332026 43.33

60
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
39 0.316687 0.244 1.687041 0.044395816 44.40
40 0.32525 0.250 1.724242 0.045374789 45.37
41 0.333187 0.256 1.76312 0.046397895 46.40
42 0.341875 0.263 1.80205 0.047422368 47.42
43 0.350187 0.269 1.839655 0.048411974 48.41
44 0.35825 0.276 1.876238 0.049374684 49.37
45 0.366687 0.282 1.914868 0.050391263 50.39
46 0.375187 0.289 1.952551 0.051382921 51.38
47 0.383375 0.295 1.987832 0.052311368 52.31
48 0.3915 0.301 2.02556 0.053304211 53.30
49 0.400062 0.308 2.062295 0.054270921 54.27
50 0.4085 0.314 2.097416 0.055195158 55.20
51 0.416437 0.320 2.133677 0.056149395 56.15
52 0.425062 0.327 2.169183 0.057083763 57.08
53 0.4335 0.333 2.20429 0.058007632 58.01
54 0.4415 0.340 2.238241 0.058901079 58.90
55 0.450062 0.346 2.274593 0.059857711 59.86
56 0.458437 0.353 2.308276 0.060744105 60.74
57 0.46675 0.359 2.340871 0.061601868 61.60
58 0.474937 0.365 2.375829 0.062521816 62.52
59 0.483375 0.372 2.409361 0.063404237 63.40
60 0.491812 0.378 2.441226 0.064242789 64.24
61 0.499937 0.385 2.47447 0.065117632 65.12
62 0.5085 0.391 2.5073 0.065981579 65.98
63 0.516812 0.398 2.539618 0.066832053 66.83
64 0.524937 0.404 2.570568 0.067646526 67.65
65 0.533312 0.410 2.603422 0.068511105 68.51
66 0.54175 0.417 2.636016 0.069368842 69.37
67 0.550062 0.423 2.665385 0.070141711 70.14
68 0.558125 0.429 2.697317 0.070982026 70.98
69 0.566687 0.436 2.729406 0.071826474 71.83
70 0.57525 0.443 2.758398 0.072589421 72.59
71 0.583125 0.449 2.788388 0.073378632 73.38
72 0.591812 0.455 2.819174 0.074188789 74.19
73 0.60025 0.462 2.848534 0.074961421 74.96
74 0.608312 0.468 2.876935 0.075708816 75.71
75 0.61675 0.474 2.907188 0.076504947 76.50
76 0.625125 0.481 2.936298 0.077271 77.27
77 0.633375 0.487 2.963312 0.077981895 77.98
78 0.6415 0.493 2.993488 0.078776 78.78
79 0.650125 0.500 3.021971 0.079525553 79.53
80 0.658437 0.506 3.048717 0.080229395 80.23
81 0.666437 0.513 3.076576 0.080962526 80.96

61
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
82 0.675125 0.519 3.104515 0.081697763 81.70
83 0.6835 0.526 3.131171 0.082399237 82.40
84 0.6915 0.532 3.156778 0.083073105 83.07
85 0.700062 0.539 3.184609 0.0838055 83.81
86 0.708437 0.545 3.210649 0.084490763 84.49
87 0.716687 0.551 3.235426 0.085142789 85.14
88 0.724875 0.558 3.261716 0.085834632 85.83
89 0.733437 0.564 3.286966 0.086499105 86.50
90 0.741812 0.571 3.310188 0.087110211 87.11
91 0.749875 0.577 3.334667 0.087754395 87.75
92 0.758437 0.583 3.359009 0.088394974 88.39
93 0.766875 0.590 3.383011 0.089026605 89.03
94 0.774937 0.596 3.405267 0.089612289 89.61
95 0.783375 0.603 3.42873 0.090229737 90.23
96 0.79175 0.609 3.451855 0.090838289 90.84
97 0.8 0.615 3.472062 0.091370053 91.37
98 0.808125 0.622 3.494783 0.091967974 91.97
99 0.816687 0.628 3.516864 0.092549053 92.55
100 0.82525 0.635 3.537157 0.093083079 93.08
101 0.833187 0.641 3.556659 0.093596289 93.60
102 0.841812 0.648 3.576937 0.094129921 94.13
103 0.85025 0.654 3.596949 0.094656553 94.66
104 0.858312 0.660 3.614867 0.095128079 95.13
105 0.866687 0.667 3.634596 0.095647263 95.65
106 0.875187 0.673 3.65297 0.096130789 96.13
107 0.883375 0.680 3.668807 0.096547553 96.55
108 0.8915 0.686 3.687401 0.097036868 97.04
109 0.900062 0.692 3.70507 0.097501842 97.50
110 0.9085 0.699 3.719952 0.097893474 97.89
111 0.916437 0.705 3.735743 0.098309026 98.31
112 0.925062 0.712 3.751668 0.098728105 98.73
113 0.9335 0.718 3.766304 0.099113263 99.11
114 0.9415 0.724 3.780095 0.099476184 99.48
115 0.950062 0.731 3.794801 0.099863184 99.86
116 0.9585 0.737 3.808698 0.100228895 100.23
117 0.96675 0.744 3.820381 0.100536342 100.54
118 0.974875 0.750 3.83353 0.100882368 100.88
119 0.983375 0.756 3.845909 0.101208132 101.21
120 0.991812 0.763 3.85656 0.101488421 101.49
121 0.999875 0.769 3.867643 0.101780079 101.78
122 1.0085 0.776 3.87825 0.102059211 102.06
123 1.016812 0.782 3.888634 0.102332474 102.33
124 1.024875 0.788 3.897644 0.102569579 102.57

62
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
125 1.033375 0.795 3.907684 0.102833789 102.83
126 1.041812 0.801 3.91778 0.103099474 103.10
127 1.050125 0.808 3.924523 0.103276921 103.28
128 1.058125 0.814 3.933126 0.103503316 103.50
129 1.066687 0.821 3.942354 0.103746158 103.75
130 1.075187 0.827 3.949056 0.103922526 103.92
131 1.083187 0.833 3.955437 0.104090447 104.09
132 1.091875 0.840 3.962989 0.104289184 104.29
133 1.10025 0.846 3.969569 0.104462342 104.46
134 1.10825 0.853 3.974359 0.104588395 104.59
135 1.116687 0.859 3.981571 0.104778184 104.78
136 1.125187 0.866 3.987773 0.104941395 104.94
137 1.133437 0.872 3.991558 0.105041 105.04
138 1.1415 0.878 3.997305 0.105192237 105.19
139 1.150062 0.885 4.003016 0.105342526 105.34
140 1.158437 0.891 4.006768 0.105441263 105.44
141 1.166437 0.897 4.01123 0.105558684 105.56
142 1.175125 0.904 4.016089 0.105686553 105.69
143 1.1835 0.910 4.019972 0.105788737 105.79
144 1.191562 0.917 4.02283 0.105863947 105.86
145 1.2 0.923 4.027558 0.105988368 105.99
146 1.208437 0.930 4.031717 0.106097816 106.10
147 1.21675 0.936 4.033749 0.106151289 106.15
148 1.224937 0.942 4.037797 0.106257816 106.26
149 1.233437 0.949 4.041186 0.106347 106.35
150 1.241812 0.955 4.043386 0.106404895 106.40
151 1.249875 0.961 4.046412 0.106484526 106.48
152 1.258437 0.968 4.049026 0.106553316 106.55
153 1.266875 0.975 4.052506 0.106644895 106.64
154 1.275 0.981 4.053752 0.106677684 106.68
155 1.283375 0.987 4.056658 0.106754158 106.75
156 1.29175 0.994 4.060386 0.106852263 106.85
157 1.3 1.000 4.060607 0.106858079 106.86
158 1.308187 1.006 4.063573 0.106936132 106.94
159 1.316687 1.013 4.066533 0.107014026 107.01
160 1.32525 1.019 4.068051 0.107053974 107.05
161 1.333187 1.026 4.069381 0.107088974 107.09
162 1.341812 1.032 4.071903 0.107155342 107.16
163 1.35025 1.039 4.074177 0.107215184 107.22
164 1.358312 1.045 4.074467 0.107222816 107.22
165 1.36675 1.051 4.076927 0.107287553 107.29
166 1.375125 1.058 4.07944 0.107353684 107.35
167 1.383375 1.064 4.079682 0.107360053 107.36

63
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
168 1.391562 1.070 4.082127 0.107424395 107.42
169 1.400125 1.077 4.084374 0.107483526 107.48
170 1.4085 1.083 4.084847 0.107495974 107.50
171 1.416437 1.090 4.086309 0.107534447 107.53
172 1.425062 1.096 4.0884 0.107589474 107.59
173 1.4335 1.103 4.089926 0.107629632 107.63
174 1.441562 1.109 4.090342 0.107640579 107.64
175 1.450125 1.115 4.092525 0.107698026 107.70
176 1.458437 1.122 4.09455 0.107751316 107.75
177 1.46675 1.128 4.094307 0.107744921 107.74
178 1.474875 1.135 4.096256 0.107796211 107.80
179 1.483437 1.141 4.097963 0.107841132 107.84
180 1.491875 1.148 4.098413 0.107852974 107.85
181 1.499937 1.154 4.099316 0.107876737 107.88
182 1.5085 1.160 4.100924 0.107919053 107.92
183 1.516875 1.167 4.102901 0.107971079 107.97
184 1.524937 1.173 4.102452 0.107959263 107.96
185 1.533375 1.180 4.104384 0.108010105 108.01
186 1.541812 1.186 4.106311 0.108060816 108.06
187 1.550062 1.192 4.105852 0.108048737 108.05
188 1.558062 1.199 4.107458 0.108091 108.09
189 1.566687 1.205 4.109515 0.108145132 108.15
190 1.57525 1.212 4.11019 0.108162895 108.16
191 1.583187 1.218 4.110121 0.108161079 108.16
192 1.591812 1.224 4.111967 0.108209658 108.21
193 1.600187 1.231 4.113164 0.108241158 108.24
194 1.60825 1.237 4.113178 0.108241526 108.24
195 1.616687 1.244 4.114485 0.108275921 108.28
196 1.625187 1.250 4.116282 0.108323211 108.32
197 1.633437 1.256 4.11553 0.108303421 108.30
198 1.6415 1.263 4.116974 0.108341421 108.34
199 1.650062 1.269 4.119062 0.108396368 108.40
200 1.6585 1.276 4.118744 0.108388 108.39
201 1.666437 1.282 4.119529 0.108408658 108.41
202 1.675125 1.289 4.120874 0.108444053 108.44
203 1.6835 1.295 4.121803 0.1084685 108.47
204 1.6915 1.301 4.121995 0.108473553 108.47
205 1.700062 1.308 4.123983 0.108525868 108.53
206 1.708437 1.314 4.125103 0.108555342 108.56
207 1.71675 1.321 4.124582 0.108541632 108.54
208 1.724875 1.327 4.125585 0.108568026 108.57
209 1.733312 1.333 4.127131 0.108608711 108.61
210 1.74175 1.340 4.127524 0.108619053 108.62

64
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
211 1.749937 1.346 4.128269 0.108638658 108.64
212 1.7585 1.353 4.129066 0.108659632 108.66
213 1.766812 1.359 4.130135 0.108687763 108.69
214 1.774937 1.365 4.129686 0.108675947 108.68
215 1.783312 1.372 4.131355 0.108719868 108.72
216 1.79175 1.378 4.133101 0.108765816 108.77
217 1.800062 1.385 4.132345 0.108745921 108.75
218 1.808187 1.391 4.133687 0.108781237 108.78
219 1.816687 1.397 4.135087 0.108818079 108.82
220 1.82525 1.404 4.135441 0.108827395 108.83
221 1.833187 1.410 4.135579 0.108831026 108.83
222 1.841875 1.417 4.136873 0.108865079 108.87
223 1.85025 1.423 4.137803 0.108889553 108.89
224 1.858312 1.429 4.137339 0.108877342 108.88
225 1.866687 1.436 4.13888 0.108917895 108.92
226 1.875125 1.442 4.1403 0.108955263 108.96
227 1.883375 1.449 4.139467 0.108933342 108.93
228 1.8915 1.455 4.141008 0.108973895 108.97
229 1.900125 1.462 4.142509 0.109013395 109.01
230 1.9085 1.468 4.142374 0.109009842 109.01
231 1.916437 1.474 4.142584 0.109015368 109.02
232 1.925125 1.481 4.144413 0.1090635 109.06
233 1.9335 1.487 4.144711 0.109071342 109.07
234 1.941562 1.494 4.144296 0.109060421 109.06
235 1.950062 1.500 4.146052 0.109106632 109.11
236 1.958437 1.506 4.147388 0.109141789 109.14
237 1.966749 1.513 4.146879 0.109128395 109.13
238 1.974937 1.519 4.148094 0.109160368 109.16
239 1.983437 1.526 4.149259 0.109191026 109.19
240 1.991875 1.532 4.149157 0.109188342 109.19
241 1.999875 1.538 4.14953 0.109198158 109.20
242 2.008437 1.545 4.15049 0.109223421 109.22
243 2.016875 1.551 4.151676 0.109254632 109.25
244 2.024937 1.558 4.151148 0.109240737 109.24
245 2.033375 1.564 4.152409 0.109273921 109.27
246 2.041812 1.571 4.154198 0.109321 109.32
247 2.050062 1.577 4.153395 0.109299868 109.30
248 2.058125 1.583 4.154453 0.109327711 109.33
249 2.06675 1.590 4.156146 0.109372263 109.37
250 2.075312 1.596 4.156197 0.109373605 109.37
251 2.083187 1.602 4.1562 0.109373684 109.37
252 2.091875 1.609 4.15759 0.109410263 109.41
253 2.100187 1.616 4.158068 0.109422842 109.42

65
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
254 2.108312 1.622 4.157475 0.109407237 109.41
255 2.11675 1.628 4.159155 0.109451447 109.45
256 2.125125 1.635 4.160456 0.109485684 109.49
257 2.133375 1.641 4.159579 0.109462605 109.46
258 2.1415 1.647 4.16114 0.109503684 109.50
259 2.150125 1.654 4.162138 0.109529947 109.53
260 2.158499 1.660 4.161831 0.109521868 109.52
261 2.1665 1.667 4.162551 0.109540816 109.54
262 2.175125 1.673 4.163684 0.109570632 109.57
263 2.183437 1.680 4.164482 0.109591632 109.59
264 2.191562 1.686 4.164011 0.109579237 109.58
265 2.200062 1.692 4.166069 0.109633395 109.63
266 2.2085 1.699 4.166929 0.109656026 109.66
267 2.216749 1.705 4.166198 0.109636789 109.64
268 2.224875 1.711 4.167539 0.109672079 109.67
269 2.233375 1.718 4.168777 0.109704658 109.70
270 2.241812 1.724 4.168729 0.109703395 109.70
271 2.249937 1.731 4.168982 0.109710053 109.71
272 2.2585 1.737 4.169824 0.109732211 109.73
273 2.266874 1.744 4.170962 0.109762158 109.76
274 2.274937 1.750 4.170413 0.109747711 109.75
275 2.283312 1.756 4.171769 0.109783395 109.78
276 2.29175 1.763 4.173516 0.109829368 109.83
277 2.300062 1.769 4.17241 0.109800263 109.80
278 2.308125 1.775 4.173823 0.109837447 109.84
279 2.316687 1.782 4.175033 0.109869289 109.87
280 2.325187 1.789 4.175183 0.109873237 109.87
281 2.333187 1.795 4.17563 0.109885 109.89
282 2.341875 1.801 4.176879 0.109917868 109.92
283 2.350249 1.808 4.177413 0.109931921 109.93
284 2.358249 1.814 4.176739 0.109914184 109.91
285 2.366687 1.821 4.178263 0.109954289 109.95
286 2.375187 1.827 4.179802 0.109994789 109.99
287 2.383437 1.833 4.178604 0.109963263 109.96
288 2.391562 1.840 4.179911 0.109997658 110.00
289 2.400062 1.846 4.181717 0.110045184 110.05
290 2.408437 1.853 4.181267 0.110033342 110.03
291 2.416437 1.859 4.182135 0.110056184 110.06
292 2.425125 1.865 4.183416 0.110089895 110.09
293 2.4335 1.872 4.183518 0.110092579 110.09
294 2.441562 1.878 4.183234 0.110085105 110.09
295 2.450062 1.885 4.185141 0.110135289 110.14
296 2.458437 1.891 4.186295 0.110165658 110.17

66
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
297 2.46675 1.898 4.185847 0.110153868 110.15
298 2.474937 1.904 4.186829 0.110179711 110.18
299 2.483437 1.910 4.187733 0.1102035 110.20
300 2.491875 1.917 4.187864 0.110206947 110.21
301 2.499875 1.923 4.18854 0.110224737 110.22
302 2.5085 1.930 4.189066 0.110238579 110.24
303 2.516875 1.936 4.190333 0.110271921 110.27
304 2.524937 1.942 4.189899 0.1102605 110.26
305 2.533375 1.949 4.19123 0.110295526 110.30
306 2.541749 1.955 4.192504 0.110329053 110.33
307 2.550062 1.962 4.191965 0.110314868 110.31
308 2.558125 1.968 4.193182 0.110346895 110.35
309 2.56675 1.974 4.194491 0.110381342 110.38
310 2.575249 1.981 4.194537 0.110382553 110.38
311 2.583187 1.987 4.194773 0.110388763 110.39
312 2.591812 1.994 4.196163 0.110425342 110.43
313 2.60025 2.000 4.197034 0.110448263 110.45
314 2.608312 2.006 4.196138 0.110424684 110.42
315 2.61675 2.013 4.197713 0.110466132 110.47
316 2.625124 2.019 4.199158 0.110504158 110.50
317 2.633374 2.026 4.198434 0.110485105 110.49
318 2.6415 2.032 4.199512 0.110513474 110.51
319 2.650125 2.039 4.201021 0.110553184 110.55
320 2.658499 2.045 4.200776 0.110546737 110.55
321 2.666437 2.051 4.201348 0.110561789 110.56
322 2.675125 2.058 4.202562 0.110593737 110.59
323 2.6835 2.064 4.203494 0.110618263 110.62
324 2.691562 2.070 4.20303 0.110606053 110.61
325 2.700125 2.077 4.204853 0.110654026 110.65
326 2.708437 2.083 4.205453 0.110669816 110.67
327 2.71675 2.090 4.20543 0.110669211 110.67
328 2.724874 2.096 4.206553 0.110698763 110.70
329 2.733437 2.103 4.207983 0.110736395 110.74
330 2.741812 2.109 4.207806 0.110731737 110.73
331 2.749937 2.115 4.208313 0.110745079 110.75
332 2.7585 2.122 4.209127 0.1107665 110.77
333 2.766812 2.128 4.210233 0.110795605 110.80
334 2.775 2.135 4.209366 0.110772789 110.77
335 2.783374 2.141 4.210991 0.110815553 110.82
336 2.791812 2.148 4.212681 0.110860026 110.86
337 2.800062 2.154 4.211858 0.110838368 110.84
338 2.808125 2.160 4.212908 0.110866 110.87
339 2.816749 2.167 4.214951 0.110919763 110.92

67
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
340 2.825312 2.173 4.21497 0.110920263 110.92
341 2.833187 2.179 4.214888 0.110918105 110.92
342 2.841875 2.186 4.216116 0.110950421 110.95
343 2.850187 2.192 4.217048 0.110974947 110.97
344 2.85825 2.199 4.216365 0.110956974 110.96
345 2.86675 2.205 4.218397 0.111010447 111.01
346 2.875187 2.212 4.219421 0.111037395 111.04
347 2.883437 2.218 4.218597 0.111015711 111.02
348 2.8915 2.224 4.220406 0.111063316 111.06
349 2.900062 2.231 4.22185 0.111101316 111.10
350 2.9085 2.237 4.221099 0.111081553 111.08
351 2.9165 2.243 4.221794 0.111099842 111.10
352 2.925125 2.250 4.223003 0.111131658 111.13
353 2.933499 2.257 4.22379 0.111152368 111.15
354 2.941499 2.263 4.223531 0.111145553 111.15
355 2.950062 2.269 4.225703 0.111202711 111.20
356 2.958437 2.276 4.226202 0.111215842 111.22
357 2.966749 2.282 4.225862 0.111206895 111.21
358 2.974874 2.288 4.227077 0.111238868 111.24
359 2.983375 2.295 4.228414 0.111274053 111.27
360 2.991812 2.301 4.228547 0.111277553 111.28
361 2.999874 2.308 4.228842 0.111285316 111.29
362 3.0085 2.314 4.229824 0.111311158 111.31
363 3.016874 2.321 4.231048 0.111343368 111.34
364 3.025 2.327 4.230544 0.111330105 111.33
365 3.033375 2.333 4.231926 0.111366474 111.37
366 3.041812 2.340 4.233296 0.111402526 111.40
367 3.050124 2.346 4.232736 0.111387789 111.39
368 3.058187 2.352 4.233804 0.111415895 111.42
369 3.066687 2.359 4.235676 0.111465158 111.47
370 3.075249 2.366 4.235813 0.111468763 111.47
371 3.083125 2.372 4.235857 0.111469921 111.47
372 3.091875 2.378 4.237145 0.111503816 111.50
373 3.10025 2.385 4.237934 0.111524579 111.52
374 3.108312 2.391 4.237174 0.111504579 111.50
375 3.116687 2.397 4.23884 0.111548421 111.55
376 3.125124 2.404 4.240566 0.111593842 111.59
377 3.133437 2.410 4.239383 0.111562711 111.56
378 3.1415 2.417 4.240823 0.111600605 111.60
379 3.150124 2.423 4.242447 0.111643342 111.64
380 3.1585 2.430 4.24185 0.111627632 111.63
381 3.166374 2.436 4.242652 0.111648737 111.65
382 3.175124 2.442 4.244112 0.111687158 111.69

68
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
383 3.1835 2.449 4.244624 0.111700632 111.70
384 3.191562 2.455 4.244205 0.111689605 111.69
385 3.200062 2.462 4.246167 0.111741237 111.74
386 3.208437 2.468 4.247553 0.111777711 111.78
387 3.21675 2.474 4.247036 0.111764105 111.76
388 3.224937 2.481 4.248036 0.111790421 111.79
389 3.233437 2.487 4.249477 0.111828342 111.83
390 3.241874 2.494 4.249135 0.111819342 111.82
391 3.249875 2.500 4.249779 0.111836289 111.84
392 3.258437 2.506 4.251042 0.111869526 111.87
393 3.266875 2.513 4.252261 0.111901605 111.90
394 3.274937 2.519 4.251644 0.111885368 111.89
395 3.283374 2.526 4.253052 0.111922421 111.92
396 3.291812 2.532 4.254669 0.111964974 111.96
397 3.299999 2.538 4.253752 0.111940842 111.94
398 3.308125 2.545 4.25492 0.111971579 111.97
399 3.316687 2.551 4.256787 0.112020711 112.02
400 3.325249 2.558 4.256608 0.112016 112.02
401 3.333187 2.564 4.257002 0.112026368 112.03
402 3.341874 2.571 4.258429 0.112063921 112.06
403 3.350187 2.577 4.259351 0.112088184 112.09
404 3.358312 2.583 4.258679 0.1120705 112.07
405 3.36675 2.590 4.260512 0.112118737 112.12
406 3.375187 2.596 4.261386 0.112141737 112.14
407 3.383437 2.603 4.260636 0.112122 112.12
408 3.391499 2.609 4.262145 0.112161711 112.16
409 3.400062 2.615 4.263986 0.112210158 112.21
410 3.408499 2.622 4.26369 0.112202368 112.20
411 3.416437 2.628 4.263862 0.112206895 112.21
412 3.425187 2.635 4.2655 0.11225 112.25
413 3.4335 2.641 4.266189 0.112268132 112.27
414 3.441499 2.647 4.265823 0.1122585 112.26
415 3.450125 2.654 4.267886 0.112312789 112.31
416 3.458437 2.660 4.268642 0.112332684 112.33
417 3.466749 2.667 4.268207 0.112321237 112.32
418 3.474874 2.673 4.26971 0.112360789 112.36
419 3.483375 2.680 4.270719 0.112387342 112.39
420 3.491874 2.686 4.270657 0.112385711 112.39
421 3.499937 2.692 4.271261 0.112401605 112.40
422 3.508499 2.699 4.272163 0.112425342 112.43
423 3.516874 2.705 4.273512 0.112460842 112.46
424 3.524937 2.711 4.272707 0.112439658 112.44
425 3.533312 2.718 4.274349 0.112482868 112.48

69
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
426 3.541812 2.724 4.276142 0.112530053 112.53
427 3.550125 2.731 4.275252 0.112506632 112.51
428 3.558187 2.737 4.276392 0.112536632 112.54
429 3.566687 2.744 4.277708 0.112571263 112.57
430 3.575187 2.750 4.278227 0.112584921 112.58
431 3.583187 2.756 4.278407 0.112589658 112.59
432 3.591875 2.763 4.279803 0.112626395 112.63
433 3.600187 2.769 4.280456 0.112643579 112.64
434 3.608249 2.776 4.279977 0.112630974 112.63
435 3.616687 2.782 4.281589 0.112673395 112.67
436 3.625187 2.789 4.282812 0.112705579 112.71
437 3.633374 2.795 4.281671 0.112675553 112.68
438 3.641562 2.801 4.283594 0.112726158 112.73
439 3.650124 2.808 4.285048 0.112764421 112.76
440 3.658499 2.814 4.284862 0.112759526 112.76
441 3.666437 2.820 4.285469 0.1127755 112.78
442 3.675125 2.827 4.28683 0.112811316 112.81
443 3.683562 2.834 4.287556 0.112830421 112.83
444 3.691562 2.840 4.287037 0.112816763 112.82
445 3.700062 2.846 4.289268 0.112875474 112.88
446 3.708437 2.853 4.290409 0.1129055 112.91
447 3.716749 2.859 4.28972 0.112887368 112.89
448 3.724937 2.865 4.290925 0.112919079 112.92
449 3.733437 2.872 4.291914 0.112945105 112.95
450 3.741812 2.878 4.292118 0.112950474 112.95
451 3.783375 2.910 4.296073 0.113054553 113.05
452 3.825249 2.942 4.299478 0.113144158 113.14
453 3.866687 2.974 4.302823 0.113232184 113.23
454 3.908499 3.007 4.305964 0.113314842 113.31
455 3.950062 3.039 4.310414 0.113431947 113.43
456 3.991874 3.071 4.313474 0.113512474 113.51
457 4.033374 3.103 4.317143 0.113609026 113.61
458 4.075249 3.135 4.321235 0.113716711 113.72
459 4.116749 3.167 4.324615 0.113805658 113.81
460 4.158437 3.199 4.327775 0.113888816 113.89
461 4.200062 3.231 4.332166 0.114004368 114.00
462 4.241812 3.263 4.335083 0.114081132 114.08
463 4.283374 3.295 4.338675 0.114175658 114.18
464 4.325249 3.327 4.342577 0.114278342 114.28
465 4.366749 3.359 4.346154 0.114372474 114.37
466 4.408499 3.391 4.349225 0.114453289 114.45
467 4.450062 3.423 4.353445 0.114564342 114.56
468 4.491874 3.455 4.35665 0.114648684 114.65

70
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
469 4.533374 3.487 4.360097 0.114739395 114.74
470 4.575249 3.519 4.364123 0.114845342 114.85
471 4.61675 3.551 4.367302 0.114929 114.93
472 4.658499 3.583 4.370592 0.115015579 115.02
473 4.700062 3.615 4.374814 0.115126684 115.13
474 4.741874 3.648 4.377828 0.115206 115.21
475 4.783374 3.680 4.381139 0.115293132 115.29
476 4.82525 3.712 4.385069 0.115396553 115.40
477 4.866687 3.744 4.388384 0.115483789 115.48
478 4.908437 3.776 4.391332 0.115561368 115.56
479 4.950061 3.808 4.395891 0.115681342 115.68
480 4.991812 3.840 4.398833 0.115758763 115.76
481 5.033374 3.872 4.402167 0.1158465 115.85
482 5.075249 3.904 4.405505 0.115934342 115.93
483 5.116687 3.936 4.408724 0.116019053 116.02
484 5.158499 3.968 4.411978 0.116104684 116.10
485 5.200124 4.000 4.416483 0.116223237 116.22
486 5.241874 4.032 4.41891 0.116287105 116.29
487 5.283374 4.064 4.422626 0.116384895 116.38
488 5.32525 4.096 4.426329 0.116482342 116.48
489 5.366686 4.128 4.429568 0.116567579 116.57
490 5.408499 4.160 4.43264 0.116648421 116.65
491 5.450124 4.192 4.436834 0.116758789 116.76
492 5.491812 4.224 4.439419 0.116826816 116.83
493 5.533374 4.256 4.442697 0.116913079 116.91
494 5.575249 4.289 4.446038 0.117001 117.00
495 5.616686 4.321 4.449185 0.117083816 117.08
496 5.658499 4.353 4.45272 0.117176842 117.18
497 5.700124 4.385 4.456495 0.117276184 117.28
498 5.741874 4.417 4.459412 0.117352947 117.35
499 5.783374 4.449 4.462688 0.117439158 117.44
500 5.825249 4.481 4.466203 0.117531658 117.53
501 5.866749 4.513 4.469606 0.117621211 117.62
502 5.908436 4.545 4.471899 0.117681553 117.68
503 5.950062 4.577 4.476097 0.117792026 117.79
504 5.991874 4.609 4.478889 0.1178655 117.87
505 6.033374 4.641 4.482409 0.117958132 117.96
506 6.075249 4.673 4.485384 0.118036421 118.04
507 6.116687 4.705 4.488536 0.118119368 118.12
508 6.158499 4.737 4.491545 0.118198553 118.20
509 6.200061 4.769 4.495222 0.118295316 118.30
510 6.241812 4.801 4.497785 0.118362763 118.36
511 6.283374 4.833 4.500968 0.118446526 118.45

71
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
512 6.325249 4.866 4.504201 0.118531605 118.53
513 6.366749 4.897 4.50737 0.118615 118.62
514 6.408498 4.930 4.510089 0.118686553 118.69
515 6.450061 4.962 4.513936 0.118787789 118.79
516 6.491874 4.994 4.516474 0.118854579 118.85
517 6.533373 5.026 4.519655 0.118938289 118.94
518 6.575249 5.058 4.522757 0.119019921 119.02
519 6.616749 5.090 4.526168 0.119109684 119.11
520 6.658498 5.122 4.528908 0.119181789 119.18
521 6.700061 5.154 4.532863 0.119285868 119.29
522 6.741811 5.186 4.535064 0.119343789 119.34
523 6.783311 5.218 4.537613 0.119410868 119.41
524 6.825186 5.250 4.541292 0.119507684 119.51
525 6.866686 5.282 4.54365 0.119569737 119.57
526 6.908499 5.314 4.546832 0.119653474 119.65
527 6.950062 5.346 4.550002 0.119736895 119.74
528 6.991873 5.378 4.55235 0.119798684 119.80
529 7.033374 5.410 4.555683 0.119886395 119.89
530 7.075249 5.442 4.558564 0.119962211 119.96
531 7.116686 5.474 4.561266 0.120033316 120.03
532 7.158499 5.507 4.56364 0.120095789 120.10
533 7.200124 5.539 4.567624 0.120200632 120.20
534 7.241811 5.571 4.56927 0.120243947 120.24
535 7.283374 5.603 4.5727 0.120334211 120.33
536 7.325249 5.635 4.575317 0.120403079 120.40
537 7.366686 5.667 4.578492 0.120486632 120.49
538 7.408499 5.699 4.580299 0.120534184 120.53
539 7.450061 5.731 4.583814 0.120626684 120.63
540 7.491811 5.763 4.585917 0.120682026 120.68
541 7.533374 5.795 4.589162 0.120767421 120.77
542 7.575249 5.827 4.591826 0.120837526 120.84
543 7.616749 5.859 4.594543 0.120909026 120.91
544 7.658437 5.891 4.596844 0.120969579 120.97
545 7.700123 5.923 4.60029 0.121060263 121.06
546 7.741874 5.955 4.602381 0.121115289 121.12
547 7.783374 5.987 4.605521 0.121197921 121.20
548 7.825248 6.019 4.608005 0.121263289 121.26
549 7.866686 6.051 4.610542 0.121330053 121.33
550 7.908499 6.083 4.612722 0.121387421 121.39
551 7.950061 6.115 4.616268 0.121480737 121.48
552 7.991811 6.148 4.617741 0.1215195 121.52
553 8.033311 6.179 4.620677 0.121596763 121.60
554 8.075185 6.212 4.623533 0.121671921 121.67

72
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
555 8.116686 6.244 4.625684 0.121728526 121.73
556 8.158499 6.276 4.627993 0.121789289 121.79
557 8.200062 6.308 4.631466 0.121880684 121.88
558 8.241811 6.340 4.632852 0.121917158 121.92
559 8.283374 6.372 4.635839 0.121995763 122.00
560 8.325312 6.404 4.63848 0.122065263 122.07
561 8.366687 6.436 4.640777 0.122125711 122.13
562 8.408498 6.468 4.643043 0.122185342 122.19
563 8.450124 6.500 4.64646 0.122275263 122.28
564 8.491812 6.532 4.648304 0.122323789 122.32
565 8.533374 6.564 4.65073 0.122387632 122.39
566 8.575249 6.596 4.652927 0.122445447 122.45
567 8.616686 6.628 4.655616 0.122516211 122.52
568 8.658499 6.660 4.657267 0.122559658 122.56
569 8.700061 6.692 4.660496 0.122644632 122.64
570 8.741811 6.724 4.66221 0.122689737 122.69
571 8.783311 6.756 4.66427 0.122743947 122.74
572 8.82525 6.789 4.667264 0.122822737 122.82
573 8.866749 6.821 4.669473 0.122880868 122.88
574 8.908499 6.853 4.671371 0.122930816 122.93
575 8.950124 6.885 4.674348 0.123009158 123.01
576 8.991874 6.917 4.67573 0.123045526 123.05
577 9.033374 6.949 4.678222 0.123111105 123.11
578 9.075249 6.981 4.680598 0.123173632 123.17
579 9.116749 7.013 4.682923 0.123234816 123.23
580 9.158499 7.045 4.684672 0.123280842 123.28
581 9.200061 7.077 4.687652 0.123359263 123.36
582 9.241812 7.109 4.688798 0.123389421 123.39
583 9.283374 7.141 4.691236 0.123453579 123.45
584 9.325186 7.173 4.693487 0.123512816 123.51
585 9.366687 7.205 4.695756 0.123572526 123.57
586 9.408499 7.237 4.697136 0.123608842 123.61
587 9.450062 7.269 4.700336 0.123693053 123.69
588 9.491874 7.301 4.701192 0.123715579 123.72
589 9.533374 7.333 4.703693 0.123781395 123.78
590 9.57531 7.366 4.706 0.123842105 123.84
591 9.616749 7.397 4.708188 0.123899684 123.90
592 9.658499 7.430 4.709512 0.123934526 123.93
593 9.70006 7.462 4.712694 0.124018263 124.02
594 9.741874 7.494 4.713809 0.124047605 124.05
595 9.783373 7.526 4.715962 0.124104263 124.10
596 9.825249 7.558 4.71805 0.124159211 124.16
597 9.866749 7.590 4.720229 0.124216553 124.22

73
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
598 9.908435 7.622 4.721772 0.124257158 124.26
599 9.950061 7.654 4.724116 0.124318842 124.32
600 9.991811 7.686 4.725071 0.124343974 124.34
601 10.033373 7.718 4.72786 0.124417368 124.42
602 10.075249 7.750 4.729535 0.124461447 124.46
603 10.116749 7.782 4.73149 0.124512895 124.51
604 10.158499 7.814 4.732833 0.124548237 124.55
605 10.200123 7.846 4.736002 0.124631632 124.63
606 10.241811 7.878 4.736786 0.124652263 124.65
607 10.283373 7.910 4.73904 0.124711579 124.71
608 10.325249 7.942 4.741073 0.124765079 124.77
609 10.366748 7.974 4.742532 0.124803474 124.80
610 10.408499 8.007 4.744153 0.124846132 124.85
611 10.450061 8.039 4.746773 0.124915079 124.92
612 10.491811 8.071 4.747516 0.124934632 124.93
613 10.533374 8.103 4.749519 0.124987342 124.99
614 10.575248 8.135 4.751401 0.125036868 125.04
615 10.616686 8.167 4.752797 0.125073605 125.07
616 10.658499 8.199 4.754284 0.125112737 125.11
617 10.700061 8.231 4.756806 0.125179105 125.18
618 10.74181 8.263 4.757282 0.125191632 125.19
619 10.783373 8.295 4.76025 0.125269737 125.27
620 10.825248 8.327 4.761485 0.125302237 125.30
621 10.866747 8.359 4.763615 0.125358289 125.36
622 10.908499 8.391 4.764315 0.125376711 125.38
623 10.950061 8.423 4.766964 0.125446421 125.45
624 10.99181 8.455 4.767863 0.125470079 125.47
625 11.033374 8.487 4.769815 0.125521447 125.52
626 11.075248 8.519 4.771378 0.125562579 125.56
627 11.116687 8.551 4.773211 0.125610816 125.61
628 11.158498 8.583 4.774318 0.125639947 125.64
629 11.20006 8.615 4.776547 0.125698605 125.70
630 11.241811 8.648 4.777211 0.125716079 125.72
631 11.283374 8.680 4.779284 0.125770632 125.77
632 11.325311 8.712 4.780696 0.125807789 125.81
633 11.366748 8.744 4.782479 0.125854711 125.85
634 11.408498 8.776 4.783196 0.125873579 125.87
635 11.450061 8.808 4.785774 0.125941421 125.94
636 11.491874 8.840 4.786419 0.125958395 125.96
637 11.533373 8.872 4.78809 0.126002368 126.00
638 11.575249 8.904 4.789441 0.126037921 126.04
639 11.616749 8.936 4.791045 0.126080132 126.08
640 11.658498 8.968 4.792062 0.126106895 126.11

74
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
641 11.700061 9.000 4.794239 0.126164184 126.16
642 11.741811 9.032 4.795166 0.126188579 126.19
643 11.78331 9.064 4.796421 0.126221605 126.22
644 11.825249 9.096 4.798071 0.126265026 126.27
645 11.866685 9.128 4.799481 0.126302132 126.30
646 11.908497 9.160 4.800218 0.126321526 126.32
647 11.950123 9.192 4.802415 0.126379342 126.38
648 11.991811 9.224 4.803019 0.126395237 126.40
649 12.033372 9.256 4.804446 0.126432789 126.43
650 12.075248 9.289 4.805773 0.126467711 126.47
651 12.116748 9.321 4.807291 0.126507658 126.51
652 12.158498 9.353 4.80804 0.126527368 126.53
653 12.20006 9.385 4.810187 0.126583868 126.58
654 12.241873 9.417 4.810974 0.126604579 126.60
655 12.283373 9.449 4.812544 0.126645895 126.65
656 12.325249 9.481 4.813502 0.126671105 126.67
657 12.366685 9.513 4.814755 0.126704079 126.70
658 12.408499 9.545 4.815779 0.126731026 126.73
659 12.45006 9.577 4.817717 0.126782026 126.78
660 12.491811 9.609 4.818352 0.126798737 126.80
661 12.533311 9.641 4.819556 0.126830421 126.83
662 12.575248 9.673 4.820947 0.126867026 126.87
663 12.616747 9.705 4.821788 0.126889158 126.89
664 12.658498 9.737 4.822629 0.126911289 126.91
665 12.700124 9.769 4.824616 0.126963579 126.96
666 12.741873 9.801 4.82503 0.126974474 126.97
667 12.783372 9.833 4.826664 0.127017474 127.02
668 12.825248 9.866 4.827807 0.127047553 127.05
669 12.866685 9.897 4.828838 0.127074684 127.07
670 12.908499 9.930 4.829275 0.127086184 127.09
671 12.95006 9.962 4.831355 0.127140921 127.14
672 12.991809 9.994 4.83197 0.127157105 127.16
673 13.033373 10.026 4.833301 0.127192132 127.19
674 13.075248 10.058 4.834124 0.127213789 127.21
675 13.116685 10.090 4.835176 0.127241474 127.24
676 13.158499 10.122 4.835388 0.127247053 127.25
677 13.20006 10.154 4.837565 0.127304342 127.30
678 13.241873 10.186 4.838124 0.127319053 127.32
679 13.283373 10.218 4.839078 0.127344158 127.34
680 13.325248 10.250 4.840095 0.127370921 127.37
681 13.366747 10.282 4.841238 0.127401 127.40
682 13.408497 10.314 4.841869 0.127417605 127.42
683 13.45006 10.346 4.843571 0.127462395 127.46

75
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
684 13.491811 10.378 4.843683 0.127465342 127.47
685 13.5333 10.410 4.845168 0.127504421 127.50
686 13.575248 10.442 4.846139 0.127529974 127.53
687 13.616686 10.474 4.846937 0.127550974 127.55
688 13.658497 10.507 4.847827 0.127574395 127.57
689 13.70006 10.539 4.849488 0.127618105 127.62
690 13.74181 10.571 4.849662 0.127622684 127.62
691 13.783373 10.603 4.850819 0.127653132 127.65
692 13.825249 10.635 4.851326 0.127666474 127.67
693 13.866748 10.667 4.852634 0.127700895 127.70
694 13.908497 10.699 4.852872 0.127707158 127.71
695 13.950122 10.731 4.854385 0.127746974 127.75
696 13.991874 10.763 4.854977 0.127762553 127.76
697 14.033373 10.795 4.855831 0.127785026 127.79
698 14.075248 10.827 4.856972 0.127815053 127.82
699 14.116685 10.859 4.857318 0.127824158 127.82
700 14.158497 10.891 4.858126 0.127845421 127.85
701 14.200061 10.923 4.859798 0.127889421 127.89
702 14.24181 10.955 4.85945 0.127880263 127.88
703 14.283373 10.987 4.860347 0.127903868 127.90
704 14.325249 11.019 4.861301 0.127928974 127.93
705 14.366686 11.051 4.861929 0.1279455 127.95
706 14.408499 11.083 4.862492 0.127960316 127.96
707 14.450061 11.115 4.863685 0.127991711 127.99
708 14.491872 11.148 4.863903 0.127997447 128.00
709 14.533373 11.180 4.86491 0.128023947 128.02
710 14.575249 11.212 4.865929 0.128050763 128.05
711 14.616748 11.244 4.866801 0.128073711 128.07
712 14.658498 11.276 4.867315 0.128087237 128.09
713 14.700061 11.308 4.86864 0.128122105 128.12
714 14.74181 11.340 4.868623 0.128121658 128.12
715 14.783371 11.372 4.869711 0.128150289 128.15
716 14.825247 11.404 4.870124 0.128161158 128.16
717 14.866686 11.436 4.870564 0.128172737 128.17
718 14.908435 11.468 4.870821 0.1281795 128.18
719 14.950059 11.500 4.872244 0.128216947 128.22
720 14.991811 11.532 4.872176 0.128215158 128.22
721 15.033372 11.564 4.873221 0.128242658 128.24
722 15.075249 11.596 4.873812 0.128258211 128.26
723 15.116749 11.628 4.874253 0.128269816 128.27
724 15.15856 11.660 4.874227 0.128269132 128.27
725 15.200123 11.692 4.876143 0.128319553 128.32
726 15.241873 11.725 4.875655 0.128306711 128.31

76
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
727 15.283372 11.756 4.876838 0.128337842 128.34
728 15.325249 11.789 4.877287 0.128349658 128.35
729 15.366748 11.821 4.877888 0.128365474 128.37
730 15.408434 11.853 4.877946 0.128367 128.37
731 15.450061 11.885 4.879635 0.128411447 128.41
732 15.491811 11.917 4.878942 0.128393211 128.39
733 15.53331 11.949 4.879755 0.128414605 128.41
734 15.575248 11.981 4.880363 0.128430605 128.43
735 15.616747 12.013 4.88096 0.128446316 128.45
736 15.658498 12.045 4.880755 0.128440921 128.44
737 15.700059 12.077 4.882169 0.128478132 128.48
738 15.741872 12.109 4.881748 0.128467053 128.47
739 15.783372 12.141 4.88243 0.128485 128.49
740 15.825309 12.173 4.883054 0.128501421 128.50
741 15.866747 12.205 4.883506 0.128513316 128.51
742 15.908496 12.237 4.883327 0.128508605 128.51
743 15.95006 12.269 4.884709 0.128544974 128.54
744 15.991809 12.301 4.884583 0.128541658 128.54
745 16.03331 12.333 4.885121 0.128555816 128.56
746 16.075249 12.366 4.885477 0.128565184 128.57
747 16.116686 12.397 4.885865 0.128575395 128.58
748 16.158436 12.430 4.88552 0.128566316 128.57
749 16.20006 12.462 4.886914 0.128603 128.60
750 16.24181 12.494 4.88139 0.128457632 128.46
751 16.28331 12.526 4.887111 0.128608184 128.61
752 16.325247 12.558 4.887559 0.128619974 128.62
753 16.366747 12.590 4.887353 0.128614553 128.61
754 16.408495 12.622 4.887075 0.128607237 128.61
755 16.450062 12.654 4.888283 0.128639026 128.64
756 16.491871 12.686 4.887575 0.128620395 128.62
757 16.533373 12.718 4.888636 0.128648316 128.65
758 16.57531 12.750 4.888827 0.128653342 128.65
759 16.616686 12.782 4.888941 0.128656342 128.66
760 16.658499 12.814 4.889113 0.128660868 128.66
761 16.70006 12.846 4.890011 0.1286845 128.68
762 16.741812 12.878 4.889348 0.128667053 128.67
763 16.78331 12.910 4.889638 0.128674684 128.67
764 16.825249 12.942 4.889999 0.128684184 128.68
765 16.866684 12.974 4.889668 0.128675474 128.68
766 16.908497 13.007 4.889343 0.128666921 128.67
767 16.95006 13.039 4.890189 0.128689184 128.69
768 16.99181 13.071 4.88958 0.128673158 128.67
769 17.033371 13.103 4.889947 0.128682816 128.68

77
EXTENSION SPECIMEN GAGE STRESS STRESS
STRAIN (%) LOAD (kN)
POINT LENGTH ‘δ' (kN/mm^2) (MPa)
770 17.066748 13.128 4.890968 0.128709684 128.71
771 17.108311 13.160 4.889261 0.128664763 128.66
772 17.150059 13.192 4.890507 0.128697553 128.70
773 17.191498 13.224 4.889353 0.128667184 128.67
774 17.233372 13.256 4.890547 0.128698605 128.70
775 17.274935 13.288 4.888577 0.128646763 128.65
776 17.316748 13.321 4.890646 0.128701211 128.70
777 17.358248 13.352 4.888445 0.128643289 128.64
778 17.400061 13.385 4.889686 0.128675947 128.68
779 17.441496 13.417 4.887488 0.128618105 128.62
780 17.483437 13.449 4.888966 0.128657 128.66
781 17.524998 13.481 4.886747 0.128598605 128.60
782 17.566748 13.513 4.887601 0.128621079 128.62
783 17.608311 13.545 4.884858 0.128548895 128.55
784 17.650122 13.577 4.885334 0.128561421 128.56
785 17.691561 13.609 4.882179 0.128478395 128.48
786 17.733435 13.641 4.881412 0.128458211 128.46
787 17.774933 13.673 4.877444 0.128353789 128.35
788 17.816748 13.705 4.875445 0.128301184 128.30
789 17.858246 13.737 4.868526 0.128119105 128.12
790 17.900059 13.769 4.862696 0.127965684 127.97
791 17.941498 13.801 4.84972 0.127624211 127.62
792 17.983435 13.833 4.833506 0.127197526 127.20
793 18.024935 13.865 4.805714 0.126466158 126.47
794 18.066683 13.897 4.7703 0.125534211 125.53
795 18.108311 13.929 4.719505 0.1241975 124.20
796 18.150124 13.962 4.661757 0.122677816 122.68
797 18.191561 13.994 4.590756 0.120809368 120.81
798 18.233437 14.026 4.513801 0.118784237 118.78
799 18.274998 14.058 4.423774 0.116415105 116.42
800 18.316748 14.090 4.326749 0.113861816 113.86
801 18.358309 14.122 4.215927 0.110945447 110.95
802 18.400122 14.154 4.096179 0.107794184 107.79
803 18.441559 14.186 3.95994 0.104208947 104.21
804 18.48337 14.218 3.812053 0.100317184 100.32
805 18.524937 14.250 3.643037 0.095869395 95.87
806 18.566748 14.282 3.455964 0.090946421 90.95
807 18.608309 14.314 3.236768 0.085178105 85.18
808 18.650122 14.346 2.966172 0.078057158 78.06
809 18.685621 14.374 -2.342038 -0.061632579 -61.63

78
 FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENT ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT STRUCTURAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Subject Code BFC 21201

Title Laboratory LABORATORY 3 - BUCKLING OF COMPRESSIVE
MEMBERS
Course Code 2 BFF
Date 05 MARCH 2019
Group 2
Name & No Matric MUHAMMAD NASRULLAH BIN RIDZUAN (CF180101)

MUHAMMAD IJLAL BIN ALIAS (CF180129)

MOHAMMAD ATIF BIN ZAKARIA (CF180056)

NAWAL SYAHIRAH BINTI ABU SOID (CF180050)

NURMIRA UMAIRAH BINTI MAHIRAN (CF180034)

Lecture DR NOOR AZLINA BINTI ABDUL HAMID
Received Date 04 APRIL 2019

79
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO CONTENTS PAGE

1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 80

2 ABSTRACT 81

3 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL 82
1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES 83
1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE 83
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY TESTING 84

4 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEWS 85

5 CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY 86 - 90

6 CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND 91 - 94

DISCUSSIONS

7 CONCLUSIONS 95

8 REFERENCES 95

80
 ABSTRACT

Buckling occurs when one of slender member in building (column) is under

compression. Usually, it reflected laterally out of the line action of the forces once
buckling initiates the instability can lead to failure of the column. Because of the
maximum axial load and eccentric forces on the verge of buckling it may cause stress
and deflection due to the combination of the bending and axial force. The objective of
this experiment was to verify Euler’s buckling equation for steel column of various
length that been selected to different end condition. Then were supposed to obtain
measurement. When the strut is subjected to a load that is greater that the critical load,
then instead of remaining straight the column will suddenly sharply curved or bend
due to it being subjected to excess force. The applied load was placed at different
eccentricities for each strut. Six aluminum struts of varying length were also tested.
The measured critical load for each strut was compared against the corresponding
Euler predictions.

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

The experiment hardware fits onto a Structures Test Frame. Students

compress aluminium columns (struts) using a screw mechanism. The equipment
uses chucks to hold the struts and allows different end fixing conditions. An
integral load cell connected to a Digital Force Display will displays the load on
the strut as it is compressed. A magnetic deflection scale shows how much the
strut buckles. Students continue compressing the strut until reaching the critical
buckling load. They then repeat the experiment using different strut lengths or
fixing conditions, analyze their results.

Figure 3.1 – Type of end that been used on experiment.

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1.2 MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THIS LABORATORY ARE AS FOLLOW:

III. To investigate the influence of multiple column lengths and end restraints
under axial loading.

IV. To test the Euler’s theory of buckling.

1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE

1.3.1 APPARATUS

i. Aluminium strut various of length :

* (Strut 1 – 320mm, 300mm, 280mm)

* (Strut 2 – 370mm, 350mm, 330mm)

* (Strut 3 – 420mm, 400mm, 380mm)

ii. Buckling of struts apparatus STR12

Figure 3.2 – Buckling of struts apparatus STR12 with struts

83
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY

Buckling is a mod of failure of structural members who experience high

compressive pressures that cause sudden deflection. Columns are usually subject
to check checks because compression or axial forces are responsible for poaching
and this is common in pole instead of beams. In this experimental way, the
integrity of a sturgeon can be predicted and calculated. In contrast, the side
deflection caused by buckling is unstable. As soon as a member begins to slide,
any further burden will cause a significant and uncertain deformation.

84
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The slender columns placed in compression are prone to fail by buckling. This is
actually a bending phenomenon, driven by the bending moment that develops if and
when the beam undergoes a transverse deflection. The most well-known and common
failure mode is flexural buckling, often referred to as Euler buckling, strut buckling or
just buckling. Torsional buckling, flexural torsional buckling, lateral torsional
buckling and plastic buckling are the other most common phenomenon that occurs,
and these are known to most structural engineers. In some cases, long columns can
even buckle with no other forces than gravity working on it. This phenomenon is
known as self-buckling.

For the calculations the aluminum struts were (like most construction materials)
assumed to behave in a linear-elastic way, i.e. the struts deflected under the axial load,
but recovered their original shape after the load was removed, because the limit of
proportionality was not reached. (Hulse & Cain, 2000). The study conducted by Bruce
G. Johnston, Hon. M. ASCE, Journal: ‘Column Buckling Theory: Historic Highlights’,
historic highlights and milestones are presented to cover the development and
application of the Euler formula for buckling strength of a geometrically perfect
column together with modifications for inelastic behavior. The latter (nonlinear)
behavior may be due either to inherent material properties, such as for a structural
aluminum alloy, or due to the presence of residual stresses induced by cooling of
hot‐rolled shapes. The story of the column formula has had continuity over a 239
years period and can well form the starring point toward a better understanding of the
column buckling theory and design.

85
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 FLOWCHART / FRAMEWORK

START

THE SPECIMEN SHOULD BE SECURED ON THE COLUMN

BUCKLING MACHINE WITH EACH ENDOF THE
SPECIMEN BEING SUPPORTED PER CASE

A DIAL GAGE SHOULD BE ATTACHED TO THE

COLUMN BUCKLING MACHINE SUCH THAT
ANY DEFLECTION OF THE BEAM CAN BE
EASILY MEASURED AND RECORDED.

PLACE WITH DIFFERENT LENGHT OF

STRUT

 STRUT 1

 STRUT 2

 STRUT 3

MAKE A CALCULATION FOR RESULT

86
 3.2 EQUATION / THEORIES-DERIVATION

The bucking theory under compressive axial load was discovered by Leonard
Euler between 1707 to 1783. By taking the end restrained condition supported by
pinned connections and friction less, an ideal column which is symmetric with
deflection occurring only in one plane is derived and expressed by equation 1.0.

 2 EI
Pcr  equation 1.0
(kL ) 2

where,

Per : buckling load / critical axial load

E : modulus of elasticity

I : moment of inertia / second moment of area

bh 3
I , rectangular cross section of dimension b x h
12

L : actual length

Table 3.3 - n-k relationship

87
 3.3 PROCEDURE

1. Device has been set.

2. The desired test specimen is selected.

3. The strut dimensions have been measured and calculated on the worksheet.

4. The chosen strut is the number 1 strut with 320mm, 300mm, 280mm, Strut number
2 with 370mm, 350mm, 330mm and finally strut 3420mm, 400mm, 380mm.

5. Expected tilt load calculated for final state.

6. Test specimens have been installed in the test machine with the final condition
selected.

7. The test starts.

8. Gradually apply for a load increase, and must be checked back every time the
column is changed.

9. The nut is mounted at the end of the strut by type of end.

10. Strut deflection and stability have been recorded from digital display.

88
 PICTURE AND DETAILS

Step 1: Step 2:

Strut dimension have been measured to The test specimen has been set up before the
determine the second moment of area (I). experiment started.
The equation been used is for rectangular
because the strut shape.

Step 3: Step 4:

The strut been placed at test specimen and Balance the digital display reading to zero
the nut has been tighten. to avoid any error.

89
Step 5: Step 6:

Start apply the load to the strut until the The result after the load has been applied to
digital display reading constant. the strut.

90
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.4 DATA AND RESULTS

Figure 3.4 - Data About Buckling of Strut

* Pin – Pin End

Strut Length (m) Bucking 1/L² (m²) Experimen Percentage

Number Load (N) t (%)
Theory

1 0.32 84.24 9.77 71 -9%

2 0.37 63.01 7.30 67 15%

3 0.42 48.90 5.67 48 6%

* NOTE – E used is Aluminium = 69 GPa

91
 * Pin – Fixed End

Strut Length (m) Bucking 1/L² (m²) Experimen Percentage

Number Load (N) t (%)
Theory

1 0.30 191.69 11.11 88 -1%

2 0.35 140.83 8.16 70 7%

3 0.40 107.83 6.25 47 -6%

* NOTE – E used is Aluminium = 69 GPa

* Fixed – Fixed End

Strut Length (m) Bucking 1/L² (m²) Experimen Percentage

Number Load (N) t (%)
Theory

1 0.28 440.10 12.72 108 6%

2 0.33 316.84 9.18 75 2%

3 0.38 238,95 6.93 60 8%

* NOTE – E used is Aluminium = 69 GPa

4.5 CALCULATION

Second moment of area (I)

d = 2mm

b = 19mm

bd^吾
=

3
(0.019)(0.002)
I
12

I  1.2667 x10 11 m 4

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Calculation equation used for L = 320

 For Pin-Pin End Condition

 2 EI  2 (69 x109 )(1.2667 x10 11 )

Pcr  
L2 (0.320) 2

Pcr  84.24 N

Calculation equation used for L = 300

 For Fixed-Fixed End Condition

4 2 EI 4 2 (69 x109 )(1.2667 x10 11 )

Pcr  
L2 (0.280) 2

Pcr  440.10 N

Calculation equation used for L = 280

 For Pin-Fixed End Condition

2 2 EI 2 2 (69 x109 )(1.2667 x10 11 )

Pcr  
L2 (0.300) 2

Pcr  191.69 N

93
DISCUSSION

Difference between Theoretical and Measured Results

There are some errors mentioned between the calculated and calculated train
value the value we read from the experiment. Euler's theorem is an ideal solution
that assumes perfect sinus deformation, constant temperature, perfect elastic
bending and no weaknesses exist in the assessment section. Obviously, this is
totally unreasonable and therefore a big mistake between the recorded and
calculated values will be expected.

From our experiments, the main cause of the difference between us is

measured and the calculated results are strut deformation due to residual stresses
and any plastic deformation retained due to its use before being repeated. Also,
we have no control in the experiment whether the modulus of elasticity we use in
calculations very suitable for grade and aluminum quality we use.

As a result, defective deflection shows more excessive points inside peak

strut than can be expected from half deformation deformation. Euler's method is
considered a fairly basic demonstration and not. Therefore, it is used for all
design purposes, so the effective length constant is different practice and theory.
However, theoretical value is useful for their structural analysis the best way to
look at linear loads is linear straight and can be used quickly gives a precise
picture of how a strut will eventually fail.

94
CONCLUSION

The purpose of this laboratory is to determine how long beams and resistance
over critical loads. Experimental data support the theory of calculations that the
square length of the column length inverse is directly related to the critical load.
Additionally, clamps to overtake ends are likely to result in a critical load of about
four times greater than the supported method alone. With respect to the slenderness
ratio of critical pressure, theoretical data is supported even with a slight error from the
critical load to the flanked state. Each experiment follows a trend that increases
slenderness ratio to lower critical pressure. This indicates that when the masts are
designed to hold the pads, they should be kept as fast as possible, and they should also
be flanked at the ends. Another method not tested in this experiment is to increase
column stiffness either using geometry or material properties

REFERENCES

ALI, A. M. (2015, October 26). Acedemia. Retrieved from

https://www.academia.edu/18641591/Buckling_test_report, (March 24,

2019)

Buckling experiment introduction. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.princeton.edu/ssp/...buckling/Buckling-Experiment-Introduction.

docx

HASSAN, M. S. (n.d.). Retrieved March 24, 2019, from

http://umpir.ump.edu.my/id/eprint/4595/1/cd6870_66.pdf

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Experimental Investigation Of Burkul In Steel And Aluminum Bars, 1

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