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Chapter 11 Boolean Algebra

11 BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• be able to use AND, NOT, OR and NAND gates;
• be able to use combinatorial and switching circuits;
• understand equivalent circuits;
• understand the laws of Boolean algebra;
• be able to simplify Boolean expressions;
• understand Boolean functions;
• be able to minimise circuits;
• understand the significance of half and full adder circuits.

11.0 Introduction
When George Boole (1815-186) developed an algebra for logic,
little did he realise that he was forming an algebra that has
become ideal for the analysis and design of circuits used in
computers, calculators and a host of devices controlled by
microelectronics. Boole's algebra is physically manifested in
electronic circuits and this chapter sets out to describe the
building blocks used in such circuits and the algebra used to
describe the logic of the circuits.

11.1 Combinatorial circuits

The circuits and switching arrangements used in electronics are
very complex but, although this chapter only deals with simple
binary digits
circuits, the functioning of all microchip circuits is based on the
ideas in this chapter. The flow of electrical pulses which
bits
represent the binary digits 0 and 1 (known as bits) is controlled
by combinations of electronic devices. These logic gates act as
switches for the electrical pulses. Special symbols are used to
represent each type of logic gate.

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NOT gate

The NOT gate is capable of reversing the input pulse. The truth
table for a NOT gate is as follows:
a ~a
Input Output
a ~a This is a NOT gate

0 1
1 0

The NOT gate receives an input, either a pulse (1) or no pulse (0)
and produces an output as follows :

If input a is 1, output is 0;

and if input a is 0, output is 1.

AND gate

The AND gate receives two inputs a and b, and produces an output
denoted by a∧ b . The truth table for an AND gate is as follows :

Input Output
a
a b a∧ b a∧b
b
0 0 0 This is an AND gate
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The only way that the output can be 1 is when a AND b are both 1.
In other words there needs to be an electrical pulse at a AND b
before the AND gate will output an electrical pulse.

OR gate

The OR gate receives two inputs a and b, and produces an output

denoted by a∨ b . The truth table for an OR gate is as follows:

Input Output
a b a∨ b
a
0 0 0 a∨b
b
0 1 1 This is an OR gate
1 0 1
1 1 1

The output will be 1 when a or b or both are 1.

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Chapter 11 Boolean Algebra

These three gates, NOT, AND and OR, can be joined together
to form combinatorial circuits to represent Boolean
expressions, as explained in the previous chapter.

Example
Use logic gates to represent

(a) ~ p∨ q

(b) ( x∨ y)∧ ~ x
Draw up the truth table for each circuit

Solution
(a) p q ~p ~ p∨ q
0 0 1 1
∼p
0 1 1 1 p
~p∨q
q
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1

(b) x y x∨y ~x (x ∨ y) ∧ ~x
~x
0 0 0 1 0
(x∨y)∧ ~x
0 1 1 1 1 x (x∨y)
y
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0

Exercise 11A
Use logic gates to represent these expressions and Write down the Boolean expression for each of the
draw up the corresponding truth tables. circuits below.

1. x∧ ( ~ y∨ x) 4. a
b
2. a∨ ( ~ b ∧ c)
c
3. [ a∨ ( ~ b ∨ c)]∧ ~ b
5.
p
q

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Chapter 11 Boolean Algebra

11.2 When are circuits

equivalent?
Two circuits are said to be equivalent if each produce the same
outputs when they receive the same inputs.

Example
Are these two combinatorial circuits equivalent?

a
a
b
b

Solution
The truth tables for both circuits will show if they are equivalent :

a b ~ ( a∧ b)
0 0 1
0 1 1 a
b
1 0 1
1 1 0

a b ~ a∨ ~ b
0 0 1
a
0 1 1
1 0 1 b
1 1 0

Work through the values in the truth tables for yourself. Since both
tables give the same results the two circuits are equivalent. Indeed
the two Boolean expressions are equivalent and can be put equal;

i.e. ~ ( a∧ b) = ~ a∨ ~ b

Exercise 11B
Show if these combinatorial circuits are equivalent by
working out the Boolean expression and the truth table
for each circuit.

1. a 2.
b a
b
a

a
b
b

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Chapter 11 Boolean Algebra

3. 4. a
a b

b c

a a

b b
c

11.3 Switching circuits

A network of switches can be used to represent a Boolean
expression and an associated truth table.

Generally the switches are used to control the flow of an electrical

current but you might find it easier to consider a switching circuit as
a series of water pipes with taps or valves at certain points.

One of the reasons for using switching circuits rather than logic
gates is that designers need to move from a combinatorial circuit
(used for working out the logic) towards a design which the
manufacturer can use for the construction of the electronic circuits.

This diagram shows switches A, B and C which can be open or

closed. If a switch is closed it is shown as a 1 in the following table A B
whilst 0 shows that the switch is open. The switching table for this C
circuit is as follows :

A B C Circuit output

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

The table shows that there will be an output (i.e. 1) when A AND B
are 1 OR C is 1. This circuit can therefore be represented as

(A AND B) OR C

ie. (A ∧ B) ∨ C

The circuit just considered is built up of two fundamental circuits:

• a series circuit, often called an AND gate, A ∧ B A B

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Chapter 11 Boolean Algebra

A
• a parallel circuit, often called an OR gate, A ∨ B.
B
The next step is to devise a way of representing negation. The
negation of the truth value 1 is 0 and vice versa, and in
switching circuits the negation of a 'closed' path is an 'open'
path.
A ~A
This circuit will always be 'open' whatever the state of A. In
other words the output will always be 0, irrespective of whether
A is 1 or 0. A

This circuit will always be 'closed' whatever the state of A. The ~A

output will always be 1 irrespective of whether A is 1 or 0.

Example A B
Represent the circuit shown opposite symbolically and give the C ~A
switching table.

Solution
The symbolic representation can be built up by considering
the top line of the circuit (A ∧ B)
the top bottom of the circuit (C ∧ ~A).

Combining these gives the result (A ∧ B) ∨ (C ∧ ~A)

The table is as follows.

A B C ~A A ∧B C∧ ~ A ( A ∧ B ) ∨ (C ∧ ~ A )
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 1

Activity 1 Make your own circuit

Bulb
B
Using a battery, some wire, a bulb and some switches, construct A
the following circuit. C ~B

A simple switch can be made using two drawing pins and a

paper clip which can swivel to close the switch. The pins can be Battery
pushed into a piece of corrugated cardboard or polystyrene.

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Chapter 11 Boolean Algebra

Using the usual notation of 1 representing a closed switch and 0

representing an open switch, you can set the switches to represent
each line of this table:

A B C Output

0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

Remember that the '~B' switch is always in the opposite state to

the 'B' switch.

Record the output using 1 if the bulb lights up (i.e. circuit is

closed) and 0 if the bulb fails to light (i.e. circuit is open)

Represent the circuit symbolically and draw up another table to see

if you have the same output.

Exercise 11C
Represent the following circuits by Boolean
expressions:
B Draw switching circuits for these Boolean
1. A expressions:
D
~D C 3. A ∨ ( ~ B ∧ C )

4. A ∧ (( ~ B ∧ C ) ∨ ( B∧ ~ C ))
A
2. D
A C B
C
~D

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Chapter 11 Boolean Algebra

11.4 Boolean algebra

A variety of Boolean expressions have been used but George
Boole was responsible for the development of a complete
algebra. In other words, the expressions follow laws similar to
those of the algebra of numbers.

The operators ∧ and ∨ have certain properties similar to those

of the arithmetic operators such as +, −, × and ÷.

(a) Associative laws

(a∨ b) ∨ c= a∨ (b ∨ c)
and (a∧ b) ∧ c= a∧ (b ∧ c)
(b) Commutative laws
a∨ b = b ∨ a

and a∧ b = b ∧ a

(c) Distributive laws

a∧ ( b ∨ c) = ( a∧ b) ∨ ( a∧ c)
and a∨ ( b ∧ c) = ( a∨ b) ∧ ( a∨ c)

These laws enable Boolean expressions to be simplified and

another law developed by an Englishman, Augustus de Morgan
(1806-1871), is useful. He was a contemporary of Boole and
worked in the field of logic and is now known for one important
result bearing his name:-

(d) de Morgan's laws

~ ( a∨ b) = ~ a∧ ~ b

and ~ ( a∧ b) = ~ a∨ ~ b

Note: You have to remember to change the connection,

∧ changes to ∨, ∨ changes to ∧ .

Two more laws complete the range of laws which are included
in the Boolean algebra.

(e) Identity laws

open switch = 0
a∨ 0 = a
a
a

and a∧ 1 = a closed switch = 1

a a

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(f) Complement laws

a
a∨ ~ a = 1 1
~a

and a∧ ~ a = 0 a ~a 0

The commutative law can be developed to give a further result

which is useful for the simplification of circuits.
a
Consider the expressions a∧ ( a∨ b) and the corresponding a
circuit. ~bb

If switch a is open (a = 0) what can you say about the whole

circuit? What happens when switch a is closed (a = 1)? Does
the switch b have any effect on your answers?

The truth table for the circuit above shows that a∧ ( a∨ b) = a.

a b a∧ (a∨ b)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1

This result can be extended to more switches. For example

if a∧ ( a∨ b) = a

then a∧ ( a∨ b ∨ c) = a
and a∧ ( a∨ b ∨ c) ∧ ( a∨ b) ∧ ( b ∨ c) = a∧ ( b ∨ c) .

The last of these expressions is represented by this circuit:

a a b
a b
c b c

which can be replaced by the simplified circuit:

b
a
c

Example
c b
Write down a Boolean expression for this circuit. Simplify the
a b c a
expression and draw the corresponding circuit. a d

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Solution

a∧ b ∧ ( a∨ c) ∧( b ∨ ( c∧ a) ∨ d)
a∧ ( a∨ c) ∧ b ∧ ( b ∨ ( c∧ a) ∨ d)

Since a∧ ( a∨ c) = a

and b ∧ ( b ∨ ( c∧ a) ∨ d) = b ,

an equivalent expression is a∧ b

and the circuit simplifies to a b

Activity 2 Checking with truth tables

Draw truth tables for the example above to check that

a∧ b ∧ ( a∨ c) ∧ ( b ∨ ( c∧ a) ∨ d) = a∧ b

Exercise 11D
Simplify the following and check your answers by 3. Simplify the following circuit:
drawing up truth tables:
a b b a
1. a∨ ( ~ a∧ b)

2. a∧ [ b ∨ ( a∧ b)] ∧ [ a∨ ( ~ a∧ b)]
c c d d

11.5 Boolean functions

In the same way as algebraic functions describe the relationship
between the domain, (a set of inputs) and the range (a set of
outputs), a Boolean function can be described by a Boolean
expression. For example, if

f ( x1 ,x2 ,x3 ) = x1 ∧ ( ~ x2 ∨ x3 )

then f is the Boolean function and

x1 ∧ ( ~ x2 ∨ x3 )

is the Boolean expression.

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Example
Draw the truth table for the Boolean function defined as

f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 ∧ ( ~ x2 ∨ x3 )

Solution
The inputs and outputs of this Boolean function are shown in the
following table:

x1 x2 x3 f ( x1 ,x2 ,x3 )

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

It is sometimes necessary to form a function from a given truth

table. The method of achieving this is described in the
following example.

Example
For the given truth table, form a Boolean function

a b c f ( a, b, c)

0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

Solution
The first stage is to look for the places where f (a,b,c) is 1 and
then link them all together with 'OR's. For example, in the last
row f (a, b, c) = 1 and this is the row in which a, b and c are all
true; i.e. when a∧ b ∧ c= 1 .

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The output is also 1, (i.e. f ( a, b, c) = 1 ) in the 7th row which

leads to the combination
a∧ b∧ ~ c= 1
Similarly, for the 5th row
a∧ ~ b∧ ~ c= 1
and for the 2nd row
~ a∧ ~ b ∧ c= 1
and for the 1st row

~ a∧ ~ b∧ ~ c= 1

All these combinations are joined using the connective ∨ to give

the Boolean expression

( a∧ b ∧ c) ∨ ( a∧ b∧ ~ c) ∨ ( a∧ ~ b∧ ~ c) ∨ ( ~ a∧ ~ b ∧ c) ∨ ( ~ a∧ ~ b∧ ~ c)
If the values of a, b and c are as shown in the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 7th
and 8th row then the value of f ( a, b, c) = 1 in each case, and the
expression above has a value of 1. Similarly if a, b and c are as
shown in the table for which f ( a, b, c) = 0 then the expression
above has the value of 0.

The Boolean function for the truth table is therefore given by

f ( a, b, c) = ( a∧ b ∧ c) ∨ ( a∧ b∧ ~ c) ∨ ( a∧ ~ b∧ ~ c) ∨ ( ~ a∧ ~ b ∧ c) ∨ ( ~ a∧ ~ b∧ ~ c)

This is called the disjunctive normal form of the function f; the

combinations formed by considering the rows with an output
value of 1 are joined by the disjunctive connective, OR.

Exercise 11E
Find the disjunctive normal form of the Boolean
function for these truth tables:

1. a b f (a, b) 3. x y z f (x, y, z)

0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
2. a b f (a, b)
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1

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11.6 Minimisation with NAND

gates
When designing combinatorial circuits, efficiency is sought by
minimising the number of gates (or switches) in a circuit. Many
computer circuits make use of another gate called a NAND gate
which is used to replace NOT AND, thereby reducing the
number of gates.

The NAND gate receives inputs a and b and the output is

denoted by a↑ b .

The symbol used is

a
a b
b

The truth table for this is

a b a↑ b
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The NAND gate is equivalent to

a a∧b
~(a∧b)
b

Note that, by de Morgan's law, ~ ( a∧ b) =~ a∨ ~ b.

Example
Use NAND gates alone to represent the function

f ( a, b, c, d) = ( a∧ b) ∨ ( c∧ d)

Solution
The use of NAND gates implies that there must be negation so
the function is rewritten using de Morgan's Laws:

( a∧ b) ∨ ( c∧ d) = ~ [( ~ a ∨ ~ b) ∧ ( ~ c ∨ ~ d)]

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The circuit consisting of NAND gates is therefore as follows:

a (~a∨~b)
b
f(a, b, c, d,)
c
d
(~c∨~d)

Example
Design combinatorial circuits to represent (a) the negation
function f ( x) =~ x and (b) the OR function f ( x, y) = x∨ y.

Solution
(a) ~ x = ~ ( x∨ x ) x ~x
= ~ x∧ ~ x
= x↑ x

(b) x∨ y = ~ ( ~ x ∧ ~ y) x

= ~ x↑ ~ y y
(
= x↑x ↑ y↑ y) ( )

Exercise 11F
Design circuits for each of the following using only
NAND gates.

1. a∧ b
2. a∧ ~ b
3. ( ~ a∧ ~ b)∨ ~ b

11.7 Full and half adders

Computers turn all forms of data into binary digits , (0 s and 1
s), called bits, which are manipulated mathematically. For
example the number 7 is represented by the binary code
00000111 (8 bits are used because many computers use binary
digits in groups of 8, for example, ASCII code). This section
describes how binary digits can be added using a series of logic
gates. The basic mathematical operation is addition since

subtraction is the addition of negative numbers,

multiplication is repeated addition,

division is repeated subtraction.

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When you are adding two numbers there are two results to note for
each column; the entry in the answer and the carrying figure.
254
178
432
11

When 4 is added to 8 the result is 12, 2 is noted in the answer and the
digit 1 is carried on to the next column.
When adding the second column the carry digit from the first column
is included, i.e. 5 + 7 + 1, giving yet another digit to carry on to the
next column.

Half adder
The half adder is capable of dealing with two inputs, i.e. it can only
add two bits, each bit being either 1 or 0.
a b Carry bit Answer bit
a
0 0 0 0 b
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 Carry Answer
bit bit

Activity 3 Designing the half adder circuit

The next stage is to design a circuit which will give the results shown
in the table above.

The first part of the circuit is shown opposite; complete the rest of the a
Carry bit
circuit which can be done with a NOT gate, an OR gate and an AND b
?
gate to give the answer bit. ?

Full Adder
A half adder can only add two bits; a full adder circuit is capable of
including the carry bit in the addition and therefore has three inputs.
1 1 1 111
1 1 0 110 +

carry 1 carry 0 carry

Full Full Full 0
adder adder adder

1 1 0 1 1101

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Activity 4 Full adder truth table

Complete this truth table for the full adder.

Inputs
a b c Carry bit Answer bit a b

0 0 0 0 0
Full
0 0 1 0 1 carry bit c
adder
0 1 0
etc ↓ answer bit
1 1 1

The circuit for a full adder is, in effect, a combination of two a

half adders. b
carry bit
half adder
If you think about it, the carry bit of the full adder must be 1 if
either of the two half adders shown gives a carry bit of 1 (and in
fact it is impossible for both those half adders to give a carry bit carry bit c
of 1 at the same time). Therefore the two carry bits from the half adder
half adders are fed into an OR gate to give an output equal to the
carry bit of the full adder.
carry bit answer bit
The circuit for a full adder consists, therefore, of two half adders
with the carry bits feeding into an OR gate as follows:

a
b carry bit

answer bit

The dotted lines enclose the two half adders with the whole
circuit representing a full adder.

Activity 5 NAND half adder

Draw up a circuit to represent a half adder using only NAND
gates.

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11.8 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Use logic gates to represent these expressions 5. Draw the simplest switching circuit
and draw up the corresponding truth tables: represented by this table:
(a) ~ [( a∧ b) ∨ c] P Q R S Output

(b) ( a∧ b)∨ ~ c 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
(c) ~ c∧ [( a∧ b)∨ ~ ( a∧ c)] 1 1 0 1 1
2. Write down the Boolean expression for each of 0 1 0 1 1
these circuits:
(a) 6. A burglar alarm for a house is controlled by a
p
switch. When the switch is on, the alarm sounds
q
if either the front or back doors or both doors are
opened. The alarm will not work if the switch is
r
off. Design a circuit of logic gates for the alarm
and draw up the corresponding truth table.
(b) p *7. A gallery displaying a famous diamond uses a
q special Security Unit to protect access to the
Display Room (D). The diagram below shows
the layout of the system.
r
D D
A B S S
(c) p
Y Z C
q
S S
r D D
The display cabinet (C) is surrounded by a screen
of electronic eyes (S).
3. Write down the Boolean expressions for these Access to the display room is through doors (Y),
circuits : (Z). Boxes (A), (B) are used in the system. The
(a) A following persons are involved in the system :
B Manager,
C C Deputy Manager,
Chief Security Officer.
~B The Display Room is opened as follows :
The Unit must be activated at box A.
(b) R
P Door (Y) is opened by any two of the
P
Q ~P above persons at box A.
S
~Q Box B is activated by the Manager and
Deputy Manager together.
The screen (S) is activated by the Chief
(c) A D
Security Officer alone at box B only.
C
Door (Z) can only be opened once the
B E
screen (S) is activated.
Draw a circuit of logic gates required inside the
4. Draw switching circuits for these Boolean Unit to operate it. Ensure your diagram is
expressions: documented.

(a) ( B ∧ C ) ∨ (C ∧ A ) ∨ ( A ∧ B ) (AEB)

(b) [ A ∧ (( B∧ ~ C ) ∨ ( ~ B ∧ C ))] ∨ ( ~ A ∧ B ∧ C )

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8. Simplify the following expressions and check 10. Design a circuit representing ~ a∨ b using
your answer by drawing up truth tables. NAND gates.
(a) ( a∧ b ∧ c) ∨ ( ~ a∧ b ∧ c) *11. Write a computer program or use a spreadsheet
that outputs a truth table for a given Boolean
(b) a∨ ( ~ a∧ b ∧ c) ∨ ( ~ a∧ b∧ ~ c) expression.
12. (a) Establish a truth table for the Boolean
(c) ( p ∧ q) ∨ ( ~ p∨ ~ q) ∧ ( r∨ s)
( )
function f x1 , x2, x3 = ( ~ x1 ∨ x2 ) ∧ ( ~ x3 ∨ x2 ) .
9. Find the disjunctive normal form of this function; (b) Design a circuit using as few AND, OR and
simplify and draw the combinatorial circuit. NOT gates as possible to model the function
a b c f ( a,b,c) in (a).

0 0 0 0 13. (a) Show, by constructing truth tables or

otherwise, that the following statements are
0 0 1 0 equivalent.
0 1 0 0
p ⇒ q and ~ ( ~ ( p ∧ q) ∧ p) .
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 (b) With the aid of (a), or otherwise, construct
combinatorial circuits consisting only of
1 0 1 1 NAND gates to represent the functions
1 1 0 1
f ( x, y) = x ⇒ y and g( x, y) =~ ( x ⇔ y) .
1 1 1 1

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