MEASI Academy of Architecture: Chennai-600014

[Affiliated to Anna University]

1 Programme B.Arch 6 Theory Cum Studio
2 Regulation 2017 7 Semester 6
3 Course Title BUILDING MATERIALS 8 Academic Year 2019 - 2020
AND CONSTRUCTION V
4 Course Code AR8621 9 Department ARCHITECTURE
5 Course Faculty Ar.Suhasini 1 No. of Credits 3
Associate Professor 0
UNIT I
GLASS
Glass as a building material. Brief history of its use through examples. Manufacture, properties and uses of
glass. Types of glass - float glass, cast glass, glass blocks, foamed glass, decorative glass solar control,
toughened glass, wired glass, laminated glass, fire-resistant glass, glass blocks, structural glass. Glass and
energy efficiency in buildings. Application of glass in building industry. Introduction to curtain wall glazing.
Current innovations. Understanding of product literature/ shop drawings. Site visits with documentation in
the form of sketches/ photos

GLASS AS A BUILDING MATERIAL(Minimal weight and maximum size is the motto)

 Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent or translucent and brittle in nature.
 Glass today, has become an integral part of modern day architecture.
 Using glass in a building instantly adds a touch of modernity to the living space.
 It not only gives the designers the choice of finish and a manifestation to their design aspirations,
but also a wonderful chance to participate with the outside world.
 Glass, in fact, is the only building material which can not only give see-through properties but also
the desired structural strength to be used in facades.
 glass is the choice for constructing lighter buildings. It also works for serious load reduction on the
foundation, versus brick.
 In good times, modern glass products have proved their sustainability, ease of maintenance while
meeting new requirements of thermal insulation.
 Glass elements in architectural design are adding a touch of class to green concerns, both
emotional and environmental.
 contemporary and with a style of its own – Glass architecture is gaining popularity as its free
flowing nature meets contemporary requirements of fashion trends of glazed facades,
adaptability to elements like color and prints and innovations fitting into architectural
regulations.

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Associate Professor
A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLASS IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY
 Glass blowing(Glassblowing, the practice of shaping a mass of glass that has been softened by
heat by blowing air into it through a tube) was discovered in the 1st century in Europe, this
revolutionized the glass making industry.
 The technique spread throughout the Roman Empire.
 Production of Clear glass, by introduction of manganese dioxide, saw glass being used for
architectural purposes.
 Cast glass windows began to appear in the most important buildings and villas in Rome and
Pompeii.
 Over the next 1,000 years glass making spread through all of Europe and Middle East.
 In 7th century Anglo Saxon glass(This window with its haloed figure was reconstructed from pieces
of glass) was used in churches and cathedrals

 By 11th century sheet glass(sheet glass is a type of glass, initially produced in plane form) was
made by the crown glass process. (To make crown glass, blowers took a gob of molten glass and
blew it into the shape of a very large balloon)

 In this process, the glassblower would spin molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a
disk.
 The disk would then be cut into panes.
 By 13th century, this technique was perfected in Venice.
 Stain glass windows were used in gothic renaissance and baroque architecture from the 11th to the
18th century.
 The examples of stunning patterns created by using colorful glass are immortalized by great artists
all over the world.
 The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-19th century. in the 19th century, flat / sheet glass
windows were used in making windows.
 These were completely flat and did not have any optical distortions.
 But glass was still an item of luxury as it took large resources, brilliant skill and immense energy to
be produced.
 In 1958 Pilkington and Bickerstaff introduced the revolutionary float glass process to the world. This
method gave the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces.
 Modern windows are made from float glass.
 Glass has been a fascinating material to humankind since it was first made in about 500 BC.
 It is one of the most versatile and oldest materials in the building industry.
 From its humble beginnings as a window pane in luxury houses of Pompeii to sophisticated
structural members in new age buildings, its role in architecture has evolved over the years.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
 The glass – float glass - is manufactured by the PPG process.
 This process was invented by Sir Alistair Pilkington in 1952 and is the most popular and widely used
process that describes how to make glass for architectural purposes in the world today.

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Associate Professor
 It consists of the following steps:
Stage 1- Melting & Refining:
Fine grained ingredients closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make a batch, which flows into the
furnace, which is heated up to 1500 degree Celsius.
This temperature is the melting point of glass.
The raw materials that float glass is made up of are:
 SiO2 – Silica Sand
 Na2O – Sodium Oxide from Soda Ash
 CaO – Calcium oxide from Limestone / Dolomite
 MgO – Dolomite
 Al2O3 – Feldspar
The above raw materials primarily mixed in batch helps to make clear glass. If certain metal oxides
are mixed to this batch they impart colors to the glass giving it a body tint.
For e.g.
 NiO & CoO – to give grey tinted glasses (Oxides of Nickel & Cobalt)
 SeO – to give Bronze tinted glasses (oxide of Selenium)
 Fe2O3 – To give Green tinted glasses (oxides of iron which at times is also present as impurity in
Silica Sand)
 CoO – To give blue tinted glass (oxides of Cobalt)
Apart from the above basic raw material, broken glass aka cullet, is added to the mixture to the tune
of nearly 25% ~ 30% which acts primarily as flux. The flux in a batch helps in reducing the melting
point of the batch thus reducing the energy consumed to carry out the process.
Stage 2 - Float Bath:
Glass from the furnace gently flows over the refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of molten tin,
starting at 1100 deg Celsius and leaving the float bath as solid ribbon at 600 deg Celsius.
Stage 3 - Coating (for making reflective glasses):
 Coatings that make profound changes in optical properties can be applied by advanced high
temperature technology to the cooling ribbon of glass.
 Online Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) is the most significant advance in the float process since
it was invented.
 CVD can be used to lay down a variety of coatings, a few microns thick, for reflect visible and infra-
red radiance for instance.

Ar.Suhasini
Associate Professor
  Multiple coatings can be deposited in the few seconds available as the glass flows beneath the
coater (e.g. Sunergy is a hard coat pyrolitic Low E glass offering unique aesthetics, high light
transmission and low reflectivity.)
Stage 4 - Annealing:
 Despite the tranquillity with which the glass is formed, considerable stresses are developed in the
ribbon as the glass cools.
 The glass is made to move through the annealing lehr where such internal stresses are removed,
as the glass is cooled gradually, to make the glass more prone to cutting.
Stage 5 - Inspection:
 To ensure the highest quality, glass manufacturers carry out inspection at every stage.
 Occasionally a bubble that is not removed during refining, a sand grain that refuses to melt or a
tremor in the tin puts ripples in the glass ribbon.
 Automated online inspection does two things.
 It reveals process faults upstream that can be corrected.
 And it enables computers downstream to steer round the flaws.
 Inspection technology now allows 100 million inspections per second to be made across the ribbon,
locating flaws the unaided eye would be unable to see.
Stage 6 - Cutting to Order:
 The entire process of glass making is finally complete when diamond steels trim off selvedge –
stressed edges- and cut ribbon to size dictated by the computer.
 Glass is finally sold only in square meters.

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
Transparency:
 This property allows visual connection with the outside world.
 The transparency of glass can be from both sides or from one side only.
 By the advent of technology clear glass panels used in buildings can be made opaque. (Electro
chromatic glazing)
U value:
 U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass.
 The lower the U-value the better the insulation properties of the glass– the better it is at keeping the
heat or cold out.
Strength:
 Glass is a brittle material but with the advent of science and technology, certain laminates and
admixtures can increase its modulus of rupture( ability to resist deformation under load).
Workability:
 It is capable of being worked in many ways.
 It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
 It is possible to obtain glass with diversified properties- clear, colorless, diffused and stained. Glass
can also bewelded by fusion.
 So, workability of glass is superior property of glass.
Recyclable:
 Glass is 100% recyclable, cullets (Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered for re-melting) are used
as raw materials in glass manufacture, as aggregates in concrete construction etc.
Solar heat gain coefficient:
 It is the fraction of incident solar radiation that actually enters a building through the entire window
assembly as heat gain.
Visible transmittance:
 Visible transmittance is the fraction of visible light that comes through the glass.
Energy efficiency and acoustic control:

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Associate Professor
  Energy-efficient glazing is the term used to describe the double glazing or triple glazing use in
modern windows in homes.
 energy-efficient glazing incorporates coated (low-emissivity) glass to prevent heat escaping through
the windows.
 The air barrier also enhances acoustic control.
Important Properties of Glass
 It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent.
 It can take excellent polish.
 It is an excellent electrical insulator.
 It is strong and brittle.
 It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
 It is not affected by atmosphere.
 It has excellent resistance to chemicals.
 It is available in various beautiful colours.
 With the advancement in technology, it is possible to make glass lighter than cork or stronger
than steel.
 Glass panes can be cleaned easily.

TYPES OF GLASS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

Float glass, cast glass, glass blocks, foamed glass, decorative glass solar control, toughened glass, wired
glass, laminated glass, fire-resistant glass, glass blocks, and structural glass.

Float Glass
o Float glass is made of sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as soda lime
glass.
o This is produced by annealing the molten glass and is clear and flat.
o It has too much transparency and can cause glare .
o Glass is produced in standard metric thicknesses of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19 and
25 mm, with 10mm being the most popular sizing in the architectural industry
o It is used in making canopies, shop fronts, glass blocks, railing partitions, etc.
o The basic type of building glass, which can be modified and treated by tempering, staining,
sandblasting and cutting, is clear float glass.
o Float glass is an input raw material for the wide range of the usage of glass in
building structures (interiors and claddings of buildings).
Cast Glass
 Glass casting is the process in which glass objects are cast by directing molten glass into
a mould where it solidifies.
 The technique has been used since the Egyptian period.
 Modern cast glass is formed by a variety of processes such as kiln casting, or casting into sand,
graphite or metal moulds.
 Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, began to appear in the most important
buildings in Rome and the most luxurious villas of Herculaneum and Pompeii.

Glass Blocks
 Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and they are pressed and
annealed together while melting process of glass.
 The resulting glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center.
 Glass bricks provide visual obscuration while admitting light.
 is an architectural element made from glass used in areas where privacy or visual obscuration is
desired while admitting light.
 Glass block was originally developed in the early 1900s to provide natural light in industrial factories
 Glass block used as architectural purpose in the construction of walls, skylights etc. They
provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed through it.

Ar.Suhasini
Associate Professor
Foamed Glass
 Foam glass is a porous glass foam material.
 Its advantages as a building material include its light weight, high strength, and thermal and
acoustic insulating properties.
 It is made by heating a mixture of crushed or granulated glass and a blowing
agent (chemical foaming agent) such as carbon or limestone.
 Near the melting point of the glass, the blowing agent releases a gas, producing a foaming effect in
the glass.
 After cooling the mixture hardens into a rigid material with gas-filled closed-cell pores comprising a
large portion of its volume
 The matrix of the foam glass is glass, so it does not absorb water. The internal bubbles are also
closed, so there is no capillary phenomenon and no penetration, so foam glass is currently the most
ideal thermal insulation material
 Depending on the application, foam glass products produced by the corresponding processes can
be divided into four categories, namely insulating foam glass, sound-absorbing decorative foam
glass, facing foam glass, and granular foam glass.
 Foam glass is a kind of lightweight, high-strength building material and decorative material with
excellent performance (insulation) and sound absorption that is both moisture-proof and fireproof.
Decorative Glass Or Tinted Glass

 Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass.

 A color producing ingredients is mixed to the normal glass mix to produce colored glass which does
not affect other properties of glass.
 Different color producing ingredients are tabulated below:
Coloring ion Color

Iron oxide Green

Sulphur Blue

Manganese dioxide Black

Cobalt Blue

Chromium Dark green

Titanium Yellowish brown

Uranium Yellow
 Iron oxide is added to give glass a green tint; sulphar in different concentrations can make
the glass yellow, red or black. Copper sulphate can turn it blue. Etc.

Solar Control or Insulated Glazed Units

 Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two or three layers by air or vacuum.
 This type of glazing has functions of thermal insulation and noise reduction
 They cannot allow heat through it because of air between the layers and acts as good insulators.
 These are also called as double glazed units.
 When the space is filled with an inert gas it is part of energy conservation sustainable
architecture design for low energy buildings.
 Solar control glazing guarantees that the offices will not heat up in the summer.
 This will save on costs for air conditioning..
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Associate Professor
  One of the outstanding properties of the glass is, therefore, the high light transmittance that
provides for light-flooded offices.
 This generates a pleasant "psychological indoor climate" because the rooms are flooded
with natural daylight and increase motivation and thus the productivity of the office workers
also increases.

Toughened Glass

 The increasing of the mechanical resistance of float glass can be reached using the
technology of heat-toughening (tempering) that means glass is heated to the specific
temperature (about 650 °C) and subsequently it is cooled by the sharp airflow.
 Due to the cooling, inside the structure of heat-strengthened glass the tensile stress occurs,
while on the surface the compression stress occurs.
 Thus, the physical properties from the viewpoint of the strength are significantly changed. In
the case of breaking, glass will break into small pieces, so the risks of personal injury and
property damage are minimized.
 this glass is classified as safety glass.
 Glass must be finally machined (drilling holes, grinding edges, etc.) before tempering,
because its further machining after toughening is not already possible
 Toughened glass is strong glass which has low visibility.
 It is available in all thicknesses.
 This is also called as tempered glass.
 This type of glass is used for fire resistant doors.
 They Are Available In Same Weight And Thickness Range As Float Glass.
Wired Glass
 Wired glass fractures in the same way as float glass but remains in place with the shards held
together by the wire mesh.
 Wired glass is not stronger than float glass before failure.
 After failure the strength of the pane will depend on the thickness of the wires.
 Wired glass is available as ordinary wired glass and safety wired glass which contains stronger
wires.
 Wired glass is used in applications like fire doors. The wire grid, cast into the glass during the
manufacturing process, holds the glass in place even after it may crack when exposed to high
heat. Wired glass is a form of rolled glass

Laminated Glass

 Laminated safety glass is composed of two or more panes of tempered or heat-strengthened

glass with the usage of intermediate foil inserted in autoclave at the temperature of about 140 °C
and the pressure of 0.8 MPa.
 Most often used intermediate foils are polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
foils.
 The thickness of the foil is, according to the type, 0.38 mm or 0.76 mm.
 In the case of breakage, safety glass remains glued to the foil and the personal injury and
property damage are avoided.
 In the cases, when one of glass is not damaged, the wholeness of glass pane is maintained.
Ar.Suhasini
Associate Professor
  The combination of laminated heattoughened glass is also used for walkable glass slabs.
 Safety laminated glass with acoustic effect uses PVB foil and reaches improved characteristics
for avoiding the noise spreading.
 The properties of this glass depend on the specific composition and combination of the glass
panes and foils.
 Thus This type of glass is made by sandwiching glass panels within a protective layer. It
is heavier than normal glass and may cause optical distortions as well. It is tough and
protects from UV radiation (99%) and insulates sound by 50%. Used in glass facades,
aquariums, bridges, staircases, floor slabs, etc.

Fire Resistant Glass

 Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as good insulating filler
 Glass wool is a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass fibers, which causes
it to "package" air, and consequently make good insulating materials.
 Glass wool can be used as filler or insulators in buildings, also for soundproofing.
 It is fire resistant glass.
 is a multi-layered product that literally burns away layer by layer, thus retarding the progress of the
fire.
 All of these products are rated by levels and are tested for specific performance criteria.
Structural Glazing
 Structural Glazing is an adaptable form of curtain wall construction which gives designers and
architects the freedom to create striking façade and enhance the artistic appeal of the buildings.
 structural glass can provide a complete glass envelope for building structures without the need for
conventional frames or mullions.
 In addition to these it had also brought in speedy construction practices, reducing the overall weight
of the structure and more pleasing modern look.
 It has been seen that a new trend of adding a structural glazing cover to many existing building is
catching up very fast.
 Some of the major issues that govern the design of structural glazing system are sealant
performance, air & water infiltration, structural design requirements and the selection of
right types of glass.
 High-quality functional silicon sealant is perfect for the dynamic requirements, since the
structural glazing modules are subject to high stress, due to the large area, they must be
able to withstand high wind forces and must deflect all the forces caused, by thermal
expansion or vibrations, to the substructure on the building.
 Under the ideal conditions, structuraly glazed elements are completely pre-manufactured
and then attached to the framed construction of the building.
Low-E glass
 Low-E glass is a type of insulating glass, which increases the energy efficiency of windows by
reducing the transfer of heat or cold through glass.
 That means in the winter the building stays warmer, and in the summer it remains cooler.
 Low-emissivity (Low-E) glass has a thin coating, often of metal, on the glass within its airspace that
reflects thermal radiation or inhibits its emission reducing heat transfer through the glass.
 A basic low-e coating allows solar radiation to pass through into a room.
 Thus, the coating helps to reduce heat loss but allows the room to be warmed by any sunshine.
 The low-e coating is usually on the inside pane of glass; if solar control is required then the outside
pane of glass would have either a film or a body tint to reflect or absorb the solar radiation.
Ar.Suhasini
Associate Professor
Shatterproof Glass
 Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors etc.
 Some type of plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in its making process.
 So, it cannot form sharp edged pieces when it breaks.
Extra Clean Glass

 This type of glass is hydrophilic i.e. The water moves over them without leaving any marks
and photocatylitic i.e. they are covered with Nanoparticles that attack and break dirt making
it easier to clean and maintain.
 Because of these properties, it acts as stain proof and gives beautiful appearance.
Maintenance is also easy.
Chromatic Glass
 This type of glass can control daylight and transparency effectively.
 These glass are available in three forms- photochromatic (light sensitive lamination on glass),
thermochromatic (heat sensitive lamination on glass) and electrochromatic (light sensitive glass
the transparency of which can be controlled by electricity switch.)
 It can be used in meeting rooms and ICUs
Spandrel glass
is just ordinary glass with an opaque coating on the protected side. It is used in curtain walls to
hide the structural and mechanical stuff that would otherwise be visible between floors.

Glass Selection Criterion

 Glass is available in many types, thicknesses, patterns and finishes.
 The glass is selected for reasons of safety, appearance and the way it controls the internal
environment of the building.
 Glass may be grouped into categories by considering: - Strength and safety - Appearance -
Environmental control Strength and safety Glass in a building will be subject to mechanical loads
in the form of wind load and impact.
 It may also be subject to stresses due to environmental conditions such as temperature changes.
 The strength properties of glass can be varied by increasing the thickness, heat treatment and
combining the glass with other materials to form composites.
 The strength of glass must be sufficient to resist the loads it is likely to be exposed to.
 Safety of glass is related to its strength but also takes into account the risk of injury from the
failed glass.
 correct choice of glass, by a design professional, for a particular glazing application, requires the
consideration of a number of characteristics such as the color and appearance of glass, its
thickness, visible light transmission through it, solar energy transmission and absorption,
percentage of the solar energy reflected away from the exterior surface of the glazing, also its U-
Value i.e heat gain or loss through glass due to the difference of indoor and outdoor
temperatures.

Ar.Suhasini
Associate Professor
 Monolithic glass Insulating glass
Monolithic glass such as annealed glass is a Double glass such as IG, contains hermetically sealed dry
single glass. air space between the sheets of glass.
It gets heated directly by sunlight. Double glazing prevents direct contact with sunlight.
When air conditioner is used inside the
building, the temperature difference between When air conditioner is used inside the building, the
the inside and outside the building is very temperature difference between the inside and outside of
high. the building is very less.
There is only a thin glass barrier to prevent the Due to convection, air circulates inside and acts as a
outside heat from coming in - resulting in barrier, preventing outside heat from coming inside and the
excessive loss of energy. cool air inside from escaping - results in energy saving.

Uses
 Supply of natural daylight
 Protection from rain, wind, and cold
 Transparency or translucency
 Supply of fresh air
 Secondary use
 Heat protection
 Sound protection
 Solar protection
 Fire protection
 Use of solar energy
 Living comfort
 Means of design
 Electromagnetic dampening.
 Glass is now being used in the building industry as insulation material, structural component,
external glazing material, cladding material;
 it is used to make delicate looking fenestrations on facades as well as conventional windows.
 With the advent of green technology in construction, glass is constantly undergoing transformation.
 Solar power glass, switchable glass projection screens are a few of the newer uses.

Solar gain issues

There are several strategies to make glazing more effective at resisting heat loss or heat gain:

 Tinted glass has material added to the molten mix that tends to absorb radiant heat. However, this
heat is then re-transmitted, some to the exterior, but some back inside. The tinted glass also
reduces the amount of light (visible spectrum) that is transmitted.
 Reflective glass has a thin metal or metal oxide film that acts as a mirror. Visible light is also
affected (see spectrally-selective glass below).
 Insulating glass (I.G.) units have two or more layers of glass separated by an air space. Moisture is
removed, often by desiccants placed in the metal spline that separates the two glass "lites." The air
space can also be filled with gases like argon to improve the unit's R-value. The image below shows
typical dimensions for I.G. units for a curtain wall application.
 Low-e (emissivity) glass is a type of reflective glazing that is selectively reflective, so that much of
the visible spectrum passes through, but unwanted heat energy is reflected at other frequencies.
 The various glazing systems can be compared according to their performance in several categories:
how they let daylight in; how much solar energy is let is (or out), and their shading coefficient

Ar.Suhasini
Associate Professor
Some other definitions that describe the light and heat transmitting properties of glass are as follows:

 Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC): On a scale of 0 to 100 percent, measures ability of glass to
block transmission of solar heat from outside to inside (0 being impenetrable wall).
 Visible light transmission (VLT): On a scale of 0 to 100 percent, measures ability of glass to transmit
visible light (0 being completely opaque).
 Light-to-solar gain (LSG): Equals VLT / SHGC and measures how efficient the glass is in
transmitting light while blocking heat.

GLASS AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS

INTRODUCTION - As glass building allow lot of heat inflow through its outer glass envelop which
gets trapped inside the building and heat up the in side space. So if designers can provide an
escape route for this hot air, (especially from the area just inside the structural glazing), so that this
entrapped hot air does not spread into the interior spaces, it would really help to keep the
occupants in thermal comfort range with lesser load on the air-conditioning system.

 Based on this principle double glazed glass has been produced by the glazing industry to reduce
drastically the quantity of hot air, which is produced inside the shaft area because of the sun rays
coming through the exterior glass.
 energy efficient glasses provide the benefit of reducing the heat gain in buildings due to its excellent
energy saving properties without compromising on the natural light.
 Glass ensures that the building gets ample natural light, making interiors look brighter and livelier
reducing the need for artificial lighting and saving energy, or in other words, reducing the electricity
bill.
 Ample light inside the home makes spaces look more spacious and roomy, an important factor to
consider given today‘s shrinking living spaces in urban areas.
 These energy efficient glasses provide the benefit of reducing the heat gain in buildings due to its
excellent energy saving properties without compromising on the natural light coming inside the
building or the brilliant aesthetics that add value to the façade.
 And in winter, they ensure solar gain. So that no matter what the season, people inside stay
comfortable at all times.
 Using energy-efficient glass also helps in ensuring that the interiors, and the occupants of the home,
feel more comfortable.
 Ideal for solar and thermal insulating parameters, these glasses combine aesthetics with
environmental sensibility and conform to all International and National Green Standards, making it
the natural choice as a green building solution.
 Performance parameters of glasses like visual light transmission, solar factor, U-value and internal
reflection make buildings more efficient and ecologically viable.

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Associate Professor
  Energy efficient glasses, when used properly can reduce the total energy consumption by anywhere
between 8~10 per cent of the total energy consumed and hence the accrued benefits of using these
glasses keep growing over the years.
 Furthermore, it is not just the recurring savings but also the reduction in the capex because of the
lower energy loads required for conditioning the building.
 Typically the heat gained/lost through glazing in a normal building in India is anywhere between
40~50 per cent and using the right type of glass can bring down the energy consumption by 30~40
per cent (only glazing).
 The incremental cost for the high performance glazing can be recovered in a time span of 3~4
years.
 Until a few years back energy efficiency was neither a practice nor a fad in the country. However
with the launch of the energy conservation building codes, concurrently accompanied by the gain in
popularity of the green building practices, users alike, builders and architects started looking at
ways to reduce energy consumption in buildings.
 So no matter which perspective you look at it from—aesthetics, modernity, elegance, adding
a sense of space to interiors and of course, monetary savings—making homes energy
efficient with glass makes perfect sense.
 Now India has also boldly accepted this modern technology without the fear of climatic
conditions prevailing here.

The IGBC (Indian Green Building Council) has launched two rating programmes LEED India
NC (New Construction) and LEED India CS (Core & Shell).
Here's a glimpse at some of the Green buildings that India can boast of:

Wipro Technologies Gurgaon Development Centre is the greenest building in India and
second greenest building in the world.
 The building has received 57 points and is Platinum rated.
 In the case of Wirpo Technologies, glass contributed 2 clear points and 13 combined points.

Grundfos Pumps India Ltd, Chennai LEED - Gold Rated - This building has an absolute non-
usage of artificial lighting for the office spaces for the entire part of the day.
 The air conditioning expenses also have been kept at their minimal best due to the energy
efficient glazing.
 This Green building consumes 25% less energy, compared to conventional building by
adopting the above measures.

CII-Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre and ITC Green Centre, Gurgaon are both LEED-
Platinum Rated buildings with 63% and 45% energy savings respectively.

CURRENT INNOVATIONS
 The façade constructed of low-emissive, double-glazing glass with ceramic prints and glass ribs,
using the polyhedral "Tempoint" frameless glass façade system.
 Bent glass
 The development of bent glass allowed architects to experiment with curved glass lines.
 The curved surfaces give a building its own personality, creating the whole or a part of the façade.
With a growing proportion of bent glass been processed to make safety glass, bent glass can also
be laminated for specialized categories like bullet resistant.
So far bent glass has primarily been used in public buildings, office complexes and for corporate
facility facades. Interior architecture applications for bent glass include railings for staircases,
walkways, partitions and elevator glass panels.

 Nano Green, a high performance glass that offers high thermal insulation accompanied by a very
low solar factor.

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  electrochromic glass that utilizes a low electric current to adjust tint according to outdoor light
conditions.
 Switchable electro-chrome glass can also be used in place of, or as a complement to the upstream
shade facilities. This darkens at the touch of a button whilst ensuring that visual contact with the
outside world is maintained.

 Self-cleaning glasses like SGG Bioclean are another attraction both for environment friendly
supporters and those pushing cost control.
 Innovations like self-cleaning glass, which is class coated with coatings like titanium dioxide, reduce
maintenance of surfaces

 A smart glass partition will turn translucent to opaque on demand allowing the same screen to
afford limited viewing or turn into a projection screen, if required.

 With the development of supporting construction sealants, coatings, cables and other structural
innovations the problems of leakage and security are being suitably resolved.
 The materials used for the frames and supports also contribute to the green coefficient of the
glazing, and thereby for the whole project.

New Opportunities through building-integrated PV
 facade-integrated photovoltaics will also play an increasingly pivotal role in boosting energy
efficiency in the future.
 Even today PV elements featuring the latest thin-film technology can be ordered in various colours
thereby providing more design freedom for facades.
 When they are used correctly, glass facades become light-producing and energy generating shells,
which adapt to the varying environmental conditions, and as a result, contribute to using
environmental resources sparingly in the long-term.

 The facade glazing "ipachrome design" by interpane allows for creative yet functional optics: the
design, which was applied in a sputter process, also serves as solar and visual protection and
allows for variations in the transparency of the facade.

 High Performance glass

 High performance glass has the twin powers of allowing better daylight penetration into the building
while limiting the amount of heat allowed inside. Buildings like Olympis Technology Park, Chennai,
Wipro Technologies –Gurgaon Development Centre, Gurgaon , CII –Sohrabji Godrej Green
Business Centre, Hyderabad and Technopolis, Kolkata are all examples of buildings flaunting high-
performance glass on themselves.
 Recycled glass
 A visit to the Jodhpur fort’s Moti Mahal will have the guide informing you that the plaster on the walls
is a mixture of glass powder and lime as major ingredients. The end product gave the walls a pearl-
like luminescence.
Glass aggregates: Recycled glass used in new construction products includes new window
glazing, wall and floor tiles and fiberglass insulation. It also goes into concrete towards making tiles,
terrazzo flooring, pavers, wall finishes, pipe bedding and concrete as exposed aggregate
Building material from glass: REAPOR is a fiber-free building material for thermal and acoustic
insulation using recycled glass. Developed in Germany, it has the advantages of being light weight,
stable and water-, acid- and fire- resistant. In terms of workability too the material scores high.
Adjustments to the material can be made in terms of desired degree of thermal or acoustic
insulation and weight requirements. Further it is environment-friendly being made with 90% recycled
glass and is itself fully recyclable.

 The Living Glass is a piece of responsive architecture which is actually a thin, transparent surface
that ‘breathes’ when the carbon dioxide levels in a room become high. This Living Glass contains a
silicone surface which is embedded with Flexinol wires and has parallel slits which open and close
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 when the wires contract. The slits then open and fresh air comes in, while CO2is expelled out. The
slits close again when the CO2levels inside the room are balanced again, thus proving to be very
useful in controlling the air quality inside the room.
Glass floors
 Glass for interiors has taken a new meaning with the use of glass floors becoming popular. This is
done by the use of what is known as heavy glass. This is a glass of thickness upwards of 1 inch that
is also laminated for extra strength. Floor slabs, stairs, partitions, and entryways can be fabricated
from heavy glass to achieve a stunning effect. More properties like sound control and fire safety can
be introduced through the use of special interlayers during the lamination process. In India, such
specialized uses of glass are rare because of the expense and expertise involved.
Anti-reflective glass in larger sizes
 New technology to manufacture anti-reflective glass, has removed limitations on the size and
architects can now use large-sized glass without resorting to multiple frames. Today, manufacturers
can provide sizes up to 96 by 120 inches or more.

 Hybrid coatings, while offering all the desirable qualities of solar control and high levels of light
transmittance, also have a light, crisp shine or subtle reflectivity that provides a uniform appearance,
improve occupant privacy and comfort and reduce interior glare. A single coating that offers
transparency and privacy, thermal and solar characteristics is a boon
Anti–bacterial glass–The Latest in Healthcare Architecture
 AGC Flat Glass Europe, formerly Glaverbel recently launched its new Antibacterial Glass TM in a
world premiere. The glass kills 99.9% of bacteria and also stops the spread of fungi. Given the
instances of visitors and patients catching infections while in hospital, this is a milestone.
This glass eliminates micro-organisms as soon as they come in contact with the surface of the
glass.

 Glass with integrated prisms or light-diverting lamellas directs the daylight into the deep areas of
the room. A favorite technique is to use prisms and other light-reflecting mechanisms to redirect
sunlight to hit the ceiling or a specially designed surface. Essentially, the four properties of light
rays—reflection, refraction, luminosity and transparency—are used in varying combination to
generate unique effects.

ceramic printed glass offer solar control with color, visibility management and aid in design.

 For specific requirements like security, there's the option of bullet proof glass for projects like
farmhouses and other isolated properties.

 Acoustic control is another facility offered by glass cladding, reducing stress from exterior noise.

 Louvre embedded glass panels will direct the sun rays where you need them.

 new product integrates solar shading systems into the standard IGU – this concept will serve
as a breakthrough to combine Solar heat & Glare control properties and will offer dynamic features
that can be controlled just by touching a button.

 gen-next' glasses, or spectrally selective glasses, which are 'intelligent' glass units that selectively
allow and reject different wavelengths of solar r adiation, resulting in better inflow of natural light
with considerably reduced heat emissions
 Conclusion
 With the advent of glass engineering, continuous advancement of coating materials and
transmission methods such as photochromics, electrochromics and thermochromics, glass
has moved on to become GREEN GLASS. A key element in environment control. While
lamination techniques have extended the use of glass for safety and acoustic applications.
Glass is indeed the pillar for modern architectural design. Its grandeur, with transparency
and unmatched aesthetics has surged a revolutionary awakening in architectural design
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  From a Bend glass panel one can form a sphere, cylinder or a cone adding new horizon to
the limitless possibilities from glass.
 the fact that these high performance glasses are not the only choices.
 A lot depends upon design and simple glasses can also help achieve similar performance as
high performance glasses,"
 We architects must actually visit more trade fairs much more often to keep up-to-date with
new products

INTRODUCTION TO CURTAIN WALL GLAZING

 A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural,
utilized only to keep the weather out and the occupants in
 Curtain walling is a building envelope that is intended to support only its own weight and withstand
the effects of environmental forces such as wind.
 It is not intended to assist the structural integrity of the building.
 The wind and gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure, typically at
the floor line.
 Since the curtain wall is non-structural, it can be made of lightweight materials, thereby reducing
construction costs.
 . When glass is used as the curtain wall, an advantage is that natural light can penetrate deeper
within the building.
 The curtain wall façade does not carry any structural load from the building other than its own dead
load weight.
 The wall transfers lateral wind loads that are incident upon it to the main building structure through
connections at floors or columns of the building.
 A curtain wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, absorb sway induced by wind
and seismic forces acting on the building, withstand wind loads, and support its own dead load
weight forces.
 Curtain wall systems are typically designed with extruded aluminum framing members,. The
aluminum frame is typically infilled with glass, which provides an architecturally pleasing building, as
well as benefits such as daylighting.
 Curtain walls d are designed to span multiple floors, taking into consideration design requirements
such as: thermal expansion and contraction; building sway and movement; water diversion; and
thermal efficiency for cost-effective heating, cooling, and lighting in the building.
 There are three main types of curtain walling construction: “stick” and “unitized and semi
unitized

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In stick construction,
 the curtain wall frame is constructed mainly on site with mullions and transoms supporting glass,
spandrel panels, metal panels and brise-soleils, connected piece by piece.
 Each mullion is usually supported by the floor or perimeter beams.
 Stick curtain walling systems are versatile and allow for the integration of other systems, such as
sliding doors and windows.
 They tend to be less specialised and can be built by all types of fabricators as they are not
dependent on having a large factory.
 However, stick systems do require multiple steps to erect and seal the wall, which means more time
is spent on site – an approximate rule of thumb would be that 70% of the work is carried out on site,
with 30% in the factory
 This incurs further costs, such as labourers’ time.
In unitised construction,
 on the other hand, the curtain wall is composed of large units that are assembled in the factory,
shipped to the site and erected on the building.
 Aluminium profiles are used to form the frame
 Vertical and horizontal mullions of the modules mate together with the adjoining modules.
 Modules are generally constructed one story tall and one module wide but may incorporate multiple
modules.
 Typical units are five to six feet wide.the interconnecting gasket or wet seal as an airtight barrier.
 The outside face of glass, exterior glazing materials and the outer exposed face of aluminum
framing function as a rain screen, shedding water away.
 Opening vents, glazing and infill panels are built into units before being transported to site.
 As with stick construction, each unit is usually supported by the floor or perimeter beams.
 For unitised curtain walling, about 30% of the work is done on site, while 70% is carried out in the
factory.
 The complete assembly of the units in the factory brings a number of benefits.
 These include:
 Improved quality control
 Concurrent manufacture and site preparation - units can be assembled while the structural frame is
being built. The facade can also be
 completed a floor at a time, allowing parallel internal work
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  Quicker installation, requiring less manpower on site
 No need for scaffolding
 Can be installed from the interior of the building. This is ideal for high towers or building sites where
there is a tight footprint
 Less space is needed on site for layout – another advantage
 Another advantage of unitised systems is that, unlike stick systems, they do not transfer impact
noises from floor to floor or horizontally from room to room.
 This is because the unitised panels are separated by linking gaskets.
 The different materials (ie, gasket to aluminium), become acoustically excited to different levels,
thus creating full separation at the junctions between units.

Glazing material
 The glazing or infill material may affect the choice of framing material.
 The frame has to support the weight of the glazing and accept glazing units of the required
thickness.
 Glass is retained in position by pressure plates screwed into extruded screw ports in the face of the
main sections.
 Cover caps conceal the fixings screws for an aesthetic exterior appearance.
 Insulated Glass, often called double glazing, is a combination of two or more panes of glass spaced
apart with a spacer bar and hermetically sealed with a primary and secondary sealant to form a
single unit with one or more air spaces in between.
 Insulated glazing units improve the thermal performance, thus significantly reducing heating and air-
conditioning costs.
 IG units also reduce probability of condensation formation on the surface of the glass.
 IGU can be a combination of Low-E coatings, tinted glasses, reflective coatings, silk-screened
patterns, laminated glass products and more.
 A wide variety of insulating glass configurations are available to satisfy a variety of performance and
aesthetic requirements.
Characteristics of Insulated Glazing Units
 Thermal Properties: The U value is effectively lowered by insulating glazing and can be further
reduced by filling of inert gases, generally increasing cavity thickness and using inert gases like
Argon or Krypton or Xenon to further improve thermal insulation
Acoustical insulation: Insulating glazing can reduce noise by about 30dB (5mm glass- 12mm air gap
-5mm glass)
 Condensation: IGU reduces the probability of condensation formation compared to monolithic glass.
 Sealing: Two glasses are separated by a spacer which is generally made of aluminum; primary
sealant and secondary sealant are used for air and water tightness.
Aluminium
 Aluminium has been used as a framing material for some fifty years.
 Aluminium does not suffer badly from corrosion and is easy to form and finish allowing many
different designs.
 Aluminium is used as hollow sections and is relatively flexible in bending and torsion.
 Hardware often has to be matched against a particular profile.
 Because of the hollow and complex profile cross sections achievable with aluminium it is easy to
make drained and ventilated or pressure equalised windows.
 Aluminium is a very good conductor of heat.
 To meet requirements for low thermal transmission aluminium profiles are thermally broken with
either a polyamide or resin element between inner and outer aluminium sections.
 Aluminium is the most common frame material for stick system curtain walls, glazing screens and
shop fronts.
 It is also commonly used as a framing system to support rainscreens.
 The profile comprises an outer section that serves to hold the infill material in place, prevent water
penetration and form an air seal.
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  The inner section comprises a hollow structural box the depth of which determines the strength and
stiffness of the section.
 Coated aluminium is a durable material and a useful life of 25 years or more can be achieved.
 Framing members may be designed to retain the infill panels in a number of ways:
 curtain walls comprise mullion (vertical) and transom (horizontal) framing members.
 mullions and transoms, with each panel acting as an individual unit.
 Drainage and ventilation slots are located in the vertical pressure plate.
 Each panel is individually pressure equalised and drained via its transom, enabling the curtain wall
to quickly react to fluctuating wind pressure
 Transoms are overlapped to the mullion which incorporates an EPDM gasket to seal between
mullion and transom.

 EPDM(Ethylene-Propylene Terpolymer) gaskets offer an additional means of sealing the curtain

walling and reducing the chances of air and water entering the building.
 They are highly resistant to water, ozone and ageing which makes them an ideal solution for
external applications.

Use of Sealant
 The structural sealant when properly installed forms a continuous, waterproof seal against leakage
and air infiltration.
 Sealant and spacer transmit wind load movement to the structure and withstand flexure, tension,
compression and differential thermal shear stresses.
 Air and Water Infiltration
 Air and water infiltration requirements usually have few visual implications on structural glazing
systems.
 However, proper positioning of gaskets, weather strips and sealant are critical & essential.
 The system must be designed to resist water infiltration through the above gasketing and properly
designed gutter and flashing.
Structural Requirement
 The framework must be designed for anticipated wind pressure, corresponding beam displacement,
spacing of verticals and deflections: variable movements due to expansion and contraction of the
building structure.
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Pressure cap
 The most common means of retaining glazing in a curtain wall frame is by using a pressure plate
which secures the glass in the glazing rebate around the full perimeter of the glazing unit. Pressure
caps are secured in position by screws which must be either tightened to a required torque or to a
stop where the pressure cap makes contact with the frame.
Gaskets
 Function Glazing gaskets are required to: - Limit air leakage and water penetration - Allow relative
movement - Distribute and absorb loads - Accommodate tolerances

 The joint should be constructed to give an adequate contact area between the sealant and the
substrates.
 This should be not less than 6mm onto a non-porous surface and 10mm onto a porous surface.
Backer rods should be used to prevent the wasteful use of material and so that the joint can
be properly tooled to form a good bond.
 Materials Sealants are commonly classified by their base materials: - Silicones - Polysulfides -
Polyurethanes - Acrylics
 However the performance of a sealant is not only governed by the base material but also by
additives such as plasticisers, retarders and fillers.

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PERFORMANCE OF CURTAIN WALL

Thermal Performance
 Some curtain wall systems utilize "pressure bars" (also referred to as "pressure plates") that are
fastened to the outside of the mullions to retain the glass.
 These systems frequently include gaskets that are placed between the pressure bar and mullions
and function as thermal breaks and help with acoustic isolation.
 With a properly designed system the water that enters the system at the gasket corners will weep
out through the snap cover weep holes.
 Proper placement of insulation at the curtain wall perimeter reduces energy loss and potential
condensation issues.
Visual (Daylighting, Aesthetics)
 Key visual features of curtain walls are glazing appearance and sightlines.
Sound (Acoustics)
 The acoustic performance of curtain walls is primarily a function of the glazing and internal seals to
stop air leakage .
 The sound attenuation capability of curtain walls can be improved by installing sound attenuating
infill and by making construction as airtight as possible.
 Incorporating different thicknesses of glass in an insulated glass unit will also help to mitigate
exterior noise.
 This can be accomplished by increasing the thickness of one of the lites of glass or by incorporating
a laminated layer of glass with a noise-reducing interlayer, typically a polyvinyl butyral or PVB.
.FIRE SAFETY
 Fire safing and smoke seal at gaps between the floor slab-edge and the back of the curtain wall are
essential to compartmentalize between floors and slow down the passage of fire and combustion
gases between floors.
MAINTENANCE ACCESS
 The curtain wall should be designed for accessibility for maintenance.
 Low-rise buildings can generally be accessed from the ground using equipment with articulated
arms.
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Associate Professor
  For high rise construction the building should be designed for swing stage access for window
cleaning, general maintenance, and repair work, like glass replacement.
Sustainability
 The best strategy for sustainability of curtain walls is to employ good design practices to ensure the
durability (maximum service life) of the installation and to use systems that have a good thermal
break and high R-value (values as high as R-7 are possible with triple-glazed systems). Also, the
use of low-e and spectrally selective glass coatings can significantly reduce energy loads and
improve comfort close to the wall.
 Aluminum and steel frames are typically recycled at the end of their service life.
.Designing For Solar Heat Gain Control And Solar Optical Properties
 The use of glazed curtain walls can present challenges in balancing the desire for more natural
daylight versus addressing the heat gain typically associated with such systems.
 Occasionally, there are concerns relating to having too much uncontrolled daylight, sometimes
referred to as glare.
 The challenge is to strive for the highest visible light transmittance (VT) and the lowest solar heat
gain coefficient (SHGC) while not preventing the glass from being too reflective when viewed from
both the exterior and the interior, while controlling glare.

DETAIL DRAWING

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STICK SYSTEM WITH DECORATIVE ALUMINIUM CAPPING

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STICK SYSTEM WITHOUT DECORATIVE ALUMINIUM CAPPING

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 DGU GLASS

SEMI UNITISED GLAZING

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 UNITISED GLAZING SYSTEM

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 Partially-exploded view of a unitized curtain wall. The extruded framing members are interrupted so
that their cross-sectional shapes can be seen. The back pan and insulation normally present in the
spandrel area have been omitted for clarity.

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