HAP – LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM When fluid is picked up in the lymphatic capillary,

they are called lymph.

OVERVIEW o Lymph – made out of proteins, fats,
Lymphatic System – is an efficient intricate, vital organ immune cells and extra fluid.
system.
Two of the circulatory system
Transports
o Fluid
o Nutrients
o Cells
o Wastes
Blood system
Lymphatic system

Both made of vessels, they transport molecules all

around the body.

Blood system is like a high-speed train, the non-stop

express. However only 5% is returned to blood, the offer
15% picked up by the lymphatic system.

Lymphatic system is like a high-system taxi system. 2. The lymphatic system helps the immune system
It helps the fight infection.
o Blood system Lymph is stopped by many strategically placed
o Immune system checkpoints called the lymphatic organs
o Digestive system Lymphatic organs are classified as Primary and
Secondary.
1. The lymphatic system returns extra fluid to the o Primary Lymphatic organs
blood system  Bone Marrow LYMPHATIC ORGANS
 Thymus
 o Secondary By housing lymphocytes and other defense cells
 Tonsils Reticular fibers that also traps microorganism
 Spleen
 Lymph nodes LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
Tiny close-ended vessels
They look for threats, if the threat is detected, the
lymphatic organs calls for help carrying extra
immune cells causing the lymph organs to swell.
After the threat is eliminated, the swelling does
down.

3. The lymphatic system helps the digestive system.

Fats are picked up by the lymphatic system
Transported through the lacteals and travels to the
main central vessel of the lymphatic system to the
heart
It is called chyle

CHYLE
Is affected by the kind of food you eat.
A juicy steak makes more chyle with more fat and
protein compared to a salad
Protein and fat rich food make the chyle to volume
up.

Lacteals → Central Lymphatic → Thoracic Duct →

Heart → Blood Stream → Liver
The lymphatic system includes lymph, lymphocytes,
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the tonsils, the spleen,
and the thymus. Simple squamous epithelium
LYMPHATIC TISSUES
 It has over lapping squamous cells acts as valves Periodic contraction of smooth muscle in the
that prevent the backflow of fluid lymphatic vessel
Pressure changes in the thorax during breathing

THYMUS
ANATOMY
Is a bilobed gland roughly triangular in shape
Located in the superior mediastinum, above the
heart.

HISTOLOGY
LYMPHATIC VESSELS Capsule – thin connective tissue surrounds each
Which resembles small veins lobe.
Beaded in appearance Lobes – left and right.
One-way valve Trabecula – divided each lobe into lobules.
Lobules
COPRESSION OF LYMPHATIC VESSELS o Cortex
Contraction of surrounding skeletal muscle during  Dark stain areas
activity  Many lymphocytes
 o Medulla Located in the left, superior corner of the
 Light staining areas abdominal cavity
 Few lymphocytes.

HISTOLOGY
Capsule – dense connective tissue and smooth
PHYSIOLOGY tissue
It is the site of maturation of T-cells Trabecula – supports or anchors a framework
T-cells are synthesis that the red-bone marrow White pulp – lymphatic tissue surrounds the
and later sent the thymus for maturation arteries
T-cells that survive the maturation process are Red pulp – lymphatic tissue surrounds the veins
capable of reacting to pathogens

SPLEEN
ANATOMY
Roughly the size of a clenched fist
 Fibrous network – filled with macrophages, red ANATOMY
blood cells and enlarged capillaries connected to Are round structures
the veins. Superficial or deep
Superficial aggregation
o Inguinal nodes – groin
o Axillary nodes – armpits
o Cervical nodes – neck

HISTOLOGY
Capsule
o Dense connective tissue
o Surrounds the nodes
Trabeculae – it subdivides to nodules and
sinuses.
Lymphatic tissue – contains lymphocytes
Lymphatic nodules
PHYSIOLOGY
o Dense aggregators of tissues
Filters blood
Lymphocytes destroys old and damaged o Not the same a lymph node.
erythrocytes Lymphatic Sinus
Lymphocytes in the white pulp can be stimulated o Are spaces between the lymphatic tissue
in the same manner as in lymph nodes o Contains macrophages on a network of
Macrophages in the red pulp remove substances fibers
and worn out erythrocytes through phagocytosis Germinal Centers
Blood reservoir, holding a small volume of blood o Within lymph nodules
During hemorrhages, the smooth muscles of the o Containing rapidly dividing lymphocytes
spleen move out blood into the general circulation.
PHYSIOLOGY
A ruptured spleen can cause severe bleeding, shock Lymph passes through at least one lymph node
and death. before entering the blood

LYMPH NODES
 Lymph enters through afferent vessels o Located on each side of the posterior
Lymph passes through the lymphatic tissue and opening of the oral cavity
o Referred as “Tonsils”
Pharyngeal Tonsils
o Internal opening of the nasal cavity
o When enlarged, it is called the adenoid
Lingual Tonsils
o Located at the posterior surface of the
tongue

PHYSIOLOGY
Forms a protective ring of lymphatic tissue around
the openings between the nasal and oral cavities
and the pharynx
Protect against pathogen from entering the lower
respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract.

sinuses and eventually exits through efferent

vessels
They are part of the adaptive immune response

Capillaries → Afferent Vessels → Lymphatic Tissues

and Sinuses → Efferent Vessels

TONSILS
ANATOMY
3 types of tonsils IMMUNITY
Palatine Tonsils
Immunity is the ability to resist damage from pathogens,  It separates what’s inside and
such microorganisms outside
harmful chemicals, such as toxins released by o Internal membranes
microorganisms  Antimicrobial proteins
internal, such as cancer cells  Complement
 Interferons
Bacteria are destroyed before any symptoms develop;  Chemicals
the person is said to be immune.  Phagocytes

PATHOGENS Adaptive Defense System

Bacteria and viruses o Specific responses to a specific antigen
That can potential do harm o Specific immunity
o Made possible by antibodies
IMMUNE SYSTEM o Specificity
Innate Defense System  Is the ability of adaptive immunity to
o Always ready to go recognize a particular substance.
o Nonspecific resistance o Memory
o Same response in every infection.  Is the ability of the adaptive immunity
o External membranes to remember previous encounters
 Intact skin and mucus membranes with a particular substance.
 Tears, saliva and urine that wash
substances away from the body
INNATE DEFENCE SYSTEM
 First line of defense
It is composed with External Membranes and Internal
Membranes. (Physical Barriers and Chemical
Mediators)

EXTERNAL MEMBRANES/SURFACE BARRIERS

1st line of defence
Effective by blocking out pathogens
Skin
 o The epithelial cells in the skin is high PHAGOCYTOTIC CELLS
keratinized Macrophages
o Cuts/wounds can lead to infection o Biggest and best phagocytes
Mucus Membranes o Fixed and free macrocytes
o Body cavity/natural body opening are o Monocytes when in the vessels and
covered with mucosae Macrophages when in the tissues
o They are acidic, inhibits bacterial growth o Derived from leukocytes
o Lysosomes, destroys bacteria o Monocytes and Macrophages form the
o Microorganism get stuck in the mucus mononuclear phagocytic system
o Defensins are antimicrobial peptides o Cleaning up dead neutrophils and other
cellular debris.
INTERNAL DEFENSES – 2nd line of defense o They help filter lymph in the nodes and
Inflammatory response blood in the liver and spleen
Phagocytes – cells that can perform phagocytosis o They are also found in where pathogens
may enter the body
Neutrophils
o Are small phagocytic white blood cells.
o First white blood cells to enter infected
tissues from the blood in large numbers
o Releases chemical signals that attract
immune cells and inflammation.
o Pus is an accumulation of fluid, dead
neutrophils and other cells at a site of
infection.

Natural Killer Cells

Cytotoxic T-cells, lacking markers
Type of lymphocytes produced in the red bone
marrow, and they account up to 15% of
lymphocytes.
 They recognize classes of cells, such a tumor cells o Also participate in inflammation associated
or cells that are infected with viruses with allergies and asthma
Do not exhibit memory response and that makes o Fights parasites
them part of the innate immune response
releasing chemicals that damage cell membrane ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
and cause the cells to lyse. There are 2 antimicrobial proteins
The trigger apoptosis, a cellular suicide. Complement
Interferons
CELLS OF INFLAMMATION
Basophils COMPLEMENT
o Which are derive from red bone marrow, Group of more than 20 proteins found in plasma.
are motile white blood cells that can leave They circulate in blood in an inactive form.
the body and enter infected tissues
Mast cells
o are also derived from the bone marrow, are
non-motile cells in connective tissue,
especially near capillaries.
o They are located at the point where
pathogens may enter the body, such as
skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and
urogenital tract.
Both triggered by the innate immunity
(complementary) or adaptive immunity (adaptive
immunity)
They release chemicals such as Histamine and
leukotrienes to promote;
o Inflammatory response
o Vasodilation
o Increased permeability of fluid to the injury
Eosinophils
 Can be activated by combining with foreign
substances, such as parts of a bacterial cell or by
combining with antibodies.
Once activated, certain complement proteins

promote inflammation and phagocytosis and can

directly lyse (rupture) bacterial cells. CLASSICAL PATHWAY
C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9
COMPLEMENT PATHWAYS Numbered in order discovered not by function
Classical Pathway Normally inactive - until cleaved
o Starts to an antibody bond to the pathogen
o Discovered first C1 – 3 components
Alternative Pathway C1q (6x)
o Always active o Binds to Fc portion of the Antibody bound to
o Some C3 being cleave into C3a and C3b an antigen
Lectin Binding Pathway o Antibody-antigen complex
o Starts with Mannose Binding Lectin o It can bind up to 6 antibodies
Proteins binding to Mannose o No enzymatic activity
 C1r & C1s (1x)C1 →(10x)C3 convertase →(Over 1000
o Serine Proteases each/sec)C3b →Active for 2mins →lot of C3b very
o Typically hidden quickly
o Cannot perform enzymatic activity
C3b
Tied to a calcium bow – lack of calcium = lack of C1 Opsonin
Helps a firm grip on phagocytes because bacteria
PROCESS are slippery because of antiphagocytic capsule
When C1q binds to the Fc of 2 or more antibodies, it
causes to the confirmation change of the C1 molecule to Some of the C3b bind close to the C3 convertase making
twist exposing the C1r and C1s it to C4b2a3b protein complex or C5 convertase
This allow the C1r to cleave to C1s activating the
C1 molecule C5 Convertase will cleave C5 into C5a and C5b

Activated C1 will cleave to C4 into C4a and C4b C5b binds to C6, C7, C8
C4a – floats away This will penetrate to the cell membrane
C4b – binds to the surface of the pathogen Later joined by C9

C1 also cleave to C2 into C2a and C2b C9 proteins form a channel through the pathogen
C2a – bind to the surface of the pathogen and membrane
combining to C4b Forming the Membrane Attack Complex (MAC)
C2b – floats away C9 C5bC6 C7C8

C3 Convertase LECTIN BINDING PATHWAY

Combined form of C4b and C2a Mannose Binding Lectin Protein
C4b2a Protein Complex Binds to mannose-found in many bacterial
surfaces
C3 Convertase will cleave to C3 forming C3a and C3b Can cleave C4 and C2 – establishing C3
Convertase
Rest is the same as the classical pathway
ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY Factor Ba – floats away
Absence of C3 convertase Factor Bb – will stay bonded
Slow rate
There are small amounts of C3b floating around and C3b ad Bb has its own cleaving abilities
binding to any bacterial surfaces. Still a C3 Convertase
It will cleave to C3a and C3b
Protein Factor B and Factor B present in the blood Amplification step
Factor B will bind to C3b in the bacterial surface and Follow the classical and lectin binding pathway
allows to be cleaved by Factor D-always active Building MAC – Membrane Attack Complex
Factor B cleaved by Factor D
C3 can spontaneously cleave and trigger the alternative
pathway; it has to be carefully regulated by the C1
inhibitor
C1 inhibitor
o Disassociates Bb from C3b
o Shuts down the alternative C3 convertase

Factor H acts as a cofactor to another factor.

It will bind to Factor 1
Which break C3b into its inactive form or iC3b

iC3b
Potent opsonin
Cannot propagate alternative pathway

Fragments – those who float away

 C3a & C5a
o Chemotaxis that attracts phagocytes
(NEMM) to the site of infection
o Anaphylatoxins – helps Basophils and Mast
Cells to degranulate releasing inflammatory
molecules
 Histamine and Heparin that
promotes Deficiency of C9
 Constriction of Smooth No problems
Muscle C5, C6, C7, C8 can lyse a bacterium
 Bronchial Constriction independently
 Increased Vascular INTERFERONS
Permeability. When a virus infects the cell, the cell produces
C1, C2, C3, C4 – involved in removing Antigen/Antibody interferon, which it releases to nearby cells
complexes The interferon binds to surface of receptors on
Lack of these can cause neighboring cells
o Lupus-like illness This triggers the production of enzymes within the
o Chronic Renal Illness cells that would prevent the virus from replicating if
o Repeated infections managed to invade.

Deficiency of C5 C6 C7 C8 PHAGOCYTOSIS
Repeated Neisseria infections 1. The cells engulf a pathogen
Risk of Gonorrhea or Meningitis
 2. The pathogen sits in a vesicle
3. The vesicle merge with a lysosome which has acid
hydrolase enzymes
4. The lysosome digests the pathogen
5. The remains leave by exocytosis
Macrophages congregate – areas where microbial
invasion is likely to occur:
Alveolus
Liver
Nerve tissue
Bone
Spleen
 INFLAMMATION
Tissue injury, whether from trauma, ischemia, or
infection, produces inflammation.

Inflammation stimulates the body’s system to begin

fighting the infection while instigating measure to
contain the pathogen.

Inflammatory response includes processes that clean up

and repair the damaged tissue.

FOUR CLASSIC SIGNS OF INFLAMMATION

Swelling – results from fluid leaking out of the
capillaries
o Compresses veins
o Reducing venous drainage
o Capillary valves open – promote
capillary drainage
o This helps healing because lymphatic
capillaries are more adept at removing
bacteria, dead cells, and tissue debris that
are blood capillaries.
Redness – results from hyperemia
o Hyperemia – increases amount of blood
o Hyperemia brings material necessary for
healing, including oxygen and amino acids.
Heat – also results from hyperemia
o Head in the area increases the metabolic
rate, and thus, the rate of tissue repair Pain – may result fro injured nerves, pressure on
the nerves from swelling, or stimulation of nerves
 by bacterial toxins. 9. The fluid pushes material into the lymphatic
o Pain signals that an injury has occurred and vessels to be broken down by the lymph nodes
serves as a reminder to rest the are to allow and also delivers proteins for clotting
healing (coagulation cascade)
10. Phagocytes arrive to do phagocytosis after
The signs of inflammation is a sign of healing. inflammation is occurred.

Systemic inflammation – distributed throughout the

body
Local inflammation – specific area of the body

PROCESS OF CHEMOTAXIS
1. Leukocytosis
Phagocytes enter the bloodstream from the
red bone marrow
2. Margination
Phagocytes cling to capillary walls at the
site of the injury by responding signals
3. Diapedesis
PROCESS OF INFLAMMATION Phagocytes squeeze out of the capillary
1. Injury occurs 4. Chemotaxis
2. Inflammatory chemicals are released – histamine Phagocytes migrate up the gradient of
3. Incoming pathogens can be recognized certain molecules and perform
4. Release of cytokines – they signal the immune phagocytosis.
system to do its job.
5. Cytokines cause blood vessel dilated and leakage
6. The leakage of capillaries is called vascular
permeability
7. Excess blood cause redness and swelling
8. This is painful but favorable strategy
FEVER ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Also known as pyrexia, fever is an abnormal elevation of
body temperature Specificity
Memory
Is beneficial during an illness. Besides promoting the
activity of interferon, an elevated body temperature Antigen – are substances that stimulate adaptive
inhibits the reproduction of bacterial and viruses. immune response
Foreign antigen
Following is the normal sequence of events during a Self-antigen
fever:
1. As neutrophils and macrophages phagocytize FOREIGN ANTIGEN
bacteria, they secrete a fever producing substance Are introduced from outside of the body
called a pyrogen Microorganisms, such as bacterial and viruses and
The pyrogen stimulates the anterior chemicals
hypothalamus to secrete prostaglandin E Pollen, animal hairs, foods and drugs can cause
(PGE). an allergic reaction. Because they are foreign
2. PGE resets the body’s set point for temperature. antigen that produce an overreaction of the
For example, it may raise if from a normal of immune system
98.6°F (37°C) to 102°F (39°C). Organ transplant can also spark an immune
3. When the set point rises, the body needs to response or rejection.
generate heat, which it does through shivering and
constricting blood vessels in the skin. The result: SELF-ANTIGENS
chills and cold, clammy skin Molecules the body produces to stimulate an
4. The temperature rises until it reaches its new set immune response.
point, where it remains as long as the pathogen is Can beneficial and harmful
present Autoimmune disease results when self-antigen
5. When the pathogen is no longer a threat, the stimulate unwanted destruction of normal tissue
phagocytes stop producing the pyrogen and the
body’s set point for temperature returns to normal. Specificity
Based on the shape recognition of cell surface
Exhibits two defining characteristics antigen
 Macrophages phagocytize a pathogen and present
Diversity an antigen and present an antigen to a matching
Any shape can be recognized by a B or T- helper T-cell
lymphocytes and trigger and immune response At the same time, some pathogens contact B-cells
matching the pathogen’s antigens
Memory The helper-T cells multiply and specialize into
Once a pathogen has activated the immune plasma cells
system, memory cells remain and will protect The plasma cells secrete antibodies.
against a secondary infection.

Self-tolerance
The immune system does not attack itself

PLAYERS OF SPECIFIC IMMUNITY

Macrophages
o Phagocytize pathogens and present
antigens to helper T lymphocytes
Helper T Lymphocytes
o Secrete lymphokines and activate B and
killer T lymphocytes
B-lymphocytes
o Multiply and specialize into plasma cells
that secretes antibodies
Killer T lymphocytes
o Kill (through lysis) infected or cancerous
ANTIBODIES
cells
Structures formed by 4 proteins
Two main regions
Adaptative immunity can be divided into
o The upper body is highly variable and bind
Antibody-mediated immunity
Cell-mediated immunity to a specific shape (the antigen)

ANTIBODY-MEDIATED (HUMORAL) IMMUNITY

 o The base region is constant for all anti- o Activates complement and increases
bodies – this region, when the antibody is phagocytosis
bound to its antigen, activates the o Responsible for Rh reactions, hemolytic
complement system. disease of the new born
IgA
o Found in tears, milk, blood, saliva and
lymph
o Provide immune protection to the new born
IgM
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
o First antibody to be secreted found in blood
lymph, unable to cross placenta
o Activates complement and acts as antigen-
binding receptor on the surface of the B-
cells
o Responsible for transfusion reactions
IgD
o Found in blood, lymph, on B-Cells
IgE
o Found in Mast cells, basophils, involved in
allergic reaction

ROLES OF ANTIBODIES
Neutralization
o Block the activity of a pathogen
TYPES OF ANTIBODIES Agglutinations
Antibody = immunoglobulin = ig o Multiple pathogens are aggregated by
IgG
antibody molecules
o Most abundant, mostly in blood, lymph, able
Opsonization
to cross the placenta o Pathogens bound by antibodies and more
o Total Serum Antibody – 80-85%
efficiently engulfed by phagocytes
Complement activation ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
o Bound to pathogens activated the
complement cascade resulting in lysis of
the cell.
Enhanced NK cell activity
o Abnormal body cells that are bound by
antibodies are recognized by NK cells and
are subsequently lysed.
Similar reaction to AMI
The pathogen triggering the reaction is a virus
infected cell or a cancerous cell
Killer T lymphocytes or Cytotoxic T Cells are
sensitized by contacted and activated by
lymphokines secreted by the activated helper T
lymphocytes ALLERGIES

Allergies are exaggerated (hypersensitive)

responses to antigen called allergens
In localized allergies such as hay fever, IgE
antibodies produces after first exposure to an
allergen attached to receptors on mast cells

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
Individuals with autoimmune diseases, the
immune system loses tolerance for self and turns
against certain molecules of the body
 Autoimmune diseases include systemic lupus
erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, insulin
dependent diabetes mellitus and multiple

IMMUNOTHERAPY
sclerosis.
Stimulates or inhibits the immune system to treat
diseases. Treats disease by altering the immune system
function or by directly attacking harmful cells

AGING ON THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY

Aging has little effect on the lymphatic system

Decreased t-helper cell proliferation results in
decreased antibody-mediated and cell-mediated
response
The primary and secondary antibody responses
decrease with age
The ability to resist intracellular pathogens
decreases with age.