Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

What is Psychosocial Development?

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of
personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops
in a series of stages. Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the
impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the development of
ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social
interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience
and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity,
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors and actions. Each
stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is
handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point
in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for
personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and
one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of
mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that
the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to
control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences,
and clothing selection.
 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who
do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interaction.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who
fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling
of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of
self.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence
and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused
about themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and
secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world
by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and
will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Summary Chart

Stage Basic Important Outcome

Conflict Events
Infancy (birth Trust vs. Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide
to 18 months) Mistrust reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust.
Early Autonomy vs. Toilet Children need to develop a sense of personal control over
Childhood (2 Shame and Training physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads
to 3 years) Doubt to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of
shame and doubt.
Preschool (3 Initiative vs. Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over
to 5 years) Guilt the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power
experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
School Age (6 Industry vs. School Children need to cope with new social and academic
to 11 years) Inferiority demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while
failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence Identity vs. Social Teens needs to develop a sense of self and personal
(12 to 18 Role Confusion Relationships identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself,
years) while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of
self.
Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships
Adulthood (19 Isolation with other people. Success leads to strong relationships,
to 40 years) while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Middle Generativity Work and Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
Adulthood (40 vs. Stagnation Parenthood them, often by having children or creating a positive
to 65 years) change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.

Maturity(65 Ego Integrity Reflection on Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
to death) vs. Despair Life fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.
 ERIK ERIKSON
Erik Erikson: 1902 t0 1994
1. Born in Germany, an illegitimate child of Danish parents
2. This fact bothered him all his life
3. Dropped out of high school and spent time traveling in Europe and studying art
4. Met Sigmund Freud and studied Psychoanalysis with Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud
5. Studied young people in different cultures
6. Became interested in how young people acquire a personal identity and how society helps
shape it
7. Because his theory integrates personal, emotional and social development, it is often called
psychosocial theory
8. Erikson is an ego-analyst – relationship between individual and the world or the self and the
world
9. Completed his training at the time Hitler came to power and to escape the tension in Europe
he went to the United States
Erikson’s work is based on five assumptions:
1. People, in general have the same basic needs
2. Personal development occurs in response to these needs
3. Development proceeds in stages
4. Movement through the stages reflects changes in an individual’s motivation
5. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial challenge that presents opportunities for
development
• Erikson described the time that an individual experiences a psychological challenge as a crisis
• A positive resolution of a crisis means a favorable ratio of positive to negative psychosocial
traits emerges
• A negative resolution results in individuals seeing the world as unpredictable and threatening
•This does not mean that people who successfully resolve the crisis never have negative
thoughts or distrust another person
• In general, they see the best in others and have a positive orientation towards life
Trust vs Mistrust: Infancy (Birth to approx. 1.5/2 Years)
The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
• Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability
and quality of the child’s caregivers.
• If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt: Early Childhood (1.5/2 - 3 Years)
Securely attached children next face the challenge of autonomy, or doing things on their own
1. Child learns to feed and dress themselves and toilet training begins
2. The key challenges the child faces during this stage relates to exerting independence
3. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to
control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
4. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and
clothing selection.
5. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do
not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Initiative vs Guilt: Preschool (3 - 5 Years)
• Initiative is characterized by an exploratory and investigative attitude that results from meeting
and accepting challenges
1. Preschool children encounter a widening social world, and a lot more challenges
2. Children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies, their behaviour, their toys and
their pets
3. Children make enormous cognitive leaps, and those developing abilities provide the impetus
for exploration in all areas of their lives
4. Children who are given the freedom to explore and experiment with adults who answer their
questions tend to develop initiative
5. Those who are restricted and whose initiative is considered to be a problem tend to develop a
sense of guilt about pursuing their interests
6. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail
to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.
Industry vs Inferiority: School Age (6 - 11 Years)
• Industry is the enjoyment of mastery and competence through success and recognition of
one’s accomplishment(s)
1. This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
2. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
3. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.
Identity vs Confusion: Adolescence 12 – 18 Years
• In the adolescent years, youths develop a desire for independence from parents, achieve
physical maturity and are concerned with the question of “Who am I?”
1. Adolescents experience major physical, intellectual and emotional changes. Many go through
growth spurts and their coordination often doesn’t keep up with their bodies
2. Adolescents experience new sexual feelings and are not quite know how to respond, they are
frequently confused
3. They are caught in the awkward position of wanting to assert their independence, yet longing
for the stability of structure and discipline
4. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration
will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and
control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about
themselves and the future
Intimacy vs Isolation: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 Years)
• A person with a firm sense of identity is prepared for intimacy, or giving the self over to
another
1. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are faced with the
developmental task of forming intimate relationships
2. Giving for the sake of giving, without expecting something in return characterizes a positive
resolution of the crisis at this stage
3. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships that are committed and
secure.
4. Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Generativity vs Stagnation: Middle Adulthood (40 – 65 Years)
• The key characteristics of generativity are creativity, productivity and concern for and
commitment to guiding the next generation
1. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
2. Generative adults try to contribute to the betterment of society by working for principles such
as a clean physical environment, a safe and drug-free social world and adherence to the
principles of freedom and dignity for individuals
3. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by
being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the world. They are characterized by apathy, pseudointimacy, or
self absorption.
Identity vs Despair: Old Age (65 to death)
• People who accept themselves, conclude that they only have one life to live, live it as well as
possible and have few regrets are seen as having integrity
1. This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
2. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
3. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death. They accept responsibility
for the way they have lived and accept the finality of death
Educational Implications:
Meet physical needs consistently and provide physical affection at regular intervals. Show
the students that teachers are reliable and dependable, to win their trust.
Provide consistent, reasonable discipline, opportunities for students to do for themselves,
and positive role models. Support students in their efforts to plan and carry out activities. To
develop anatomy in students and not shame.
Support efforts to plan and carry out activities, help with realistic choices that consider
other’s needs. Provide opportunities for physical, cognitive and social skills development. To
teach them initiative not guilt.
Give opportunities for children to achieve recognition and praise by producing things.
Children learn to form social relationships. Success leads to a feeling of competence and failure
leads to a feeling of inferiority.
Treat students as adults, challenge them with realistic goals, and address issues of identity.
Provide opportunities to explore various career options and a variety of social and political
beliefs system. To teach them identity not confusion.
Young adults learn to form intimate relationships. Success leads to strong relationships
and failure leads to feelings of loneliness and isolation.
 Adults begin to care for things that will outlive them. Success leads to a feeling of
accomplishment while failure leads to a lack of involvement in one's society. 
Older adults look back for a sense of fulfillment. Success leads to a feeling of wisdom and
failure leads to regret. : Provide opportunities to maintain self- concept and satisfaction.

Predictions of the theory

• There are stages of development which emerge in an ordered sequence. Issues of the
later stage can be previewed at an earlier time. It takes the entire lifespan for all aspects
of the person’s potential to be realized.
• Developmental tasks are dictated by the interaction of the biological, psychological, and
societal systems during each stage.
• A normal crisis arises at each stage of development and a central process arises and
operates to resolve each case. The resolutions of an individual to the crises determines his
coping resources, the positive resolution contributes ego strength while the negative
resolution contribute core pathologies.
• Each person is a part of an expanding network of significant relationships that conveys
society’s expectations and demands.
• Development will be optimal if a person can create new behaviors and relationships as a
result of skill attained in solving crises. Lack of development and core pathologies result
from tendencies that restrict behavior (especially social behavior in general and new
behavior in particular).

Strengths and weaknesses of the Theory

Strengths :-
1. The theory provides a broad, integrative framework within which to study the
lifespan.
2. The theory provides insight into the direction of a healthy life span.
3. The concept of psychosocial crisis, including its positive and negative pole, offers
a model for considering the individual differences, within the framework of normal
development.
4. Longitudinal studies support the general direction of development hypothesized
by the theory

Weaknesses:-

1. Explanations of the mechanisms of crisis resolution and process of moving from

one stage to the next needs more explanation.
2. The idea of a specific number of stages of life and their link to a genetic plan of
development is disputed.
 3. The theory has been dominated by a male, Eurocentric perspective that gives too
much emphasis on individuality and not enough attention to connection and social
relatedness.
4. The specific ways that culture encourages or inhibits development are not clearly
elaborated.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory is a very powerful way for building self-awareness and
for improving oneself, as it helps to understand a person’s learning according to his or her
personal differences

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Level

1. Pre-conventional Morality
• Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children,
but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see
rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid
punishment.
• Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma,
children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinz’s
needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
• Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships
Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis
on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
• Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole
when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules,
doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
Level 3. Post-conventional Morality
• Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs
of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these standards.
 • Stage 6 - Universal Principles
Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles
and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Definition of Moral Development

Moral development refers to the ways we distinguish right from wrong as we grow and
mature. Very young children generally do not have the same level of moral development as
adults.
Whether we like it or not schooling is a moral enterprise. Values issues abound in the
content and process of teaching. The interaction of adults and students within a social
organization called a school results in human conflict no less so than does such interaction in
social organizations labled “families”. Yet moral education has been viewed as the exclusive
province of the family and /or church. Disregard or misunderstood has been the nature of the
school as an important moral education institution. Because schools have not been viewed as
legitimate institutions of moral education society has avoided concepts of morality and ethics in
evaluating the effects of these institutions on the social development of children and
adolescents. Terms like “socialization” or “acculturation” or “citizenship” have been used to refer
to the moral impact on students. Such terms ignore the problem of the standard or principle of
value implied by such terms. We must face the issue of choice as to whether the outcome of the
growth and education process is the creation of a storm trooper, a Buddhist monk or a civil rights
activist. All are equally “socialized” in terms of their social group. To consider “socialization” or
the “acquisition of values” as moral education, is to consider the moral principles children are
developing (or are not developing). It is also to consider the adequacy of these principles in the
light of an examined concept of the good and right (the province of moral philosophy) and in the
light of knowledge of the moral processes of human development (which is the province of
psychology).
Think about your behavior as a young child. How did you decide if something was right or
wrong, or good or bad? Did you follow what your parents did? Did you copy the behavior of your
friends? At one time or another, you probably did both. When were you able to decide for
yourself what was right and what was wrong? Do you currently base your decisions on societal
or cultural laws? For example, is it wrong to steal because the law says it is wrong? Do you ever
feel that the morally correct decision conflicts with the law?
Let's say that your mother is dying and needs a specific medicine to be cured. That
medicine costs thousands of dollars that you and your mother do not have. Would it be okay to
steal the medicine to save her life? These are the types of questions that Lawrence Kohlberg
asked while studying moral development in human beings.
• The gradual development of an individual’s concept of:
-right or wrong,
- conscience,
 - religious values,
- social attitudes,
- and certain behavior.
• Process by which children learn their moral beliefs and develop moral reasoning for
making decisions regarding what is right or wrong

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987)
•He was an American psychologist.
•He served as a professor in: - the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago -
and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.
•He started as a developmental psychologist and then moved to the field of moral
education.
•He was particularly well-known for his theory of moral development which he
popularized through research studies conducted at Harvard's Center for Moral Education.
From Piaget to Kohlberg
• Kohlberg agreed with Piaget theory in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.
• Kohlberg studied the moral reasoning as an aspect of cognitive development that has to
do with the way an individual reasons about moral decisions.
• Kohlberg used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral
dilemmas.
• Both theories are stage theory.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Moral development, as initially defined by piaget and then refined and researched by
Kohlberg, does not simply represent an increasing knowledge of cultural values usually leading
to ethical relativity, rather, it represents the transformations that occur in a person’s form or
structure of thought. The content of values varies from culture to culture; hence the study of
cultural values cannot tell us how a person interacts with his social environment, or how a
person goes about solving problems related to his/her social world. This requires the analysis of
developing structures of moral judgement, which are found to be universal in a developmental
sequence across cultures.
In analyzing the responses of longitudinal and cross-cultural subjects to hypothetical moral
dilemmas it has been demonstrated that moral reasoning develops over time through a series of
six stages. The concept of stages of cognitive development refers to the structure of one’s
reasoning and implies the following characteristics:
1. Stages are “structured wholes,” or organized systems of thought. This means
individuals are consistent in their level of moral judgement.
 2. Stages from an invariant sequence. Under all conditions except extreme trauma,
movement is always forward, never backward. Individuals never skip stages, and
movement is always to the next stage up. This is true in all cultures.
3. Stages are “hierarchical integrations.” Thinking at the higher stage includes or
comprehends within it lower stage thinking. There is a tendency to function at or prefer
the highest stage available.

The Heinz Dilemma

• In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
• There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her.
• It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered.
• The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug
cost him to make.
• He paid $400 for the radium and charged $4,000 for a small dose of the drug.
• The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money and
tried every legal means, but he could only get together about $2,000, which is half of what it
cost.
• He told the druggist that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him
pay later.
• But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it."
• So, having tried every legal means, Heinz gets desperate and considers breaking into the
man's store to steal the drug for his wife.
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Why or why not?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
• By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg
hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older.
• The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up
at three-yearly intervals for 20 years.
• Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas.
• What Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the action
right or wrong, but the reasons given for the decision.
• He found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.
 • He demonstrated that people progressed in their moral reasoning through a series of
three levels.
• Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards
of society.

Levels of Moral Reasoning

1. Pre-conventional Moral Reasoning
• Judgment based solely on a person’s own needs and perceptions
• Moral reasoning is based on external rewards and punishments.
• Characterized by the desire to avoid punishment or gain reward.
• Typically children under the age of 10

2. Conventional Moral Reasoning

• Expectations of society and law are taken into account.
• Laws and rules are upheld simply because they are laws and rules
• Primary concern is to fit in and play the role of a good citizen
• People have a strong desire to follow the rules and laws.
• Typical of most adults.

3. Post-conventional Moral Reasoning

• Judgment based on abstract, personal principles not necessarily defined by society’s
laws.
• Reasoning based on personal moral standards
• Characterized by references to universal ethical principles that represent protecting
the rights of all people
• Most adults do not reach this level.

Each level has two sub stages that represent different degrees of sophistication in moral
reasoning.

How does the progress happen?

• Everyone goes through the stages sequentially in the order listed without skipping any
stage.
• The movement through these stages are not natural, that is people do not automatically
move from one stage to the next as they mature.
• In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices inadequacies in his
present way of coping with a given moral dilemma. (So, challenge your students)
• Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage.
• People cannot understand moral reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own. For
example, a person in Stage 1 can understand Stage 2 reasoning but nothing beyond that.
 • Not everyone achieves all the stages.
The stages of moral development are defined by the following characteristics:

Preconventional level:
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although
adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an
action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second
stages of moral development and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A
child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions
regarding what is right or wrong but instead focuses largely on external consequences that
certain actions may bring. And according to Kohlberg, there are two stages in this level. They are:
Stage 1: (Punishment-Obedience Orientation):
At this stage:
• Children see rules as fixed and absolute.
• They obey rules in order to avoid punishment.
• They determine a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not
punished
• They obeys superior authority and allow that authority to make the rules, especially if
that authority has the power to inflict pain.
• They are responsive to rules that will affect their physical well-being.
• Fear of authority and avoidance of punishment are reasons for behaving morally.
• This stage is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought.
• The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of rules which he
or she must unquestioningly obey.
• How can I avoid punishment?
• Not law or justice, but cost to me.
• Conscience = self-protection.
• A focus on direct consequences.
• Negative actions will result in punishments.
In the Heinz dilemma:
• Pro: “Hopefully he won’t get caught.”
• Con: “He’ll go to jail.”
Stage 2: ( Self-Interest Orientation)
At this stage:
 {{{{• Children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the
authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.
• Children account for individual points of view, and judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs.
• Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.
• They are motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy.
• They are self-absorbed, while assuming that they are generous.
• They believe in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need.
• They believe that the end justifies the means.
• They do a favor only to get a favor.
• They expect to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed they do.}}}}
{{{{- Personal reward orientation.
- What's in it for me?
- Instrumental purpose and exchange.
- Paying for a benefit.
- Satisfying personal needs determines moral choice.
- Minimize the pain; maximize the pleasure.
- Right behavior means acting in one's own best interests.
- Since everything is relative, each person is free to pursue his individual interests.
- Conscience = cunning.
- Reasoning is based on an attitude of “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours.”
- Getting what one wants often requires giving something up in return.
- “Right” is a fair exchange, and morals are guided by what is “fair”}}}}
In the Heinz dilemma:
• Pro: - “Heinz will be lonely if his wife dies.”
- “Heinz had children and he might need someone at home to look after them.”
- “The druggist is very greedy by charging so much.”
• Con: - “Prison is an awful place.”
- “They might put him in prison for more years than he could stand.”
- “He can marry someone younger and better-looking.”
Conventional level:
 The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. To reason in
a conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and
expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral
development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions
concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms
even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned. According to Kohlberg, the third and fourth stages of moral development belong to
this level.
Stage 3: "good boy-good girl" Orientation
At this stage:
• People attempt to live up to the social roles and expectations of the family and
community.
• Good behavior means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as
love, empathy, trust, and concern for others.
• They follow rules or do what other would want so that they win his approval.
• Maintaining the affection and approval of friends and relatives motivates good
behavior.
• Negative actions will harm those relationships.
• They find that intentions are as important as deeds, and they expect others to
accept intentions or promises in place of deeds.
• They begin to put themselves in another’s shoes and think from another
perspective.
• Interpersonal accord and conformity.
• Peer pressure, group orientation
• Social norms.
• Peer approval is very important.
• There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how
choices influence relationships.
• Obligation to one’s family, gang, etc.
• One earns acceptance by being “nice.”
• Behavior is often judged by intention – “Well, they mean well.”
• Conscience = loyalty
In the Heinz dilemma:
 • Pro: - “He should steal the drug because that’s what a devoted husband would do. He’ll
show what a good husband he is. He was a good man for wanting to save his wife, and his
intentions were good, that of saving the life of someone he loves. No husband should sit back
and watch his wife die”.
- “I don't think they would put him in jail. The judge would look at all sides, and see that
the druggist was charging too much.”
- “It was really the druggist's fault, he was unfair, trying to overcharge and letting
someone die. He ought to be put in jail.”
• Con: - “Other people will think he is a bad man.”
Stage 4: Law and Maintaining the Social Order Orientation
At this stage:
• People begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments.
• The focus is on maintaining social order by: - resisting personal pressures, - following the
rules, - doing one’s duty, - obeying laws, - and respecting authority without question. because
without laws, society would be chaos.
• They are duty doers who believe in rigid rules that should not be changed.
• They support the rights of the majority without concern for those in the minority.
• A duty to uphold rules and laws for their own sake justifies moral conformity.
• Social accord and system maintenance
• Right behavior consists of doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
• Flaws in the system are due to the failure of individuals who do not obey the system.
• There is a part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4..
• Conscience = good citizenship
In the Heinz dilemma:
• Pro: “A husband has a duty to care for his wife.”
• Con: “The theft is against the law even though his motives were good. We would have
chaos, and society couldn't function if everyone felt he had a good reason to break the laws, or
set up his own beliefs as to right and wrong."
Do you think?
• Marijuana, abortion, homosexuality, strip clubs …. are good just because they are legal
now?
• Slavery was fair just because it was legal?
• Law is justice?
• The right is what the law-makers think is?
Postconventional level:
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing
realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual’s own
perspective may take precedence over society’s view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent
with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—
principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. People who
exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally
rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute
dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate
their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at
stage six, can be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.
Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral
reasoning. According to Kohlberg, the fifth and sixth stages belonging to this level.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
At this stage:
• People begin to think about society in a very theoretical way, stepping back from their
own society and considering the rights and values that a society ought to uphold, to answer this
question "What makes for a good society?"
• They then evaluate existing societies in terms of these prior considerations.
• They account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people, and respect
the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual, because they believe in
consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule, and they are motivated by the belief
in the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people.
• They obey the law, until they can change it through the system (by democratic means),
if:
- it fails to promote general welfare, or it violates ethical principles,
- there were better alternatives,
- and members of the society agree upon these standards.
• They want to keep society functioning. But a smoothly functioning society is not
necessarily a good one. For example, a totalitarian society might be well-organized, but it is
hardly the moral ideal.
• A good society is best conceived as a social contract into which people freely enter to
work toward the benefit of all.
• Different social groups within a society will have different values, but they believe that
all rational people would agree on two points:
- they would all want certain basic rights, such as liberty and life, to be protected.
 - they would want some democratic procedures for changing unfair law and for improving
society.
• Social contract, utility, individual rights.
• Fairness of the legal order.
• Loyalty to truth
• Conscience = reason
In the Heinz dilemma:
• Pro: - “The law isn’t intended to cause someone’s death.”
- “Heinz’s obligation to save his wife’s life must take precedence over his obligation to
respect the druggist’s property rights.”
- “The wife’s right to live is a moral right that must be protected.”
- “It is the husband's duty to save his wife.”
- The fact that her life is in danger transcends every other standard you might use to judge
his action.
- Life is more important than property.
• Con: “The druggist’s rights are not being respected.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation
At this stage:
• People follow these internalized moral principles of justice that are higher than those
represented by social rules and customs, so these moral principles take precedence over laws
that might conflict with them.
• For example, they are conscientious objectors, and refuse to be drafted because they are
morally opposed to war.
• They are willing to accept the consequences for disobedience or violating the social rule
they have rejected.
• They suggest that we need to: (a) protect certain individual rights, (b) and settle disputes
through democratic processes.
• However, democratic processes alone do not always result in outcomes that we
intuitively sense are just. For example, a majority may vote for a law that hinders a minority, but
representatives of this stage define the principles by which we achieve justice.
• They work toward a conception of the good society, and the well-being of others,
regardless of who they are.
• These internalized moral principles of justice are:
- The human dignity (of all people as individuals) is sacred,
 - The principles of justice are universal; they apply to all,
- Treat the claims of all parties in an impartial manner,
- Profound respect for sanctity of human life,
- All humans have value,
- Nonviolence,
- Equality.
• These principles guide us toward decisions based on an equal respect for all. In actual
practice, we can reach just decisions by looking at a situation through one another's eyes.
• Self-chosen ethical principles
• Principles, no matter what the price
• Conscience = personal integrity
In the Heinz dilemma:
• Pro: - “Saving a life is more important than property.”
- “Heinz should steal the drug even if the person was a stranger and not his wife.
- “He must follow his conscience and not let the druggist’s desire for money
outweigh the value of a human life.
• Con: “If he steals the drug, others who need the drug can’t buy it.”
In the Heinz dilemma:
• All parties (the druggist, Heinz, and his wife) take on the roles of the others.
• To do this in an impartial manner, people can assume a "veil of ignorance", acting as if
they do not know which role they will eventually occupy.
• If the druggist did this, even he would recognize that life must take priority over
property; for he wouldn't want to risk finding himself in the wife's shoes with property valued
over life.
• Thus, they would all agree that the wife must be saved--this would be the fair solution.
• Such a solution, we must note, requires not only impartiality, but the principle that
everyone is given full and equal respect.
• If the wife were considered of less value than the others, a just solution could not be
reached.
QUALITIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Stage development is steady.
- one must progress through the stages in order, and one cannot get to a higher
stage without passing through the stage immediately preceding it.
 2. Subjects cannot comprehend moral reasoning at a stage more than one stage beyond their
own.
- Thus a person at stage two, who categorizes good and bad on the basis of his own
pleasure, cannot comprehend reasoning at stage four which appeals to fixed duties the
performance of which need not offer any promise of reward or pleasure.
3. Subjects are cognitively attracted to reasoning one level above their own main level.
- A stage one person will be attracted by stage two reasoning, a stage two person by stage
three reasoning, and so on. Kohlberg states that reasoning at higher stages is cognitively more
acceptable than reasoning at lower stages, since it resolves problems and dilemmas in a more
satisfactory way.
4. Movement through the stages is effected when cognitive uncertainty is created.
- That is, when a person’s cognitive outlook is not suitable to cope with a given moral
dilemma. If in a given situation one’s cognitive framework cannot resolve a problem, the
cognitive organism adjusts to a framework which does. Yet if a person’s orientation is not
disturbed there is no reason to expect any development.
• These qualities of moral development are, as I said, important to keep in mind. Because they
have not only been verified time and again by research but they also make sense if one looks at
the development of one’s cognitive capacity as a kind of orderly growth.
• Kohlberg believed, as Piaget did, that most moral development occurs through social
interaction.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory

• Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is
concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to
do versus our actual actions.
• Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed
out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when
making moral choices. Other factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings
may play an important part in moral reasoning.
• Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic cultures
emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and
community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not
account for.

The Heinz Dilemma

• In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
• There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her.
• It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered.
 • The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug
cost him to make.
• He paid $400 for the radium and charged $4,000 for a small dose of the drug.
• The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money and
tried every legal means, but he could only get together about $2,000, which is half of what it
cost.
• He told the druggist that his wife was dying, and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him
pay later.
• But the druggist said, "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it."
• So, having tried every legal means, Heinz gets desperate and considers breaking into the
man's store to steal the drug for his wife.
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Why or why not?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
• By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg
hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew older.
• The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up
at three-yearly intervals for 20 years.
• Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas.
• What Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the action
right or wrong, but the reasons given for the decision.
• He found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.
• He demonstrated that people progressed in their moral reasoning through a series of
three levels.
• Each level is based on the degree to which a person conforms to conventional standards
of society.

Summary
At stage 1 children think of what is right as that which authority says is right. Doing the
right thing is obeying authority and avoiding punishment. At stage 2, children are no longer so
impressed by any single authority; they see that there are different sides to any issue. Since
everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests, although it is often useful to
make deals and exchange favors with others.
 At stages 3 and 4, young people think as members of the conventional society with its
values, norms, and expectations. At stage 3, they emphasize being a good person, which
basically means having helpful motives toward people close to one At stage 4, the concern shifts
toward obeying laws to maintain society as a whole.
At stages 5 and 6 people are less concerned with maintaining society for it own sake, and
more concerned with the principles and values that make for a good society. At stage 5 they
emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone a say, and at stage 6
they define the principles by which agreement will be most just.