Logarithms, Indices and Surds, Partial Fractions 1

Chapter

2
Logarithms, Indices and Surds, Partial Fractions
Logarithms 1
(2) log a b. log b a  1  log a b 
log b a
Introduction
log b a
“The Logarithm of a given number to a given base is the index of (3) log c a  log b a. log c b or log c a 
the power to which the base must be raised in order to equal the given log b c
number.”
(4) log a (mn )  log a m  log a n
If a  0 and  1, then logarithm of a positive number N is
defined as the index x of that power of 'a' which equals N i.e., m 
x log a N (5) log a    log a m  log a n
log a N  x iff a  N  a  N,a  0 ,a  1 and n
N 0 (6) log a m n  n log a m (7) a log a m  m
It is also known as fundamental logarithmic identity.
1 1
Its domain is (0, ) and range is R. a is called the base of the (8) log a     log a n (9) log a  n  log a n
n 
logarithmic function.
When base is 'e' then the logarithmic function is called natural or  
(10) log a  n  log a n , (  0 )
Napierian logarithmic function and when base is 10, then it is called 
common logarithmic function.
(11) a log c b  b log c a , (a, b, c  0 and c  1)
Characteristic and mantissa
(1) The integral part of a logarithm is called the characteristic and Logarithmic inequalities
the fractional part is called mantissa.
(1) If a  1, p  1  log a p  0
log 10 N  integer  fraction (ve )
  (2) If 0  a  1, p  1  log a p  0
Characters tics Mantissa
(2) The mantissa part of log of a number is always kept positive. (3) If a  1, 0  p  1  log a p  0

(3) If the characteristics of log 10 N be n, then the number of (4) If p  a  1  log a p  1

digits in N is (n+1). (5) If a  p  1  0  log a p  1
(4) If the characteristics of log 10 N be (– n) then there exists
(6) If 0  a  p  1  0  log a p  1
(n – 1) number of zeros after decimal part of N.
(7) If 0  p  a  1  log a p  1
Properties of logarithms
 b
a  m , if m  1
Let m and n be arbitrary positive numbers such that a  0, (8) If log m a  b  
 b
a  m , if 0  m  1

a  1, b  0, b  1 then (9) log m a  b 



b
a  m , if m  1
 b
a  m , if 0  m  1
(1) log a a  1, log a 1  0
(10) log p a  log p b  ab if base p is positive and
>1 or a  b if base p is positive and < 1 i.e., 0  p  1 .
 2 Logarithms, Indices and Surds, Partial Fractions
In other words, if base is greater than 1 then inequality remains Verification should be done in (b) and (c) cases.
same and if base is positive but less than 1 then the sign of inequality
is reversed. Definition of surds
Any root of a number which can not be exactly found is called a
Indices and Surds surd.

Definition of indices Let a be a rational number and n is a positive integer. If the n th

root of x i.e., x 1 / n is irrational, then it is called surd of order n.
If a is any non zero real or imaginary number and m is the
positive integer, then a m  a. a. a. a.......... a (m times). Order of a surd is indicated by the number denoting the root.
Here a is called the base and m is the index, power or exponent. For example, 7 , 3 9 , (11 )3 / 5 , n 3 are surds of second,
th
third, fifth and n order respectively.
Laws of indices
A second order surd is often called a quadratic surd, a surd of
(1) a 0  1 , (a  0 ) third order is called a cubic surd.

1 Types of surds
(2) am  , (a  0)
am (1) Simple surds : A surd consisting of a single term. For
example 2 3 ,6 5, 5 etc.
(3) a m  n  a m .a n , where m and n are rational numbers
(2) Pure and mixed surds : A surd consisting of wholly of an
m n am irrational number is called pure surd.
(4) a  , where m and n are rational numbers,
A surd consisting of the product of a rational number and an
an
irrational number is called a mixed surd.
a0 (3) Compound surds : An expression consisting of the sum or
(5) (a m ) n  a mn difference of two or more surds.
(4) Similar surds : If the surds are different multiples of the
(6) a p / q  q a p same surd, they are called similar surds.
(7) If x  y , then a x  a y , but the converse may not be true. (5) Binomial surds : A compound surd consisting of two surds is
called a binomial surd.
For example : (1)6  (1)8 , but 6  8 (6) Binomial quadratic surds : Binomial surds consisting of
pure (or simple) surds of order two i.e., the surds of the form
i (i) If a  1, or 0 , then x  y
a b  c d or a  b c are called binomial quadratic surds.
ii (ii) If a  1 , then x, y may be any real number Two binomial quadratic surds which differ only in the sign which
(iii) If a  1, then x, y may be both even or both odd connects their terms are said to be conjugate or complementary to each
other. The product of a binomial quadratic surd and its conjugate is
(iv) If a  0, then x, y may be any non-zero real number always rational.
But if we have to solve the equations like For example: The conjugate of the surd 2 7  5 3 is the surd
[ f ( x )] ( x )  [ f ( x )]Ψ( x ) then we have to solve : 2 7 5 3 .
(a) f ( x )  1 (b) f ( x )  1
Properties of quadratic surds
(c) f ( x )  0 (d)
(1) The square root of a rational number cannot be expressed as
 ( x )  Ψ( x ) the sum or difference of a rational number and a quadratic surd.
Verification should be done in (b) and (c) cases (2) If two quadratic surds cannot be reduced to others, which
have not the same irrational part, their product is irrational.
(8) am .b m  (ab )m is not always true
(3) One quadratic surd cannot be equal to the sum or difference of
In real domain, a b  (ab ) , only when a  0, b  0 two others, not having the same irrational part.
(4) If a  b  c  d , where a and c are rational, and
In complex domain, a. b  (ab ) , if at least one of a and
b is positive. b, d are irrational, then ac and b= d .

(9) If a x  b x then consider the following cases : Rationalisation factors

(i) If a  b, then x  0 If two surds be such that their product is rational, then each one
of them is called rationalising factor of the other.
(ii) If a  b  0, then x may have any real value
Thus each of 2 3 and 3 is a rationalising factor of each
(iii) If a  b , then x is even. other. Similarly 3  2 and 3  2 are rationalising factors of
If we have to solve the equation of the form each other, as ( 3  2 )( 3  2 )  1 , which is rational.
[ f ( x )] ( x )  [ g( x )] ( x ) i.e., same index, different bases, then To find the factor which will rationalize any given binomial surd :
we have to solve (a) f ( x )  g( x ) , (b) f ( x )   g( x ) , Case I : Suppose the given surd is P a  q b
(c)  ( x )  0
 Logarithms, Indices and Surds, Partial Fractions 3

Let a1 / P  x , b 1 / q  y and let n be the L.C.M. of p and q. a

 a 2  b  a 
 a 2  b 
n n (4) a (b )  
Then x and y are both rational.  2   2 
   
Now x n  y n is divisible by x  y for all values of n, and
(5) If a is a rational number and b, c, d are surds then
x n  y n  ( x  y )(x n 1  x n  2 y  x n  3 y 2  .....  y n 1 )
. bd bc cd
Thus the rationalizing factor is (i) a b  c  d   
n 1
4c 4d 4b
x  x n  2 y  x n  3 y 2  .....  y n 1 and the rational product
is x n  y n . bd cd bc
(ii) a b  c  d   
p q 4c 4b 4d
Case II : Let the given surd be a  b .
Let x , y , n have the same meaning as in Case I. bc bd cd
(iii) a b  c  d   
4d 4c 4b
(1) If n is even, then x n  y n is divisible by x + y and
x n  y n  ( x  y )(x n 1  x n  2 y  x n  3 y 3  .....  y n 1 ) Cube root of a binomial quadratic surd
Thus the rationalizing factor is If (a  b )1 / 3  x  y then (a  b )2 / 3  x  y,
x n 1  x n  2 y  x n  3 y 2  ...  y n 1 and the rational product where a is a rational number and b is a surd.
is x n  y n . Procedure of finding (a  b )1 / 3 is illustrated with the help of
(2) If n is odd, x n  y n is divisible by x  y and an example :
x n  y n  (x  y )(x n 1  x n  2 y  ....  y n 1 ) Taking (37  30 3 )1 / 3  x  y we get on cubing both
3
Thus the rationalizing factor is x n 1
x n2
y  ..... sides, 37  30 3  x  3 xy  (3 x 2  y ) y

 xy n  2  y n 1 and the rational product is x n  y n .  x 3  3 xy  37

(3 x 2  y ) y  30 3  15 12
Square roots of a +b and a + b + c + d where
b , c , d are Surds As 3 can not be reduced, let us assume y  3 we get
3x 2
 y  3 x 2  3  30 . x  3 ,
Let (a  b )  x  y , where x , y  0 are rational
numbers. which doesn't satisfy x 3  3 xy  37 .
Then squaring both sides we have, Again taking y  12 , we get 3 x 2  12  15 ,  x  1
a b  x y  2 x y
x  1, y  12 satisfy x 3  3 xy  37
 a  x  y, b  2 xy  b  4 xy
 3 37  30 3 1  12  1  2 3
So, ( x  y ) 2  ( x  y ) 2  4 xy  a 2  b
After solving we can find x and y. Equations involving surds
Similarly square root of a  b can be found by taking
While solving equations involving surds, usually we have to
(a  b)  x  y, x  y square, on squaring the domain of the equation extends and we may
To find square root of a + b + c + d : get some extraneous solutions, and so we must verify the solutions and
Let neglect those which do not satisfy the equation.
(a  b  c  d)  x  y  z , (x , y, z  0 ) and Note that from ax  bx , to conclude a  b is not correct.
take (a  b  c  d )  x  y  z . Then by squaring The correct procedure is x (a  b ) =0 i.e. x  0 or a  b . Here,
and equating, we get equations in x, y, z. On solving these equations, necessity of verification is required.
we can find the required square roots.
(1) If a 2  b is not a perfect square, the square root of Partial Fractions
a  b is complicated i.e., we can't find the value of (a  b) Definition
in the form of a compound surd.
f (x )
(2) If (a  b)  x  y , x  y then An expression of the form , where f (x ) and g(x )
g( x )
(a  b)  x  y are polynomial in x, is called a rational fraction.

a a 2  b  a a 2  b 
(3) a (b )    
 2   2 
   
 4 Logarithms, Indices and Surds, Partial Fractions
f (x ) Where A1 , A 2 , ......, Ak are constants. To determine the
(1) Proper rational functions : Functions of the form ,
g( x ) value of constants adopt the procedure as above.
where f (x ) and g(x ) are polynomials and g( x )  0 ,are (3) When the denominator consists of non-repeated quadratic
factors : To each irreducible non repeated quadratic factor
called rational functions of x.
ax 2  bx  c , there corresponds a partial fraction of the form
If degree of f (x ) is less than degree of g(x ) ,then
Ax  B
f (x ) 2
, where A and B are constants to be determined.
is called a proper rational function. ax  bx  c
g( x )
Example :
(2) Improper rational functions : If degree of f (x ) is greater
4 x 2  2x  3 Ax  B C D
 2  
f (x ) (x  4 x  9 )( x  2)( x  3) x  4 x  9 x  2 x  3
2
than or equal to degree of g(x ) , then is called an
g( x ) px  q q pa  q pa  q
improper rational function. (1)    2
x 2 ( x  a) ax 2 a2 x a ( x  a)
(3) Partial fractions : Any proper rational function can be
px  q q q pa  q
broken up into a group of different rational fractions, each having a (2) 2
 2  2 
simple factor of the denominator of the original rational function. Each x (x  a) a x a ( x  a) a(x  a)2
such fraction is called a partial fraction. px  q q pa 2  qx
(3)  
If by some process, we can break a given rational function x (x 2  a 2 ) a 2 x a 2 (x 2  a 2 )
f (x ) (4) When the denominator consists of repeated quadratic
into different fractions, whose denominators are the factors
g( x ) factors : To each irreducible quadratic factor ax 2  bx  c
of g(x ) ,then the process of obtaining them is called the resolution occurring r times in the denominator of a proper rational fraction there
corresponds a sum of r partial fractions of the form.
f (x )
or decomposition of into its partial fractions.
g( x )
A1 x  B1 A2 x  B 2 Ar x  Br
2
 2 2
 ......... 
Different cases of partial fractions ax  bx  c (ax  bx  c) (ax 2  bx  c)r
(1) When the denominator consists of non-repeated linear where, A’s and B’s are constants to be determined.
factors : To each linear factor ( x  a) occurring once in the
Partial fractions of improper rational functions
denominator of a proper fraction, there corresponds a single partial
A If degree of f (x ) is greater than or equal to degree of g(x )
fraction of the form , where A is a constant to be determined.
x a f (x )
, then is called an improper rational function and every
If g(x ) = g( x )
(x  a1 )( x  a2 )( x  a3 ).......( x  an ), then we assume rational function can be transformed to a proper rational function by
dividing the numerator by the denominator.
f (x ) A1 A2 An
that,    ......  We divide the numerator by denominator until a remainder is
g(x ) x  a1 x  a2 x  an obtained which is of lower degree than the denominator.
f (x ) R(x )
where A1 , A2 , A3 , ....... An are constants, can be i.e.,  Q( x )  , where degree of R(x ) <
g( x ) g (x )
determined by equating the numerator of L.H.S. to the numerator of
R.H.S. (after L.C.M.) and substituting x  a1 , a 2 ,...... a n . degree of g (x ) .

(2) When the denominator consists of linear factors, some x3

For example, is an improper rational function
repeated : To each linear factor (x – a) occurring r times in the x2  5x  6
denominator of a proper rational function, there corresponds a sum of
r partial fractions. 19 x  30
and can be expressed as (x  5 )  2 which is the sum
Let g( x )  ( x  a)k ( x  a1 )( x  a2 ).......( x  ar )
x  5x  6
of a polynomial ( x  5 ) and a proper rational function
. Then we assume that
19 x  30
f (x ) A1 A2 .
   ...... x2  5x  6
g(x ) x  a (x  a)2
General method of finding out the constants
Ak B1 Br
   ......  (1) Express the given fraction into its partial fractions in
(x  a) k
(x  a1 ) (x  ar )
accordance with the rules written above.
(2) Then multiply both sides by the denominator of the given fraction
and you will get an identity which will hold for all values of x.
 Logarithms, Indices and Surds, Partial Fractions 5
(3) Equate the coefficients of like powers of x in the resulting
identity and solve the equations so obtained simultaneously to find the
various constant is short method. Sometimes, we substitute particular
values of the variable x in the identity obtained after clearing of
fractions to find some or all the constants. For non-repeated linear
factors, the values of x used as those for which the denominator of the
corresponding partial fractions become zero.

 The logarithm of a number is unique i.e., no number can have

two different log to a given base.
log e a  log e 10 . log 10 a or

log e a
log 10 a   0 . 434 log e a
log e 10
 If a is not rational, n
a is not a surd.
 Remainder of polynomial f (x ) , when divided by
(x  a) is f (a) . e.g., remainder of x 2  3 x  7 ,when
divided by x  2 is (2)2  3(2)  7  3 .

px  q pa  q pb  q
 
( x  a) ( x  b ) ( x  a) (a  b ) (b  a) ( x  b )
 If the given fraction is improper, then before finding partial
fractions, the given fraction must be expressed as sum of a
polynomial and a proper fraction by division.
 Some times a suitable substitution transforms the given
function to a rational fraction which can be integrated by breaking
it into partial fractions.