ISSN : 0972-2742

Vol. XV, No. 2 October 1 – December31, 2012

 Vol. XV, No. 2 October 1 – December 31, 2012

In This Issue Page No.

1. Assessment of frictional characteristics of 3

gear oils in rolling element bearings

2. Development of a test rig for grease 16

lubricated hub bearing assembly

3. Study on flow characteristics of greases 21

Editorial Board
Editor
Dr. E. Sayanna
Members
N. R. Bhoopatkar
Abhijit Roy
Dr. T. Singh
Dr. N. K. Pokhriyal
Assessment of Frictional Characteristics of Gear Oils in Rolling element Bearings
Ajay Kumar, Rahul Meshram, A H Zaidi, A K Jaiswal, V Martin, B Basu, R K Malhotra
Indian Oil Corporation Ltd, R&D Centre, Sector 13, Faridabad-121007, INDIA

Abstract:
Industrial Gear Oils are also used to lubricate the support rolling element bearings at the
supports in the gear boxes. Besides the large quantum energy consumption in the gear
contacts, a significant amount of energy gets expended at the bearings. These bearings work
under a variety of conditions depending upon the application and the industry in which these
are used. An attempt is made to assess the energy efficiency of these gear oils using the FAG
FE8 Bearing test rig. This paper describes the simulated studies carried out using this rig on
various gear oils to assess the factors that influence the energy consumption in the rolling
element bearings.

1.0 Introduction:
In order to understand the friction in rolling element bearings, it is necessary to understand the
mechanism of lubricant film formation in these. Rolling element bearings operate in the classic
EHL regime of high pressures and relatively high rolling speeds. Film thickness generation is
governed by the contact geometry, kinematics, and the bulk lubricant properties. In general,
the elastic deformations of the contacting surfaces are much greater than the lubricant film
thickness.

Friction in Rolling Element Bearings working under a rolling contact is comparatively small in
magnitude compared to other machine components, but still contributes to the energy losses
encountered in service in Rotating equipments. These frictional losses are significantly
dependent upon the lubricant used in the bearings. Although this quantum can be assessed
under simulated contacts in similar geometrical configurations, a controlled bearing test gives a
proper insight and correlation with the Energy efficiency of the lubricant in the rolling element
bearings.

The study of frictional losses in oil lubricated bearings is an area wherein lubricant
manufacturers have shown increased interest. Although the rolling element bearings exhibit
low frictional characteristics (hence the popular name “antifriction bearings”), the oil
characteristics influences the energy consumption pattern of any equipment using rolling
element bearings to a great extent. Standard test methods do not facilitate the evaluation of
this property of the lubricating gear oil under a simulated bearing contact and will only offer an
insight into the contact friction under simulated sliding point contact or a simulated rolling
contact. The rolling element bearings operate predominantly under rolling contact and the
coefficient of friction is of a small magnitude dependent upon contact temperatures and the
film thicknesses existing at the contact points. Although improvement of the frictional
characteristics of the oils for reduction of energy consumption at the gear contacts also works
towards the improvement of the EE characteristics at the bearing contacts, there is a need to
assess the same to assess the factors responsible for the energy consumption at the bearing
contacts. Rolling element bearings work under a mixed to EHD regime of lubrication depending
upon the speeds-loads and temperatures. There is a need to do an assessment under a variety
of conditions simulating those under which the actual gear boxes operate.

For this purpose, a FE8 test equipment manufactured by FAG Germany was used to assess the
frictional characteristics of the oils and greases. It evaluates the rolling element bearing as a
tribological system simulating a variety of operating conditions as existing in field. This
equipment can study the mechanical properties of lubricants under different bearing
geometries under varying conditions of loads, speeds, temperatures and environments.(1,2).
DIN Standards for this purpose assesses the wear characteristics of lubricating oils and
greases(3). An earlier publication (6) by the same group described the study on this equipment
to measure the friction moment under a tapered roller bearing configuration for different
greases. In that paper, the effect of factors such as the grease chemistry and its base oil type
and viscosity on the bearing friction was studied. These results were able to study the factors
responsible for the development energy efficient greases for use in rolling element bearings.

FAG FE8 test rig as per DIN 51819 test standards various parts (3-5) is used for the studies on
the wear performance of greases and oils under a simulated bearing contact under several
conditions. It forms a part of the specification requirements for several lubricating oil
specifications such as paper machine oil, wind turbine lubricants and also different grades of
gear oils. For Oils, there are two types of tests specified (1) FE8 wear test D 7.5/80-80 run for
500 hours at 7.5 rpm, 80KN Load (2) FE8 endurance test D 75/80-80 run for 1500 Hours at 7.5
rpm, and 80 KN.

In this paper, an attempt has been made to use the parameters like Friction moment exhibited
by the oil with the oil lubrication-recirculation system connected to the test rig, and the
temperature rise to quantify the energy efficiency of the oil under several sets of conditions.
Some of the typical test conditions for these are under

1) FE8- 7.5 rpm, 80 Hours, DIN 51 819-3 for the wear of rolling elements
2) FE8 - 750 rpm, 500 hrs, 120 deg C, 0.1 liter per minute per bearing of oil (with and
without ingress of water)

Short duration tests of 80-500 hrs with oil or grease lubrication have been generally run to
evaluate the anti-wear characteristics of the greases as per the DIN standard. It is also possible
to run long duration tests till failure to judge the fatigue behaviour of rolling element bearings
and the effect of the grease on it.

2.0 TEST RIG DESCRIPTION:

The FE8 test rig as depicted in Figure 1 consists of a drive unit, drive unit, gears test head, test
head cooling, measuring electronics, switch cabinet. The basic machine of the test rig consists
of a test head connected to the drive unit. The drive shaft of the drive unit is supported by two
auxiliary bearings which are preloaded by Belleville Springs. The shaft is driven by a triple pole
changing DC motor directly or via a gear (spur gear, belt drive). With this arrangement, the
speeds can be varied from 7.5 rpm to 12000 rpm. The test head shaft is tapered at the drive
end so that the entire test head module can be removed from the drive unit. The test head
contains the test bearings. The bearings are loaded axially by means of Belleville Springs. The
magnitude of the load can be set by a washer. The axial load direction in which all the test
bearings are loaded due to the axial load structure is advantageous since all the rolling
elements are subjected to the same load and the testing is tighter than under radial or
combined loading. The electric motor, test head temperature and running time are controlled
centrally from a switch cabinet. There are different heads to accommodate different
geometries of rolling element bearings as listed below:

(1) Angular Contact ball bearings

(2) Tapered Roller Bearings
(3) Cylindrical roller Thrust Bearings

In the case of grease, the heads with the Angular contact ball bearings and the Tapered Roller
Bearings are used, while in case of oil lubrication, the test head with the Cylindrical Roller
Thrust bearings type 81212 with brass cages are used. To properly simulate the lubrication of
rolling element bearings with oil as that occurring in the field, it is therefore necessary to install
an oil circulation system comprising an oil container, pump, distributor elements, a filter and an
oil preheating unit. The latter contains heated guide plates over which the oil flows and by
which it is brought to almost the same temperature as the oil as in the field condition. The
inter-action between the oil and the oxygen in the air is also ensured in this way.

The machine is automatically switched off at a certain set level of bearing friction, thus
preventing damage to the bearings and the test head. The temperature if exceeding 160 Deg C
for the thrust bearings or 200 deg C for the angular contact or tapered roller bearings during
any of the stages of test will shut of the test rig.

A photograph of the FE8 rig connected to the oil recirculation system is shown in Figure 2. The
schematic of the arrangement of the oil circulation system connected to the test rig is shown in
Figure 3.

The following criteria are used for the assessment of the Frictional performance of the
lubricating oil in the bearings:

(1) The temperature of the outer race of each of the test bearings
(2) Friction Moment of the bearings (the product of the force required for holding the
housing structure and the distance between the holding point and the shaft axis. A force
transducer mounted near the bearings with a loading arm measures the holding force at
the housing and sends it to the amplifier.

These bearings have a large friction area between the roller surface and the raceways and
therefore require an oil which provides good protection against wear. Generally the
specifications require a test to be carried out at low speeds so that the bearing run in the
boundary regime of lubrication where the frictional effects are maximized.

3.0 EXPERIMENT:

In this study, various gear oils were evaluated using a set of two single row Cylindrical roller
thrust Bearing Configuration FAG 81212 (OD 95 mm, ID 60 mm width 26 mm) mounted on the
shaft as shown in Figure 4 and 5 . This bearing is equipped with brass cages.

The test conditions selected for stage wise testing were as under:
Table 1:
Sr Load Speed Initial starting Duration
No Temperature
1 80KN 7.5 rpm 60 Deg C 6 Hours
2 20KN 750 rpm 60 Deg C 6 hours
3 10 KN 1500 rpm 60 Deg C 6 Hours

The test conditions were selected to be able to assess the frictional characteristics and the
resulting energy consumption characteristics over a range of conditions ranging from High
Load, Low speeds at Sr No 1 to Medium Load, Medium Speed at Sr No 2 to Low Load, High
speeds at Sr No 3, in which the gear boxes in the different field applications generally operate.

The following lubricating oils were evaluated on the FAG FE8 test rig in the above test stages to
assess the reasons for the energy efficiency of oils in bearings:
Table 2:
Sr No Oil Base oil Viscosity Viscosity at 60 Deg C
1 OIL A VG 320 Mineral 107 cSt
2 Oil B VG 220 Mineral 79 cSt
3 OIL C VG 220 Fully synthetic 94.83 cSt
4 OIL D VG 320 Part synthetic and Friction 103.4 cSt
modified
5 OIL E VG 320 Part synthetic and Friction 102.0 cSt
Modified
The criteria for the selection of the oils was to assess the factors responsible for the Energy
efficiency characteristics of the lubricating oils as follows
(1) Viscosity
(2) FMs
(3) Effect of synthetic base stocks

Besides the selection of the operating conditions led to the lubricating oils operating under
different regimes of lubrication, with the Condition at Sr No 1 predominantly in the Boundary to
Mixed Regime of lubrication, the Condition at Sr No 2 predominantly operating in the Mixed to
EHD regime of Lubrication, and the Condition at Sr No 3 in the EHD regime of lubrication as
illustrated in the Stribeck Curve.

The following parameters were observations during the study.

(1) Starting friction moment(N.m): This was taken at the ambient temperatures in the range
of 18-20 deg C and was indicative of the resistance encountered due to the starting in
the morning cold conditions. It depends upon the viscous drag encountered due to the
viscosity effect and the boundary friction encountered on starting the rotation of the
rolling elements.
(2) Stabilized running moment (N.m): The running Friction moment stabilized after a few
hours of running and remained steady at that condition. It is representative of the
steady state condition, and was indicative of the energy consumed in the steady state
conditions prevalent in the operation. At the low speed-high load condition of 80KN, 7.5
rpm, the regime of lubrication was in the mixed to EHL regime, so the steady state
running Friction moment did not reduce considerably for all the oils from the starting
value.
(3) Stabilized mean temperature of bearings: The temperature stabilized at a particular
value after a few hours and was the net effect of the energy consumed at the bearing
contact less the dissipated heat to the environment. Since the ambient temperature
remained in the range of 18-22 deg C, the net effect of increase of temperature was
dependent on the frictional characteristics due to the oil.

4.0 OBSERVATIONS:

1) The oils were screened for their film thickness on the EHD apparatus over the different
regimes of lubrication (in the speed range from 20 mm/sec to 4.5 m/sec) at 60 deg C, 20
N(0.48GPa) test conditions under a point contact as shown in Figure 7. Oil A shows the
highest film thickness followed by Oil B and C and Oil D and Oil E in that order.
2) The screening for the friction coefficient was done on the SRV apparatus at conditions of
200N, 50deg C, 1mm and 1 hour as shown in Figure 8. Oils D and E being friction
modified exhibit the lowest friction coefficient.
3) The observations for the various oils at different conditions are given in Table 3. The
following are the main observations that can be made from the readings.
a) Starting Friction moment values are affected by the running speeds/loads. At
conditions of low speed/high loads, these values were significantly higher compared
to the conditions of medium load/Medium speeds and high speeds/low load in that
order.
b) For all the oils, the operation in the low speed high load conditions, the running
Friction did not reduce to the same extent from the starting Friction moment in the
cold conditions. This indicates that it operates predominantly in the mixed regime of
lubrication, and there is no EHL effect as experienced at higher speeds where there
 is a buildup of EHL film. Under these conditions, due to the predominant
mixed/boundary regime, it would be useful to assess the wear and endurance
characteristics of the lubricant, as per the standard DIN 51819 conditions.
c) The temperature rise values for three of the oils Oil A, B, C without any friction
modifiers were much higher than that for Oil D incorporating Friction modifiers,
which indicates that the FMs in the oil reduce the frictional heating to some extent.
However there is not much discernible change in the Friction moment between the
starting and steady state values, which could be due to inertial effects in its
measurement as well as the higher viscous drag.
d) In regard to the studies done at Medium Speed-Medium Load conditions and the
High speed-low load condition, the starting friction moment dropped considerably
with the increase in speeds and reduction in applied load for all the oils. The same
trend followed for the steady state running friction moment to a much lower value
than the starting friction moment due to be buildup of the EHL film in the contact
zone.
e) The friction moment exhibited for the mineral oils under these two set of conditions
were higher than those for the fully synthetic and the part-synthetic-friction
modified oils. The temperature rise trend also exhibited the same characteristics.
The synthetic oils show a similar trend in friction Friction moment and temperature
rise as the friction modified part synthetic gear oils.

5.0 CONCLUSIONS:

(1) The FE8 rig can be used to screen the frictional properties of the gear oils under various set
of operating conditions.

(2) Friction moment at low speed, high load conditions is the highest compared to Medium
Speed-Medium Load and High Speed-Low Load conditions for all the oils in that order. This is
due to the operation of the bearings in the boundary-mixed lubrication regime at that
condition.

(3) Mineral oils exhibit higher friction moment compared to the synthetic and part-
synthetic/Friction modified oils.

6.0 REFERENCES:

(1) Kleinlein E., “Using the FE8 System as a testing method for ball and Roller Bearing
Greases”, NLGI Spokesman, Vol 59, No 2, September 1995.
(2) Grasshoff H D, Maak Herbert, “Improved European Techniques for Grease Testing”,
NLGI Spokesman, Vol 49, April 1985.
(3) DIN 51819-1:1999, Testing rolling bearing lubricants using the FE 8 wear test
machine – Principles.
(4) DIN 51819-2:1999 Testing of lubricants - Mechanical-dynamic testing in the roller
bearing test apparatus FE8 - Part 2: Test method for lubricating greases, oblique ball
bearing or tapered roller bearing.
(5) DIN 51819-3 Testing of lubricants - Mechanical-dynamic testing in the roller bearing test
apparatus FE8 - Part 3: Test method for lubricating oils.
(6) Ajay Kumar, A H Zaidi, V Martin, Anoop Kumar, G K Sharma and A K Mehta, “Study of
Frictional Characteristics of Greases in Rolling Element Bearings, presented at 5th
Lubricating Grease Conference NLGI India Chapter, 2004.
Figure 1 : FAG FE8 Test rig (picture courtesy Schaeffler AG)
Figure 2: FE8 Test rig connected to an oil recirculation system

Figure 3: Oil circulation system circuit connected to FAG FE8 test rig.
 Figure 4: Sectional view of the Thrust bearing 81212(picture
courtesy: Schaeffler AG, Germany)

Figure 5 : Another view of the Thrust bearing mounted on the shaft (picture courtesy:
Schaeffler AG, Germany)
Figure 6: FAG FE8 Thrust bearing Head (picture courtesy: Schaeffler AG, Germany)
Table 3 : FE8 Studies on Different Oils at Different test conditions:
Running
Ambient Starting Steady state Friction
temperature Friction Temperature moment
Oil Load, speed, Temperature deg C moment, N.m Deg C N.m
High load, low speed
Oil A 80 KN,7.5 rpm,60 deg C 22 24.4 69 21.4
Medium Load, Medium
speed
20 KN,750 rpm,60 deg C 21 13.1 70 2.8
Low load, high speed
10 KN,1500 rpm,60 deg C 20 8.2 77 2.1

High load, low speed

Oil B 80 KN,7.5 rpm,60 deg C 22 25 68 20.3
Medium Load, Medium
speed 20 KN,750 rpm,60
deg C 20 11.5 71 2.39
Low load, high speed
10 KN,1500 rpm,60 deg C 20 9.8 72 1.7

High load, low speed

Oil C 80 KN,7.5 rpm,60 deg C 18 24.8 67 20.4
Medium Load, Medium
speed 20 KN,750 rpm,60
deg C 18 10.1 69 2.4
Low load, high speed
10 KN,1500 rpm,60 deg C 20 9.3 76 1.4

High load, low speed

Oil D 80 KN,7.5 rpm,60 deg C 21 23.2 62 21.5
Medium Load, Medium
speed 20 KN, 750 rpm 20 9.5 63 2.76
Low load, high speed
10 KN, 1500 rpm 20 7.5 72 1.4

High load, low speed

Oil E 80 KN,7.5 rpm,60 deg C 19 26 63 21.9
Medium Load, Medium
speed 20 KN, 750 rpm 19 10.1 67 2.54
Low load, high speed
10 KN, 1500 rpm 20 7.5 75 1.3
Figure 7: EHD Film thickness studies on the Gear oils

Figure 8: SRV Studies on the Gear oils

 DEVELOPMENT OF A TEST RIG FOR GREASE LUBRICATED
HUB BEARING ASSEMBLY

NM DUBE, ANSHUMAN DUBE

Ducom Instruments Pvt. Ltd.,
477/A, 4th Phase, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore – 560058 (India)
[email protected]

ABSTRACT external contaminants. Life of bearing is drastically

affected if any one of these is present.
Hub bearing assembly of an automotive vehicle suffers An automotive wheel bearing operates in an
severe loading under bad road conditions. It is environment far from perfect. Ingress of dust, water
subjected to dynamic vehicle weight and cornering and mud in bearing is found to occur on road despite of
forces. It operates in the presence of dust and mud. seals. Ingress of contaminants causes excessive wear,
Entrapment of these in the lubricating grease of bearing corrosion and pitting. Pitting leads to rapid failure,
due to ingress leads to rapid failure. Extensive field much before the predicted theoretical life under ideal
testing is required to validate its design for reliability. conditions. Lack of a reliable computational model of
bearing life in the presence of contaminants makes it
This paper describes development of a hub bearing test imperative that life is determined experimentally in
rig which is capable of simulating operating conditions simulated bench test.
in realistic manner. Once assembly is proven on this
rig, it is likely to pass expensive and time consuming A hub bearing test rig was designed to conduct
field testing. Test results illustrating four modes of endurance tests which meets and exceeds requirements
failure observed during testing are presented. of test procedure SAE J1095 revised March 2003.

KEY WORDS BEARING LIFE EQUATIONS

Automotive tribology, bearing tester, hub bearing tester, According to DIN ISO 281, “adjusted rating life
dust ingress, mud ingress. equation” of a rolling element bearing under constant
load is given by:
INTRODUCTION p
Lna = a1 a2 a3 (C/P) - (1)
Hub bearing or wheel bearing assembly of an
automotive vehicle is a critical component. Its failure Or simply
leads to accident which may result in loss of life and
property. The weight of vehicle acts vertically Lna = a1 a2 a3 L10 - (2)
downwards as radial load on bearing assembly. Turning
generates centripetal force which is horizontal. It results Where
in a moment on bearing with tire-road contact radius
(dynamic tyre radius – DTR) as arm. This moment is bi- Lna = adjusted rating life, millions of revolutions (the
directional, depending on the direction of turn. Radial index n represents the difference between the requisite
load is dynamic. Its profile depends on road reliability1) and 100%
undulations, speed and suspension characteristics.
a1 = life adjustment factor for failure probability
It is possible to estimate fatigue life of a bearing under a2 = life adjustment factor for material
ideal conditions. Bearing manufacturers provide a3 = life adjustment factor for operating conditions
extensive information on various life adjustment factors C = basic dynamic load rating
[1] for improved estimation. These factors take into P = equivalent dynamic bearing load
account aspects of reliability, material and operating p = exponent of the life equation
conditions [2]. This model of life calculation is based on p = 3 for ball bearings
assumption that all avoidable causes of failure are p = 10/3 for roller bearings
absent. They include bearing damage during handling, L10 = basic rating life, millions of revolutions
material in-homogeneities, corrosion, wear debris and
Hub bearing assembly during operation is subjected to method a single loading cylinder is used. Its angle of
dynamic loading at varied speed. Under these inclination with respect to axis of rotation is such that
conditions, life can be estimated using linear cumulative the radial and axial components of resultant force are
damage rule [2] to determine equivalent dynamic load equal to test loads in these directions. Location of
P. It is given by: resultant load line is such that radial and axial load lines
pass through wheel center line and dynamic tyre radius
respectively.

The spindle of the test rig is a critical sub-assembly.

Distance of spindle bearings from load line is more than
- (3) that of sample. This applies a large moment loading of
these bearing. By the selection of spindle bearings with
ample load ratings, it was ensured that spindle life was
where,
longer than 50 full load tests. A lubricant re-circulation
system was used to lubricate and cool spindle bearings.
Pr = Load
p = Exponent of life calculation The hydraulic power pack has a variable displacement
nr = Rotational speed piston pump and an accumulator. With these two
nM = Mean rotational speed components, average power consumption could be
minimized to 0.5 Kilowatt for a peak hydraulic power of
qr = Duty cycle of duration at load Pr 12 Kilowatts. This makes the power pack energy
efficient. Solenoid operated electro-hydraulic valves
DESCRIPTION were used for cylinder pressure control with feedback
from load cells.
Figure 1 shows a typical hub assembly mounted on test
rig and figure 2, general arrangement of the rig. The rig
consists of following sub-assemblies:

1. Drive
2. Hydraulic loading
3. Lubrication
4. Sensors and instrumentation
5. Machine control
6. Data acquisition
7. Safety

Figure 1. Front wheel hub assembly of a

truck mounted on rig.
Figure 2. Sub Systems of a Ducom Automotive Hub
Hub assembly under test is mounted on the rig as Bearing Test Rig.
illustrated in figure 3. It is driven at desired test speed.
Radial and axial test loads are applied independently
with hydraulic cylinders. Note that the location of axial Fatigue rated load cells were used to measure horizontal
load line is at dynamic tyre radius. Another method of and vertical loads. Output of each load cell was used in
application of load is “resultant load technique”. In this servo loop for precision control of hydraulic loading.
Test load could be varied from 2kN to 100kN. Response on same screen. For unattended operation, provision to
of the loading loop was a slightly over-damped to auto-restart after a power outage is provided.
eliminate possibility of overshoot. It is necessary to
ensure loading is maintained within tight limits. This Test plan is programmed in the machine control
requirement arises out of the fact that the sensitivity of software opening screen by assigning horizontal and
life of a bearing to change in load high as it is vertical test load cycles, speed and duration. Dust and
p mud application cycles can also be programmed. Load
proportional to P (3). A mere 10% change in load
results in more than 33% change in life. cycle could either be a simple on/off pattern with
specified durations or a complex road load data (RLD)
profile (Figure 4). These features facilitate the realistic
testing, minimizing requirement of expensive field tests.

Figure 4. Typical road load data profile (RLD) with

components of radial load (blue), cornering force (red)
and speed (green).
Road load profile is recorded by a test vehicle fitted
with wheel force dynamometer (Figure 5) which is
driven on proving ground.

Figure 3. Schematic view of test rig.

Vibration level of the assembly under test was measured

with a piezoelectric accelerometer. Its value after initial
run-in is noted. Failure of the hub bearing due to fatigue
results in rapid increase in vibration level. A user
settable trip level above initial value terminates the test
in the event of vibration exceeding this threshold.
Vibration trip works only when its level stays
continuously above threshold for a specified duration.
This logic eliminates false tripping due to momentary
increase due to reasons other than bearing failure.

Another important test result is hub temperature. When

test starts, temperature rises rapidly and stabilizes after
run-in period. In some cases continuous running may Figure 5. A passenger car fitted with a wheel force
cause progressive loss of lubrication. It is easily dynamometer.
identified by corresponding rise in temperature. A
temperature trip terminates test in case temperature
exceeds preset value (Fig. 10). A chamber surrounding hub assembly facilitates testing
Machine software has three parts – machine control, under controlled dust conditions (Figure 6). Measured
data acquisition and post processing. Test schedule and quantity of test dust of specified grade is put in the
acquired data are displayed graphically online. Test chamber. Puffs of compressed air keep dust afloat in it.
results of multiple tests can be viewed for comparison Duty cycle of dust application can also be specified in
the test plan. Similarly mud chamber is used in place of
dust chamber to conduct testing with mud jet directed at
test sample. Mud of controlled composition is re-
circulated. Agitators in the mud tank do not allow its
settlement. Dust chamber and mud chamber are
detachable accessories which can be fitted when
required.
.

Figure 7. Temperature record indicating lubrication

failure.
Figure 8 shows the assembly immediately after test.
Notice excessive leakage of grease from the bearing
which led to a gradual loss of lubrication.

Figure 6. A hub bearing tester with dust

attachment.

TEST RESULTS. Figure 8. Excessive spillage of grease leading to

lubrication starvation.
Tests on a variety of hub bearing assemblies were
conducted. Samples included were of a small passenger
car, light commercial vehicle and a large truck. Tests
were conducted in dry, in dust and with mud. At the end
of the test assembly was carefully dismantled and
examined for failure analysis. Temperature and
vibration data related well with observations. There
were four modes of failures observed which are
illustrated in the following section:

1. Failure due to loss of lubrication

Hub assembly of a truck was subjected to dry dust test.
Record of hub temperature is shown in Figure 7.
Temperature rose rapidly and when it reached 600C, an
air blast directed towards the test assembly was Figure 9. Oxidation due to overheating.
switched on. Notice quick drop in temperature due to .
forced cooling. Temperature gradually dropped and Grease leakage resulted in increased temperature due to
stabilized after run-in. In this sample with a particular higher friction, initiating a self supporting cycle of
grease it was noticed that temperatures started rising as progressive heating, leading to failure. Oxidation due to
testing continued further. Test terminated when the frictional heating can be clearly seen in the bearing in
temperature exceeded preset trip value. Figure 9.
2. Failure due to pitting

Figure 10 shows vibration record of a passenger car

which was tested with mud jets directed towards it.
Notice rapid rise of vibration level towards the end of
the test.

Figure 12. Entrapment of failed cage.

4. Failure of housing

It was not always the bearing which failed first. Fracture

of housing was the first failure in certain samples due to
improper material properties. Figure 13 shows one such
failed housing.

Figure 10. Vibration level increased two folds

indicating bearing failure.

The test terminated due to vibration level trip.

Examination of failed bearing indicated ingress of mud
which caused pitting and abrasive wear (Figure 11)
leading to increase in vibration.

Brittle fracture

Figure 13. Failure of hub bearing housing.

CONCULSION

This paper describes development of a bench test rig for

hub bearing assembly testing. The unique feature of this
rig was the ability to conduct tests under realistic
conditions of load and environment. Hence, results
closely matched those of field testing. Once an
assembly passes simulated tests, it is unlikely to fail
Figure11. Pitting and corrosion due to mud ingress. during field tests. This minimizes time and cost of
repeated expensive field testing.

REFERENCES
3. Cage failure due to bending moment
1. SKF Bearing Catalog 204-E.
Bending moment on the bearing leads to cage failure. It 2. Johannes Brandlein, Paul Eschmann, Ludwig
is a catastrophic failure characterized by sudden Hasbargen, Karl Weigand, “Ball and roller
increase in vibration followed by seizure. Figure 12 bearings – Theory, design and application”,
shows cage failure which led to seizure. Third Edition, 1999, John Wiley & Sons Ltd,
ISBN 0-471-98452-3.
 STUDY ON FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF GREASES

Joseph P Antony, Ravi K Dixena, Q. A. Amir, S. C. Nagar, T. P. George

E. Sayanna, R .T. Mookken, B. Basu and R. K. Malhotra

Indian Oil Corporation Ltd

Research & Development Centre
Sector-13, Faridabad

Centralized lubrication systems are widely used in industries and in heavy duty mobile
equipment due to many advantages over conventional grease lubrication methods. The
efficient operation of centralized lubrication systems ensures continuous and effective
lubrication of machineries to achieve peak performance for a long time. Information of
grease shear properties is essential for proper selection of greases and appropriate
system engineering. NLGI grade provides grease consistency, but it does not provide
information on grease‟s suitability for use in a centralized lubrication system. Many
factors such as nature and content of soap, oil viscosity, polymer, solid additive
contents, etc., have major determining role on flow characteristics. Compared to
Lincoln ventmeter, MINITEST FFK is an easy to operate equipment and quick test
method for evaluation of flow properties of grease over wide temperatures. Flow
properties of lithium and lithium complex greases were studied using MINITEST FFK
and the effect of different complexing agents on the rheological behavior of greases is
discussed in this paper.

Key words: Complex grease, complexing agent, flow property

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The function of any lubricant is to prolong life and increase the efficiency of mechanical
devices by reducing friction and wear. As compared to oil, grease has different physical
and performance characteristics which are derived from the multiphase structured
matrix formed out of oil, thickener and various additives1. Dispersed in base fluid,
thickener gives grease its main physical characteristics, a gel structure and associated
rigidity commonly referred to as consistency. Grease can demonstrate the properties of
a solid or a liquid, depending on the conditions to which it is subjected. As a non-
newtonian pseudo plastic material, flow of grease is not initiated until stress is applied 2,
3
. Increase in stress or pressure produces disproportionate increase in flow; hence
grease is not considered to have viscosity. The term apparent viscosity is “termed” to
describe the observed viscosities of greases. Apparent viscosity is a major parameter
determining flowability or pumpability of greases. Since apparent viscosity varies with
both temperature and shear rate, the specific temperature and shear rate are reported
along with the measured viscosity. The consistency as measured by cone penetration
test also provides an indication of flow behavior of greases, but it is not sufficient to
predict the flow performance across a temperature gradient.
2.0 GREASE APPLICATION METHODS
Maintaining properly lubricated machinery is an important part of any lubrication
program. After the initial grease fill during installation, periodic re-lubrication is essential
to realize the desired service life. Without administering lubricant at correct intervals
with proper amount, a machine can experience costly failures. Theoretically, it is
preferable to apply small amounts of grease at short intervals rather than large amounts
of grease at long intervals. It is reported that over 50 % of bearing failures were the
result of improper lubrication 4. Inadequate lubrication and bearing contamination were
the biggest contributors to improper lubrication. Type of application of grease is very
important factor affecting effectiveness of lubrication.

Depending on type of industry, nature of machinery, safety and environmental

consideration, grease application methods followed in industries may vary.
Conventionally grease lubrication is done manually, either by hand packing or man
grease gun. Hand application is typically performed infrequently and may result in
uneven amount of grease being applied, which can lead to over greasing resulting in
damaged seals arising elevated bearing temperatures caused by grease churn. There
are many industries like steel, mining, cement, etc., where it is rather impossible to
lubricate bearings manually while machineries are in operation due to high
temperatures. Moreover, the periodic re-lubrication requirement can be daunting in such
industries typically upwards of 7500 industrial points for a paper mill, 5500 for an
automotive assembly plant, 4000 for steel, 3500 for refinery, 2000 for a cement mill and
1500 for a plastic plant 5. Miniaturization trend in modern machinery design and
construction has further increased the complexity of re-lubrication process. To make
grease re-lubrication more effective and systematic centralized lubrication systems were
introduced in 1930s 6. Modern centralized lubrication system also known as automatic
lubrication system (ALS) generally comprises of a controller or timer, a pump and
reservoir, metering valves and fittings and supply and feed lines 7. It typically delivers a
controlled amount of lubricant (either grease or oil) to multiple, specific locations on a
machine while machine is operating, at specific times from a central location.

2.1 Why Centralized Lubrication System?

The conventional old method of employing personnel to lubricate different parts of
machines has its disadvantages. Few of them are listed below:

 Need to employ special trained personnel

 There is wastage of precious petroleum products due to spillage

 Machine has to be stopped for lubrication

In contrast centralized lubrication system comes with many advantages like:

 Easy to operate and user friendly, as all points can be lubricated by a single point
located at convenient, accessible position
  Lubrication is achieved equally to all points, including hard reaching, irrespective
of its piping and backing pressure due to its high pressure rating

 The device distributes lubricant in optioned quantity. Under or excessive

lubrication is eliminated there by saving precious lubricant

The centralized lubrication systems are commonly used in following sectors: 8

 Steel Industry

 Packaging machinery

 Cement industry

 Paper industry

 Sugar industry

 Tyre machinery

 Milling machinery

 Earth moving equipment

 Overhead cranes

 Chassis of a vehicle

2.2 Pumpability and Significance of Flow Property of Greases

There are many applications in industry where grease is required to be pumped to long
distances through centralized pumps where pumpability of grease play major factor in
system design. Despite a grease has all good characteristics to perform satisfactorily in
applications, many instances are known where the grease is not considered due to poor
pumpability. In order for any grease to perform effectively in centralized lubrication
systems, it is essential that grease has good slumpability and pumpability. Grease that
permit satisfactory delivery from lines, nozzles and fittings of dispensing system and
subsequent lubrication on moving components is considered to have good pumpability
and one which is easy to be drawn into inlet of pump (sucked in) to posses good
slumpability 9. Fibrous grease tends to have good feedability but poor pumpability,
whereas buttery textured greases behave the other way.

The normal design parameters of centralized grease systems include the volume and
frequency of grease required at each point, number of points requiring grease,
operating conditions, pump pressure, line diameter and distance to the grease points.
Flow properties of greases, like apparent viscosity are critical and essential input
required for system design. Most common methods to study the flow characteristics of
greases are US Steel mobility test, Lincoln ventmeter, Apparent viscosity etc. Lincoln
ventmeter provides information about pumpability behavior of greases, which helps in
correlating to field conditions. Many test methods are employed for determining
viscosity and related parameters in relevance to flow properties and the lubrication
applications intended.

3.0 TEST METHODS FOR STUDYING FLOW PROPERTY OF GREASES

Brief description of most commonly used test methods for measuring flow properties
and viscosity of greases are given below:

3.1 Cone Penetration: ASTM D 217

In grease industry, cone penetration of grease and NLGI classification are considered
as flow measurement.

3.2 Apparent Viscosity: ASTM D 1092

In this test, a sample of grease is forced through a capillary tube by a floating piston
actuated by a hydraulic system using a two speed gear pump. From the flow rate and
the force developed in the system, apparent viscosity is calculated. A series of eight
capillaries and two pump speeds provide 16 shear rates for determination of apparent
viscosity and measure the pressure drop of greases under steady-flow rate conditions
at constant temperature. The information can be used to estimate the pressure-drop or
required pipe diameters in distribution system. Also apparent viscosity datas are useful
for evaluating the ease of handling or pumping at specified temperature of dispensing
system. It is often used to evaluate pumpability at low temperatures.

3.3 Flow Property: ASTM D 3232

This test is used for evaluating flow property of greases under high temperatures and
low shear conditions. In this method grease is packed in annular channel in an
aluminum block which can be programmed to temperature in excess of 315°C. Using
special trident spindle attached to Brookfield Viscometer, torque is measured at
constant spindle speed of 20 rpm at various temperatures. The data is used for
generating apparent viscosity verses temperature plot, which provide an indication of
the flow properties of greases between room and elevated temperature. Although the
test does not give actual flow rates, as in pipe line, it provides a means for obtaining
some indication of this property.

3.4 Lincoln Ventmeter

Lincoln ventmeter is an established method for studying pumpability characteristics of
greases by measuring the shear stress of lubricant at a test temperature to arrive at the
minimum stress to produce a flow. The apparatus consists of 25 feet of 1⁄4 inch diameter
copper tubing, a pressure gauge, pump and two open/close valves. In this test, the
grease is pumped into the ventmeter by a grease lever gun until the pressure has
developed to 1800 psig. The pressure is then vented and the venting is timed and the
pressure on the gauge is recorded at the end of 30 seconds. As per the literature,
ventmeter reading above 600 psig (41bar) at the end of 30 seconds indicates that the
test lubricant is not suitable for use in a centralized lubrication system. The test is used
for arriving at pressure drop in long run pipes, effect of pipe diameter on dispensing
characteristics and suitability of NLGI consistency in centralized system.

Literature provides exhaustive and numerous reports on studies carried out on

pumpability of grease using Lincoln ventmeter, with thrust being on correlating the data
to field conditions. However, studies on aspects related to the effect of type of base oil,
base oil viscometrics, type of thickener, consistency of grease, processing conditions
and correlation thereof have not been reported to a significant extent. Better
understanding of the factors affecting flow characteristics and apparent viscosity will
help formulators to design custom made greases meeting intended application
requirements including flow property.

3.5 Flow-Property: MINITEST FFK by Kesternich Method (DIN 51805)

MINITEST FFK is the automated version of Kesternich method. The test is used for
measuring flow pressure of greases over wide temperature from 30 to -60°C. In this
test, sample grease is taken in a standardized nozzle by pressing on thin layer of
grease put on a glass plate without any air bubbles. The full nozzle is inserted in the
thermostatic block, closed at the bottom with a small air tight flask to protect the test
nozzle against condensation of water and sealed air tight with seal stopper. (The flask
also serves as collector of the sample after the test).The sample is subjected to test
pressure generated by a motor-driven piston and measured with a precision pressure
transducer. The test is programmed for the test temperature, the equilibrium time, the
expected flow pressure and the pressure increase for each step. Cooling is
achieved/regulated by a cascade block with Peltier elements down to -30°C where heat
is dissipated over a heat exchanger and for temperatures lower than -30°C heat
exchanger is required to be cooled with cold water. The test is performed automatically.
When the test temperature is reached, the equilibrium time of two hours is started. After
the equilibrium time, the pressure above the sample is increased in steps until a sudden
pressure decrease, indicating that the grease has passed through the nozzle. The test
is stopped automatically and the last pressure value is displayed as flow pressure. The
MINITEST FFK equipment and the schematic flow diagram of the test method are given
in Figure 1 and 2 respectively.

This test method is very simple and less time consuming compared to other tests like
low temperature torque tests, flow properties by Lincoln Ventmeter and Apparent
viscosity by ASTM D1092 etc. The temperature and pressure control of this test method
is much better and average test time is 2 12 hours compared to the other tests which
require minimum of 6 hours.
 Fig-1: MINITEST FFK

Fig-2: Diagram of MINITEST FFK

4.0 FACTORS AFFECTING FLOW PROPERTY OF GREASES
Base oil is a major component of any grease and it constitutes about 80-90% of a
typical grease. Load support at moderate to high shear rates is mainly attributed to the
viscosity of the base oil particularly in the absence of EP additives. Being the main
constituent, the base oil and its characteristics like viscosity, viscosity index and pour
point have significant effect on grease‟s viscosity and pumpability 11. Generally grease
formulated with low viscosity oil and low pour point has good flow property, whereas
one with high viscosity and high pour point perform poorly in pumping.

Despite a minor constituent in grease, thickener is the one which gives grease its
structure and consistency. Thickeners are of two types: organic thickeners and
inorganic thickeners. Organic thickeners can be either soap based or non-soap based,
while inorganic thickeners are non-soap based. The thickener in the grease immobilizes
the lubricating oil, much like a sponge and releases oil, as it is needed at a controlled
rate on applying shear. The higher the thickener amount the harder the grease, which
means less mobility. Type of fibers of thickeners influences the pumping behavior of
grease. Long fibers exhibit poor pumpability like soda base grease and short fibers
exhibit better pumpability, such as Al complex grease. The role of thickener in grease is
mixed in the sense that it also affects flow properties to a limited extent. Grease being a
multiphase system, entrainment of base oil by thickener favorably affects the pour point
of the oil enabling grease to perform satisfactorily at temperature much lower than the
pour of the oil used in the grease. Similar to oil, flow properties of greases are also
affected by temperature. Since most of the oils used in formulating grease have pour
point not exceeding 10°C, pumping problems are rarely encountered for commonly
used grades such as NLGI 1& 2 at temperatures above 30°C.

Literature survey indicates that eventhough there is a limited report on factors such as
nature of thickener, base oil properties and temperature affecting flow properties of
grease, hardly any reported work is available on systematic and comparative study on
the effect of complexing agent on apparent viscosity and consequent flow properties of
grease. Since the nature and extent the complexing agent affect the flow pattern is not
known and also it is expected that the variation may not be very wide ranging, study
need to be carried out under controlled conditions, minimizing manual operational
variables to obtain useful information which can be correlated with other properties of
grease.

As per NLGI survey volume of Li-complex greases has an increasing trend and these
greases are widely used in various heavy industries where centralized grease
lubrication systems are employed. Formulators have options to design Li-complex
greases using different complexing agents, but information is not available regarding the
selection criteria of complexing agents especially in relevance to pumpability / flow
characteristics of the grease.
5.0 EXPERIMENTAL
In this study one Lithium base grease and three Li-complex greases based on different
complexing agents viz boric acid, sebacic acid and azelaic acid were processed at
bench scale in NLGI grade 2 using 10 -11% thickener. The base oil used in processing
candidate greases was group I mineral oil of ISO VG-220. The greases were formulated
in such a way that penetration of the products is more or less same to minimize its
effect on flow properties. Few important properties of the selected greases are given in
Table -1. Standard ASTM test methods were followed in determination of the above
properties. The flow behavior of these greases were studied using MINITEST FFK at six
different temperatures viz 250C,100C, 00C, -100C, -200C and -300C as per DIN 51805.
Starting torque was also determined as per ASTM D 1478 at the same temperatures.
Flow behavior and starting torque pattern of the four greases at various temperatures
are shown in Table -2, Figures 3 and 4 respectively. The study was extended to
correlate flow behavior with individual soap structure using SEM technique.

Table -1: Properties of Candidate Greases

Property Test LC2 (Azelaic) LC2 (Sebacic) LC2 (Boric) Li base grease
method
Appearance Visual Homogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous
Colour Visual Light brown Light brown Light brown Light brown
Penetration at 25C, ASTM D
worked 217 282 276 277 280
Penetration after 105 ASTM D
strokes, difference 217 27 28 22 20
Dropping point C ASTM D >250 >250 >250 198
566
Base oil viscosity ASTM D
grade 445 VG-220 VG-220 VG-220 VG-220
Oil separation, % ASTM D 1.5 1.4 1.8 2.2
6184

Table-2:Test Data of Flow Pressure and Starting Torque

Flow Pressure as per DIN 51805 Starting Torque as per ASTM D 1478
LC2 (Aze) LC2 ( Seb) LC2 ( Boric) Li Base grease
0
Temp C Flow Torque Flow Torque Flow Torque Flow Torque
Pressure g cm Pressure g cm Pressure g cm Pressure g cm
hPa hPa hPa hPa
25 92 295 86 295 96 295 72 295
10 134 295 134 295 116 295 98 295
0 164 590 178 590 144 590 134 295
-10 284 1475 254 1180 222 1180 210 1180
-20 780 4720 640 3540 586 3540 532 3540
-30 1544 17405 1204 15930 1180 15045 1132 12390
Temp C
Fig-3

Temp C
Fig-2

Fig-4
5.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Study
To investigate the grease soap fiber structure, size and morphology, SEM studies were
performed on these grease samples using HITACHI S-3400N Scanning Electron
Microscope at room temperature. Film of a speck of grease sample was made on a
micro-slide by means of a spread rod and this film was rinsed with 70:30 v/v,
hexane/toluene mixture to remove the oil completely from the soap fiber matrix. The
slide was then dried by gently sweeping dry air with the aid of air blower and observed
the structure under scanning electron microscope.

Fig-5 Li Base grease Fig-6 Li Complex with Boric acid

Fig-7 Li Complex with Azelaic acid Fig-8 Li Complex with Sebacic acid

6.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The flow pressure studies of lithium base and lithium complex greases show some
interesting trend. The flow pressure behavior of the four greases at subzero
temperatures is Li < LC (Boric acid) < LC (Sebacic acid) < LC (Azelaic acid). Same
trend is observed in the starting torque also as determined by ASTM D 1478. More or
less, same trend is also seen in oil separation study conducted as per ASTM D 6184 at
100°C. The flow pressure values of all except lithium complex with azelaic acid are
below 1400 hPa even at -30°C, indicating that these greases posses adequate
pumpability and can be safely used in centralized lubrication system.

In the SEM study structure of Li-base grease was found to have short to long fiber,
twisted and tangled 12. The fiber characteristics of boric acid based thickener appear
similar to that of simple lithium grease to some extent but is finer compared to sebacic &
azelaic acid based greases. The three dimensional network of all three complex
greases are seen superior in comparison to lithium grease. But boric acid based
complex grease is comparatively more loosely packed than sebacic and azelaic acid
based greases.

Structure of sebacic and azelaic acid base Li-complex thickeners appear to have almost
similar network having cross linkage mechanism. The fibre network of sebacic and
azelaic acid based complex greases are seen aligned and grouped less orderly giving
more complex packing, which could be the probable reason for their better oil retention
and high dropping point. Irregular fibre networking is expected to negatively affect the
flow characteristics and pumpability of greases. Among sebacic and azelaic acids,
networking is more closed with less cavities in case of azelaic acid based thickener
favouring better oil holding and rigid network affecting flow properties.

7.0 SUMMARY

 Upto 00C flow pressure and low temperature values were found almost similar,
indicating that complexing agents have little significant role on flow properties of
greases.
 In case of azelaic acid, flow pressure was found increasing significantly
compared to others, when temperature was further lowered.
 At -300C the flow pressure appears to be almost similar in case of sebacic acid
and boric acid based greases.
 Huge jump in both flow pressure and torque was seen when temperature was
lowered from -20 to -300C.
 Test datas indicate that the greases may be safely handled ~ 150C below the
pour point of base oils used.
 The better confinement of oil in closed fibre net work retarding wax precipitation
or lowering of pour point, probably is the reason why grease gives better flow
properties than the oil used in processing the greases.
 Structure of Li-soap indicates finer networking in SEM photograph. The finer and
less orderly fibre net work may be reason for lithium grease to perform better in
flow property compared to complex greases, even though same oil was used in
all the four greases.
8.0 CONCLUSIONS

 Li and Li-Complex grease with boric acid behave better in low temperature
properties compared to other complex based greases.
 Sebacic and azelaic acid base thickeners behave similar in their structure pattern
because of their close C8 & C9 chemistry, but sebacic acid based grease
exhibited low flow pressure and better low temperature torque behavior
compared to azelaic based grease.
 Studies indicate that greases may be safely handled 15 0C below the pour point
of base oils used.

Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to the management of Indian Oil Corporation Ltd, R&D Centre
for granting permission to present this work.

References
1. Lubrisense white paper, 04 -01
2. L.C.Rotter etal, NLGI Spokesman, 268-273
3. Paul Conely,etal, NLGI Spokesman,19-25, April 2004
4. www.bijurdelimon.com
5. www.plant engineering.com/centralized systems.
6. Paul Conley etal, Machinery lubrication magazine, January 2004
7. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_lubrication_system
8. www.technodrop.in
9. Publication No. EM 1110-21424, section 5.4 “Engineering and Design -
Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids”, 28 Feb 99
10. Equipment Manual “MINITEST FFK”
11. J.P. Antony etal „Study of Pumpability Characteristics of Different Greases By
Lincoln Centro-matic Ventmeter‟, 7th Lubricating Grease Conference, Cochin.
12. NLGI “Lubricating Grease Guide”, ed. 1984