Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

INTRODUCTION

Hydrology is an earth science which deals with the occurrence, distribution and disposal of
water on the planet earth. The global world water resources is estimated as 1.36*10^8 Mha-
m. Out of this 97.2% is salt water mainly in ocean, and remaining 2.8% is available as fresh
water. Even out of 2.8% of fresh water about 2.2% is fresh surface waters and 0.6% as
ground water. Even out of 2.2% of fresh water about 2.15% is held in glaciers and ice caps,
and remaining 0.01% as surface water mainly in streams, rivers and lakes and about
0.04%bwill be in other forms. Even out of 0.6% of ground water storage, about 0.255 can be
extracted by modern drilling methods (bore wells and tube wells).

Major rivers in India and their water potential

Water basics Water potential in Mha-m

1 East flowing rivers- Krishna, Godavari, pennar 30
2 West flowing rivers- Narmada, Tapti 35.0
3 Ganges and its tributaries 55.0
4 Indus and its tributaries 8.00
5 The river Brahmaputra (assam) 59.0
Total 187

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (WATER TRANSFER CYCLE)

Hydrologic cycle is a water transfer cycle which occurs continuously in nature. The three
important phases of hydrologic cycle are

1. Evaporation and evapotranspiration

2. Precipitation or condensation
3. Surface runoff or overland flow

Evaporation from surfaces of ponds, lakes, reservoirs and ocean surfaces and transpiration
from surface, vegetation takes place. Water in the oceans evaporates due to the heat energy
provided by solar radiation. These vapours rise to the sky due to its low density and
condensed at higher altitudes by condensation of nuclei which results in the formation of
clouds. The clouds melt and sometimes burst resulting in precipitation of different forms of
precipitation. A part of this precipitation infiltrates into the soil there by building up the

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 1
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

ground water table. The remaining part flows over the land known as surface runoff and a
part of it will be stored in tanks and reservoirs and the remaining part flows back to the
ocean. The ground water storage after reaching the saturation point, the excess water flows
back to the ocean. Again evaporation starts from the surface of lakes, reservoirs, ocean and
transpiration from green vegetation and this cycle repeats forever.

Fig: Descriptive representation of Hydrologic cycle

Fig: Engineering representation of Hydrologic cycle

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 2
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

Fig: Horton’s qualitative representation of Hydrologic cycle

WATER BUDGET EQUATION

Water budget equation is based on the law of conservation of matter

I=O+∆S

Where,

I= the inflow into the catchment

O= the outflow into the catchment

∆S= change in storage (water stored in lakes and reservoirs)

While solving this equation ground water is considered as an integral part of surface water.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

Drizzle: a light steady rain (the diameter of the droplet is less than 0.5mm and the intensity of
rainfall is less than 1mm/hr)

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 3
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

Rain: condensation of atmospheric water vapour is known as rain (diameter of droplet is

0.5mm to 6mm and intensity is greater than 1cm/hr).

Glaze: frozen rain or drizzle drops when they come in contact with cold objects is called
glaze.

Sleet: frozen rain drops falling through atmosphere at subfreezing temperature.

Snow: water vapour condensed to ice crystals.

Snow flakes: ice crystals fused together results in the formation of snow flakes.

Hail: it is a small lump of ice diameter greater than 5mm and generally carried up and down
in high turbulent wind/currents.

Dew: water vapour condensed to small drops on pool surfaces.

Frost: frozen dew drops are known as frost.

Fog: a thin cloud formed at the ground surface due to condensation of water vapour.

Mist: a very thin fog.

Scope of Hydrology

1. The study of hydrology helps us to know the maximum probable flood that may occur
at a given site and its frequency which will be very helpful for the safe design of
dams, bridges, drains, culverts etc.
2. The water yield from the basin for the design of domestic and industrial water
supplies, power generation and inland navigation.
3. The ground water development and its usage for minor irrigation schemes.
4. Disposing of the excess water during floods without causing damage to human lives
and animals.

Hydrological Data

a. Climatological data
b. Hydromaterialogical data like temp, wind velocity, humidity etc
c. Precipitation or rainfall records
d. Stream flow records

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 4
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

e. Seasonal fluctuation of ground water

f. Evaporation and transpiration data
g. Crops and their season
h. Geomorphological data (shape, size, slope and mean and median elevation of that
particular area).

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
1. Conventional precipitation or thermal precipitation
This type of precipitation is in the form of thunder storms. The air flows to the warm
earth surface gets heated and rises to the sky due to its low density which results in
the formation of cauliflower shaped clouds which finally burst into a thunder storm.
The thunder storms when accompanied by destructive winds, they are called tornados.

2. Frontal precipitation
When two air masses due to contrasting temperature and densities clash with each
other which results in condensation and precipitation. The contact surface between the
two air masses is known as occlusion. If a cold air mass rise out a warm air mass, it is
called as cold front. Similarly if a warm air mass rise out a cold air mass, it is called
as warm front. The cold front causes intense precipitation over a comparatively
smaller area where as warm front causes moderate precipitation over a larger area.

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 5
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

3. Orographic precipitation
The mechanical lifting of moist air over mountain barriers causes heavy precipitation
on the windward side (seaward side). For example chirapunji in Himalayan ranges,
agumbe and hulikal.

4. Cyclonic precipitation
This type of precipitation is due to a low pressure bed created in the ocean due to
unequal heating of earth surface which results in cyclonic precipitation.
a) Tropical cyclone (diameter of low pressure area/belt- 300-1500 Km). They are
also known as hurricane and typhoon.
b) Extra tropical cyclone (diameter of low pressure area/belt greater than 1500 Km)

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

The rainfall can be measured by a network of rain gauges which may be non
recording or recording type of rain gauge.

1. Non recording type: Symons rain gauge

2. Recording type: this is also called self recording, automatic or integrated rain
gauge. This type of rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement
consisting of a clock work or clock mechanism, a drum with a graph paper fixed
around it and a marker or a pencil which draws the mass curve of rainfall or
precipitation. From this mass curve the depth of rainfall in a given time, the

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 6
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

intensity of rainfall and the duration of rainfall or storm can be measured.

Different types of recording type rain gauge are:
a. Tipping Bucket
b. Weighing Type
c. Float Type Or Syphon

Symons Rain Gauge

It consists of a funnel with a circular rim of 12.5cm diameter and a glass bottle as a receiver.
The cylindrical metal casing is fixed vertically to the masonry foundation [60X60X60cm]
with the top level of the rim is 30cm above the ground level. The rain falling into the funnel
is collected in the receiver and is measured in a special measuring glass (jar) graduated in
millimetres. The rainfall is measured everyday at 8:30am (IST). During heavy rains, it may
be measured twice in a day i.e., morning 8:30am and evening 5:30pm, thus the non recording
rain gauge gives only the total depth of rainfall for the previous 24hours and does not give the
intensity and duration of rainfall during different time intervals of the day. It is often
desirable to protect the raingauge from being damaged by animals i.e., cattle. For this
purpose, barbed wire fencing may be erected around the rain gauge.

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 7
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

Float or Syphon Recording Type Rain Gauge

In this type as the rain is collected in a float chamber, the float moves up and makes a pen to
move on a chart wrapped around a clock driven drum. When the float chamber fills up, the
water siphons up automatically through a siphon tube kept in an inter connected siphon
chamber. The clock revolves the drum once in 24 hours and the clock mechanism needs
rewinding once in a week.

Fig : Float or Syphon Recording Type Rain Gauge

The following departments maintain the rainfall record:

1. IMD- Indian meterological data

2. Agricultural department
3. Forest department
4. Revenue department
5. Public works department (PWD)

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 8
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

Rain Gauge Density

Rain Gauge density is the number of rain gauges to be erected in an area

For plain area- 1 rain gauge for every 520 Km2

For hilly area- 1 rain gauge for 260-390 Km2

For mountain area- 1 rain gauge for every 100 Km2

Rainfall record

Rainfall record for particular area gives a stable frequency distribution of rainfall in that
area and it depends on the type of catchment

Island- 30 years of data

Shore- 40years

Plain- 45 years

Hilly or mountain- 50 years

Average annual rainfall (a.a.r)

The mean of yearly rainfall observed for a period of 35-40 consecutive years is called the
average annual rainfall.

Index of wetness

It is the ratio of rainfall in a particular area by the average annual rainfall.

For example if the index of wetness is Say 60% in a given area, it means that there is a
deficiency of rainfall of 40%.

Based on average annual rainfall, the areas may be classified as

arid region (a.a.r < 45cm)- drought or famine is regular

semi arid region (a.a.r 45-75cm)- drought occurs once in abnormal years

humid region (a.a.r> 75cm)- drought doesnot occurs regularly

ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA AND ADJUSTMENT OF RAINFALL RECORDS

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 9
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

Station year method

In this method, the records of two stations are combined into one long record, provided the
station records are independent and the areas in which the stations are located are having the
same climatic condition. The non availability of data at a particular station in a particular year
may be due to many reasons.

If the normal annual precipitations at various stations are within about 10% of that of the
missing data, use the arithmetic average of the stations to estimate the current rainfall
amount.

𝟏
𝑷𝒙 = [𝑷 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + _________________𝑷𝒏 ]
𝒏 𝟏

Simple proportion or normal ratio method

If the rain gauge stations are more than three or four, in such a case, the missing data at a
particular station can be found by the simple proportion or normal ratio method.

When the average annual catches differ by more than l0%, the normal-ratio method is
preferable; such differences might occur in regions where there are large differences in
elevation (for example, regions where orographic effects are present) or where average
annual rainfall is low but has high annual variability.

𝑁𝑥 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃𝑚
𝑃𝑥 = [ + + + ___________________ + ]
𝑀 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁𝑚

Where Px = precipitation at the missing location

P1 to Pm= precipitation at m surrounding raingauge stations

N1 to Nm= Normal annual rainfall at m surrounding raingauge stations

Nx= Normal annual rain at gauge station x

M= number of raingauges

Procedure for calculating missing data

• The monthly precipitation for gage X is missing and can be estimated using the data
from the table

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 10
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

• The steps are

I. Calculate ten percent of annual precipitation at gage X which is 40

II. Add and subtract 40 from the annual precipitation of gage X to determine the range which
is from 360mm to 440mm

III. Check whether all the annual precipitation of the stations are with in the above range

IV. If at least one station is outside the rage, use normal ratio method. As indicated in the
table the annual precipitation of gage C is 460mm which is outside the range there fore we
use normal ratio method to determine the missing data at station X

Double mass analysis

The trend of the rainfall records at a particular station may slightly change after some years
due to a change in surrounding environment (construction of high rise buildings surrounding
the station, deforestation etc) which affects the catch of the gauge due to change in the wind
blowing direction. Consisitancy of records at that particular station is tested by double mass
curve analysis by plotting the cumulative values at station X against the concurrent
cunnulative values of rainfall for a group of surrounding stations for the number of years of
recording. From the plot, the year in which the change has occurred is indicated by the
change in the slope of the straight line plot. The rainfall records of the station X are adjusted
𝑚
by the ratio of slope of the straight line after and before the change in environment ( 𝑚2 ).
1

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 11
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

m2
correction ratio =
m1

m2= Corrected slope of the double mass curve

m1= Original slope of the double mass curve

Weighted average method

In this method, four quadrants are constructed by N-S and E-W lines passing through the rain
gauge station where the missing rainfall data is to be estimated. One rain gauge station in
each quadrant are selected which are near to the rain gauge station under question.

In this method, the missing data can be found by using the formula

𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4
+ + +
𝑟12 𝑟22 𝑟32 𝑟42
𝑃𝑋 =
1 1 1 1
2+ 2+ 2+ 2
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟4

Where

𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4
= 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑢𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , 𝑟4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑋

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 12
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

AVERAGE DEPTH OF RAINFALL [MEAN AREAL DEPTH OF RAINFALL]

The average depth of rainfall in the given area can be estimated by the following methods

Arithmetic average method

It is obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the amount of rainfall at the individual rain
gauge station. It is given by,

∑𝑃
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑛

Where ∑ 𝑃 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

n= number of rain gauge station in the area

This method is fast and simple and gives average result in flat area where the rain gauges are
uniformly distributed and having same climatic condition

Theisson polygon method

In this method a weighing factor is given for each rain gauge station. The stations are plotted
on a base map and are connected by straight lines. Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the
straight lines to form polygons known as theisson polygon. Each polygon area is influenced
by the rain gauge station within it. The average depth of rainfall is obtained by

∑ 𝐴1 𝑃1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∑ 𝐴1 = 𝐴

Where,

∑ 𝐴1 𝑃1

= 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑔𝑜𝑛

∑ 𝐴1 = 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛

• The steps for thiessen polygon method are:

– Construct polygons by connecting stations with lines

– Bisect the polygon sides

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 13
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

– Estimate the area of each stations polygon

– Sum the areas

– Determine the stations weights by dividing the station area by the total area

– Determine areal precipitation by summing weighted precipitation for each

station

Note: the results obtained by this method are more accurate than the arithmetic average
method, however one of the limitation of this method is a new theisson diagram has to be
constructed every time if there is a change in the rain gauge.

Isohyetal method

In this method, the point rainfalls are plotted on the base map and the lines of equal rainfall
(isohyets) are drawn. The average rainfall between the two successive isohyets is taken as
average of two isohyetal values between the two isohyets.

∑ 𝐴1−2 𝑃1−2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∑ 𝐴1−2 = 𝐴

Where, ∑ 𝐴1−2 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜ℎ𝑦𝑒𝑡𝑠

∑ 𝑃1−2 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑖𝑠𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 14
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

When compared to arithmetic average and theisson polygon method this method gives the
best result if analysed properly.

OPTIMUM NUMBER OF RAIN GAUGES

The adequacy of the number of gauges in the existing network may be ascertained by
following the procedure given by Indian standards. The optimum number of rain gauges N is
given by the equation

CV 2
N=( )
P

Where N= optimum number of rain gauges

Cv= coefficient of variation of the rainfall with the existing rain gauge network

P= desired degree of percentage error in the existing network of rain gauges

In the above equation both Cv and P are expressed as percentage.

Cv can be found with the statistical parameters, i.e., 𝑋̅ = 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 and σ= standard
deviation. Hence

𝜎
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑋̅

∑(𝑋−𝑋̅ )2
σ is given by 𝜎=√ (𝑛−1)

where n= the existing number of rain gauges

∑𝑋
𝑋̅ =
𝑛
Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 15
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

Where ∑ 𝑋 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

n= the existing number of rain gauges

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF RAINFALL

The precipitation/rainfall can be represented graphically

1. Hyetograph

It is a plot of intensity of rainfall in cm/hr Vs time in minutes represented as a bar chart useful
for representing the characteristics of storm and development of design of storms to predict
extreme floods. The area under hyetograph represents the total precipitation received in the
period.

2. Mass curve

It is the plot of cumulative depth of rainfall Vs time in minutes or years. Mass curve is always
a rising curve and it may have horizontal portion which indicates the periods of no rainfall.
The depth of rainfall during any incremental time is the difference in the vertical ordinates
between that time intervals. Similarly the intensity of rainfall during any time interval is the
∆𝑃
slope of the mass curve during that time interval i.e., 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑚/ℎ𝑟
∆𝑡

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 16
 Module 1: Introduction and precipitation

3. Moving average curve

It is the technique for smoothing out the high frequency fluctuations. If the rainfall of a place
over the number of years is plotted as a bar graph it will not show any trend in the rainfall due
to wide variations in the consecutive years. In order to predict the general trend in the rainfall
pattern, the averages of 3 or 5 consecutive years are found out progressively by moving the
graph average one year at a time and plot the points at the mid point of the group and join
these points by a smooth curve which is known as moving average curve.

Mrs.Chaya D.Y, Assistant Professor, Dept of civil Engineering, JNNCE, Shimoga Page 17