Anatomy is the study of the form and structure of the animal body and the relationships among its

parts. Physiology is
the study of how the body functions. Knowledge of an animal's anatomy and physiology is essential in determining
which body parts aren't functioning properly when an animal exhibits signs of illness. The proper treatment for an ill or
diseased animal is also based on principles of physiology.

Understanding the principles of anatomy and physiology helps you

 Monitor and treat animals more effectively
 Perform medical procedures with greater effectiveness and safety for your patients
 Improve your communication with veterinarians and other veterinary technicians and assistants
 Educate clients regarding the care of their pets

Several methods can be used in the study of anatomy and physiology. Microscopic anatomy refers to the study of cells
and tissues that require a microscope to see. Macroscopic anatomy refers to the study of structures that can be seen
without a microscope and is also referred to as gross anatomy. Anatomy and physiology can also be studied using either
a regional or systemic approach. The regional approach involves the study of all structures and their functions in a
specific area of the body (such as the head), while systemic anatomy refers to the study of structures and functions
within specific body systems (such as the nervous system or endocrine system).

Anatomical Terms
The most basic terms in the study of anatomy are those used to describe the animal's structure. An animal's body is
typically divided into various sections called planes of reference (see Figure 1-1 on page 4 of your textbook). These
planes are positioned in reference to the body's long axis, the spine. The sagittal planes divide the body into left and
right halves. These halves aren't always equal. A body can have more than one sagittal plane on the right and left sides.
The median plane divides the animal down the center into equal left and right halves. A body can have only one median
plane. The medial plane is a specific sagittal plane. A transverse plane divides the body into two sections—one
containing the head and the other the tail. Multiple transverse planes starting at the head and running to the tail can
exist, essentially making slices through the long axis of the animal's body. A dorsal plane, which is perpendicular to the
median plane, divides the body into two parts, one containing the belly and the other the back. These don't have to be
equal halves. In describing four-legged patients, the plane that divides the limb into cross sections or slices is generally
described as the transverse plane of a limb. Other important anatomical terms to master are the directional terms that
describe the placement of various body parts in relation to each other.

1. The term cranial means closer to the head, whereas caudal means closer to the tail. However, when describing
regions within the head itself, you can't use the term "cranial," because the entire head is the reference point for
that term. Instead, the term rostral is used to refer to parts of the head that are closer to the tip of the nose.
2. Dorsal means closer to the back or spine. Ventral is the opposite of dorsal, and it means nearer to the side of the
animal that's closest to the ground.
3. The term lateral refers to a position farther away from the median plane (toward the side—either left or right),
whereas the term medial refers to a position closer to the median plane (which goes through the spine [center of
the body]).
4. Superficial refers to a position that's located toward the surface of a structure, whereas the term deep refers to a
position located toward the center of a structure.
5. Proximal refers to a body part's being closer to the main portion of the body, whereas distal describes a body part
that's placed farther out from the main portion of the body. Proximal and distal are usually used to describe a
position on an extremity (limb or tail).
6. Plantar and palmar are specific terms used when describing something on the lower portion of a limb—below the
carpus or tarsus, depending on whether it's a front or rear limb. Plantar refers to the surface that touches the
ground on the rear limb. Palmar refers to the surface that touches the ground on the front limb.
7. In the special case of the gastrointestinal system, orad refers to movement within the gastrointestinal system in the
direction of the mouth, whereas aborad describes motion in the direction away from the mouth.
Here are examples of the use of directional terms.
 A dog's heart is closer to the head than is the stomach, so the heart is said to be cranial to the stomach, whereas the
stomach is said to be caudal to the heart.
 A dog's eye is rostral to its ear.
 The kidneys lie closer to the spine than the stomach, so the kidneys are dorsal to the stomach, and the stomach is
ventral to the kidneys.
 The foreleg is positioned farther from the median plane than the chest, so the foreleg is lateral to the chest wall, and
the chest wall is medial to the foreleg.
 The paw is distal to the shoulder, and the shoulder is proximal to the paw.
 The skin is superficial to the underlying muscle; the muscle is deep to the skin.
 The stomach is orad to the intestines, which are aborad to the stomach.

Symmetry
One feature common to mammals is bilateral symmetry. Symmetry refers to balance in the distribution of body parts. In
animals that exhibit bilateral symmetry, the organism's left and right halves are approximate mirror images of each
other. Contrast that to a starfish or most flowers, which have radial symmetry, meaning their axis of symmetry is around
a central point.

Body Cavities
Animals have two main body cavities, the dorsal and ventral cavities, which separate the internal organs into different
compartments. The dorsal body cavity contains the central nervous system and is subdivided into a cranial cavity and
spinal cavity. The cranial cavity is formed from the bones of the skull and contains the brain. The spinal cavity is formed
from the vertebrae and contains the spinal cord. The ventral body cavity is also subdivided into two compartments—the
thorax and the abdomen. The thoracic and abdominal cavities are separated by the diaphragm. The thoracic cavity
contains the heart, lungs, esophagus, and major blood vessels. The thorax and the organs within it are all covered by a
thin membrane called the pleura, and the thoracic cavity is therefore sometimes called the pleural cavity. The pleura
lines both the organs and the body cavity itself and can be divided into two distinct layers. The pleura that lines the
organs is the visceral layer, while the pleura that lines the thoracic cavity as a whole is the parietal layer. These two
layers have a potential space between them, which contains a small amount of lubricating fluid.

The abdominal cavity contains all the organs of the reproductive and urinary systems, as well as the stomach and
intestinal tract. The abdominal cavity and the organs it contains are lined by a membrane called the peritoneum. This
peritoneum has two layers with a theoretical space much like the thoracic cavity. The abdominal cavity is sometimes
called the peritoneal cavity.

Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the systematic classification and naming of organisms. Although a thorough discussion of taxonomy is
beyond the scope of a veterinary technology course, it's useful to have some understanding of the way in which animals
are classified and named. Animals are grouped together based on characteristics that they have in common, which are
presumed to reflect their evolutionary relationships. The major taxonomic categories, from largest to smallest, are
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.

Most of the patients in veterinary hospitals belong in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata (animals with
backbones). Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals all belong in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata.
However, these four animal groups make up four different classes within the phylum. Members of these different
classes have substantial differences in the anatomy and physiology of their organ systems. For example, reptiles have
hearts with only three chambers, and birds have a complex system of air sacs associated with their lungs.
In this course, we'll focus mainly on the members of the class Mammalia (mammals). All mammals have certain
characteristics in common. They all have hair, mammary glands that secrete milk, four-chambered hearts, seven cervical
vertebrae in their necks, and a muscle called a diaphragm that separates the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity.

Mammals belong to several different orders and are grouped together based largely on the presence of shared
anatomical and physiological characteristics:
 Order Carnivora—Includes meat eaters, such as dogs and cats
 Order Artiodactyla—Includes the even-toed hoofed mammals, like pigs, cows, sheep, and goats (two hooves per
limb)
 Order Perissodactyla—Includes the odd-toed hoofed mammals, like horses (one hoof per limb)
 Order Rodentia—Includes rats, mice, hamsters, and squirrels
 Order Lagomorpha—Includes rabbits and hares

Within each order, animals are placed into families, which again reflect similarity of structure and a presumed common
evolutionary history. Dogs are in the family Canidae, whereas cats are in the family Felidae. Each family is further
subdivided into smaller groups called genera (singular, genus). Each genus is made up of related species. A species is a
group of individuals that can interbreed with each other. Each species is given a scientific name, which is composed of
two words. The first word in the name is the genus to which the animal belongs; this word is capitalized. The second part
of the name is the species; this word isn't capitalized. The scientific name—a combination of genus and species names—
is always italicized. The scientific names of the dog, cat, and horse are Canis familiaris, Felis domesticus, and Equus
caballus, respectively.

Your study of anatomy and physiology will focus primarily on mammals. Information on birds, reptiles, and amphibians is
included so that you may become familiar with some of the unique features of these species.

The Body’s Organization

Almost every animal has the same basic organizational pattern. Starting from the smallest unit and moving to larger
body parts, the levels of organization include cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. The more complex the animal,
the more complicated the organization, but the framework is essentially the same.

Cells
The most basic structure of life is the cell. Think of the cell as a building block. If you put enough cells together, you can
build an entire animal. Some living things, such as bacteria, are composed of only one cell. Other living things are
composed of thousands of cells. Individual cells are so small that most can't be seen by the naked eye. Cells are so small
because they're limited by physical restrictions on the strength of their components, as well as the distance chemicals
must travel inside them. Groups of similar cells that serve a common function are organized into tissues. Organs are
composed of groups of tissues that have a common function and work together. Organ systems are made up of groups
of organs with related functions that interact.

Tissues
The arrangement of cells into tissues increases the speed, efficiency, and ability with which cellular tasks are performed.
For example, myocytes (muscle cells) can be thought of as individual members of a tug-of-war team; in a like manner,
muscle tissue can be thought of as the entire tug-of-war team. The pull of an individual isn't as strong or efficient as the
pull of the entire team. In the same way, billions of enterocytes, the cells inside the intestinal tract, act together to
digest food more quickly and efficiently than any individual enterocyte. Tissues are often distinguishable by the naked
eye. For example, meat is muscle tissue, and the muscle tissue in a steak is fairly distinguishable from the fatty tissue
around it. When you master some basic anatomy and begin to observe surgeries, you'll find that you'll often be able to
distinguish many body tissues. The branch of anatomy that deals with the microscopic structure and composition of
tissues is called histology. Samples of tissues removed in surgery are often sent off for analysis by a histopathologist.
Histopathology ("patho" indicates relationship to disease) is the study of both healthy and diseased tissues.

There are four basic tissue types:

1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

Organs
Organs are structures within the body that are made up of different types of tissues working together. Examples of
organs include the liver, kidneys, heart, brain, spleen, and urinary bladder. Most organs contain connective tissue in
addition to other tissues. Connective tissue helps bind the tissues within the organ together. Often, an organ contains all
four primary tissue types. For example, the intestine is a tube-like structure that's lined by epithelial cells that help break
down and absorb nutrients. The intestine also contains muscle fibers that move material within the tube, nervous tissue
that stimulates the muscle, and connective tissue that gives the organ structural strength. Likewise, the heart is lined on
all of its surfaces by epithelium and contains muscle cells that contract to pump blood, nervous tissue that regulates the
heart rate, and tough connective tissue that holds it all together.

The combinations of different functions performed by diverse tissues within the organ are usually complementary,
which means each tissue helps the others carry out their tasks. The intestinal tissue previously mentioned carries out the
process of digesting and absorbing food. The muscle tissue moves the food along so that it reaches all the enterocytes.
The enterocytes and myocytes aid each other in the overall process.

Organ Systems
The next level of organization in the body is the organ system. Organ systems are collections of organs and structures
that cooperate to perform an essential function for the body as a whole. When an animal takes in food, various organs
of the digestive system work together to process the food. The food is chewed in the mouth, and then the tongue and
the back of the throat are used to swallow. The food moves to the esophagus, which transports it to the stomach, where
the food is retained temporarily and partially digested. The food then enters the small intestine, where it's further
digested with the aid of the pancreas and liver. Finally, the colon further modifies the remaining food by turning it into
waste, which is eventually excreted as stool. So you can see that an act as simple as eating involves the interaction of
multiple cells, tissues, and organs working together as the digestive system. The overall function of this organ system
involves the breakdown of food into nutrients small enough to be absorbed into the bloodstream and the elimination of
wastes.

Later, we'll examine the organ systems one by one, looking at the structure and function of each as well as the
relationships among the different organ systems. We'll focus primarily on mammals, but some information on birds,
reptiles, and amphibians is included so that you may become familiar with some unique aspects of the anatomy and
physiology of these species.

Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of dynamic equilibrium in the body. For a body to be in homeostasis, it must keep the
internal conditions stable while being able to adjust to a continuously changing outside world. The dynamic equilibrium,
though, also means that the internal conditions can vary somewhat but only within the margins set by the body. Think of
your core body temperature—even when the weather is cold, your internal body temperature tries to stay stable. If
your core temperature starts to drop, then your body as a whole starts shivering to try to warm it up. On the flip side, if
it’s really warm outside, your body starts sweating to try to offset this temperature rise.
ANATOMY – form, structure and location of body and its parts.
PHYSIOLOGY – function of body and its parts.
SAGITTAL PLANE – runs through the length of the body and divides it into left and right parts (not necessarily equal).
MEDIAN PLANE – kind of sagittal plane that runs down the center of the body lengthwise & divides into equal halves.
TRANSVERSE PLANE – plane across the body that divides the body into cranial & caudal parts (not necessarily equal).
DORSAL PLANE – a plane at right angles to sagittal & transverse planes. Divides body into dorsal & ventral parts.
CRANIAL – towards the head
CAUDAL – towards the tail
XIPHOID PROCESS – caudal end of horse sternum
ROSTAL – toward the nose
DORSAL – toward the back/top surface
VENTRAL – toward the belly/bottom surface
MEDIAL – toward medial plane
LATERAL – away from medial plane
PROXIMAL – toward the body
DISTAL – away from body
PALMAR – back of front limbs
PLANTAR – back of hind limbs
BILATERA SYMMETARY – left and right halves are mirror images.
DORSAL CAVITY – contains the brain and the spinal cord, 2 parts spherical cranial cavity (brain), & spinal canal/cavity
(vertebrae of the spine & spinal cord)
VENTRAL CAVITY – contains most of the soft organs (viscera)
DIAPHRAM – separates thoracic & abdominal cavity.
THORACIC CAVITY – contains the heart, lungs, esophagus, and major blood vessels.
PLEURA – thin membrane covering all the organs in the thoracic cavity.
VISCERAL LAYER (of the pleura) – a layer that covers the thoracic organs.
PARIENTAL LAYER (of the pleura) – layer that line the whole thoracic cavity.
ABDOMINAL CAVITY – contains digestive, urinary, & reproductive organs.
PERITONEUM – thin layer that lines the contents of the abdominal cavity.
VISCERAL LAYER (of the peritoneum) – layer that covers the abdominal organs.
PERIENTAL LAYER (of the peritoneum) – layer that lines the whole abdominal cavity.
CELLS – smallest unit of life
TISSUE – specialized cells working together to achieve a common goal.
EPETHELIAL TISSUE – cover body surfaces, secrete and absorb materials.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE – holds the body together and gives it support.
MUSCLE TISSUE – moves the body inside and out, skeletal, cardiac & smooth muscle.
o Skeletal muscle – moves the bones of the skeleton (voluntary movement)
o Cardiac muscle – makes up the heart (automatic movement)
o Smooth muscle – found in internal organs (automatic movement)
NERVOUS TISSUE – transmits information around the body and control body functions.
ORGANS – made up of groups of tissue with a common purpose.
SYSTEMS – groups of organs that are involved in a common set of activities.
HOMEOSTASIS – maintenance of a dynamic (activity/energy/work) equilibrium (balance) in the body.
DIRECTION DOMESTIC ANIMAL HUMAN

Individual's left Left Left

Individual's right Right Right

Toward the head end of the body Cranial Superior

Toward the tip of the nose (head only) Rostral Nasal

Toward the tail end of the body Caudal Inferior

Toward the back Dorsal Posterior

Toward the belly Ventral Anterior

Toward the median plane Medial Medial

Away from the median plane Lateral Lateral

Toward the center (whole body or part) Deep (internal) Deep (internal)

Toward the surface (whole body or part) Superficial (external) Superficial (external)

Toward the body (extremity) Proximal Proximal

Away from the body (extremity) Distal Distal

“Back” of forelimb from carpus distally Palmar Palmar

“Back” of hindlimb from tarsus distally Plantar Plantar

“Front” of forelimb and hindlimb from carpus and Dorsal Anterior

tarsus distally

TERM REGION

Barrel Trunk of the body—formed by the rib cage and the abdomen

Area at the base of the neck between the front legs that covers the cranial end of the
Brisket
sternum

Cannon Large metacarpal or metatarsal bone of hoofed animals

Joint between cannon bone (large metacarpal/metatarsal) and the proximal phalanx of
Fetlock
hoofed animals

Flank Lateral surface of the abdomen between the last rib and the hind legs

Hock Tarsus

Knee Carpus of hoofed animals

Muzzle Rostral part of the face formed mainly by the maxillary and nasal bones

Pastern Area of the proximal phalanx of hoofed animals

Poll Top of the head between the bases of the ears

Stifle Femorotibial/femoropatellar joint—equivalent to human knee

Tailhea
Dorsal part of the base of the tail
d

Withers Area dorsal to scapula’s