Journal of Projective Psychology & Mental Health, 2020, 27(1)

Pain Assessment:

Most Prominent Measures/Tests Used in Research,

2006-2018

Chris Piotrowski

Contact Info.:

Research Consultant,

University of West Florida,

USA; Email:

[email protected] or

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The issue of pain measurement and assessment has attracted intense clinical and research attention,
particularly over the past three decades. Hence, pain assessment has become a) a central feature in the
study of pain across a myriad of health care disciplines (i.e., medicine, rehabilitation, psychology,
nursing, social work, quality of life, and public health), b) a major component of comprehensive pain
management, and c) a burgeoning area of applied research. Given the vast landscape of this literature:
Where is the practicing mental health clinician to turn in identifying the major pain assessment
instruments reported in the recent scholarly literature? To that end, the aim of the current study is to
identify the most prominent methods (i.e., measures, scales, inventories, tests) in research, reported in
studies with a focus on pain or pain states, 2006-2018. Hence, an extension of a similar study design
reported by Piotrowski (2007). Based on a bibliometric examination of the literature, including
assessment measures noted in major texts on pain, nearly 200 assessment instruments were identified
and determined to be the most visible scales/tests related to the issue of pain. Next, the author
conducted an online search in the ProQuest database (restricted to years 2006-2018). Using a Boolean
logic search strategy on these instruments, individual searches produced the total number of scholarly
articles for each assessment method that was noted in the Abstract of primary articles. This procedure
identified 130 measures that were the focus of study in at least 5 articles. Of these, 49 tests appeared in
study abstracts more than 100 times. Noteworthy, several of these ‘popular’ tests were measures of
psychopathology, outside the specific domain of Pain, such as the Beck Depression Inventory, the STAI,
and the MMPI series. Moreover, many of the most popular scales reflect general health assessment and
quality of life issues. In addition, the assessment of functional disability was well represented in the top
ranked scales/measures (e.g., Oswestry Disability Index, the DASH Questionnaire). Other prominent
assessment methods were, the Visual Analogue Scale, the Health Assessment Questionnaire, the
Numerical Rating Scale, Brief Pain Inventory, the McGill Pain Questionnaire, the Hospital Anxiety &
Depression Scale, the SF-36 Health Survey, the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and the PROMIS. These
findings should provide a seminal template for mapping the extant scholarship regarding preferred
methods or assessment techniques used in research on pain. Furthermore, the current analysis points to
the vast array of measures and scales on which research findings in pain scholarship are based, which
prompts the problematic concern regarding the lack of investigatory cohesion in this rapidly expanding
literature and fragmentation of research streams across this multidisciplinary field.

Keywords: Pain assessment, Research methods, Trends, Content analysis

 Introduction

Historically, the myriad of pain conditions and the deleterious experience of chronic pain have
continued to inflict an onerous impact on the human condition, designating ‘pain’ as a major public
health problem and vital-sign metric (Gaskin & Richard, 2012; Melzack, 1983; Turk & Gatchel, 2002).
More recently, the Biopsychosocial paradigm, reflected in the modern era of clinical practice and
research scholarship in the healthcare field (Castelnuovo, 2017; Porter-Moffitt et al., 2006), has been
well-incorporated in the study of pain (Deer & Ray, 2015; Eisenberger, 2012; Flor & Turk, 2011; Gatchel
et al., 2007; Gatchel & Turk, 1999; Hickling et al., 1995; Huzmeli & Melek, 2017; Riva et al., 2011).
Accordingly, the extant literature on various pain states is voluminous and growing at an exponential
rate (Gatchel, 2005; Jensen & Turk, 2014).

In mental health practice, complaints regarding pain or experience of chronic pain are a ubiquitous
symptom presented to the clinician (Gaskin & Richard, 2012; Jensen & Turk, 2014). Thus, it follows that
the study of pain, particularly the area of pain assessment, has been and continues to be a prominent
topic of scholarly investigation in the mental health field, exemplified by well-cited textbooks (Gatchel &
Weisberg, 2000; Keller & Butcher 1991; Turk & Gatchel, 2002; Turk & Melzack, 2011).

Evaluation and Assessment of Pain

Within this clinical domain, comprehensive evaluation of the ‘patient-in-pain’ is considered a critical,
central component in the treatment of the myriad of pain conditions (Epker, 2013; Gatchel et al., 2017;
Mikail et al., 1993). Moreover, the issue of pain measurement and assessment has attracted intense
investigatory attention (Bruns & Disorbio, 2015; Kovatch et al., 2017; Turk & Okifuji, 2002). Hence, pain
assessment has become a) a central feature in the study of pain across a multitude of clinical health care
disciplines (Medicine, rehabilitation, psychology, nursing, quality of life, and public health), b) a major
component of chronic pain management, and c) a burgeoning area of clinical and applied research.

Furthermore, there have been limited reviews of the literature regarding the clinical usage of specific
pain measures and scales, beyond confirmation on the popularity of the MMPI (all revisions) in the
assessment protocol used with pain patients in professional practice (see Andrasik et al., 1989;
Piotrowski, 2018; Piotrowski & Lubin, 1990; Porter-Moffitt et al., 2006). In fact, in a seminal study,
Piotrowski (1998) reported on the top-ranked tests used by clinicians in the pain field, i.e., the MMPI (all
versions), the Beck Depression Inventory, McGill Pain Questionnaire, SCL-90, the Multidimensional Pain
Inventory, and the Millon MCMI.

From an evaluation perspective, the pain experience is usually conceptualized along several domains:
nociception, neuropathic, psychological factors, personality strengths, emotion regulation, pain beliefs,
coping resources, functional capacity, social/interpersonal milieu. Yet, practicing clinicians, with limited
exposure (due to lack of training and hands-on experience) with the copious array of pain assessment
instruments usually rely on pain measures like the McGill Pain Questionnaire and/or broadband mental
health tests of psychopathology (see Piotrowski, 2018; 1998).

Rationale for the Current Study

In a recent review, based on the extant body of literature on pain studies, Piotrowski (2017) found that
projective techniques have garnered limited clinical interest in this area. In an earlier bibliometric study,
the most noted assessment instruments on the topic of pain were: the McGill Pain Questionnaire, Beck
Depression Inventory, the Multidimensional Pain Inventory, the Coping Strategies Questionnaire, and
the Low Back Pain Questionnaire (Piotrowski, 2007). Thus, an updated analysis of the pain literature
is urgently needed.

The salient issue is: Where is the practicing mental health clinician to turn in identifying the major pain
assessment instruments available and discussed in the recent scholarly literature? Moreover, having an
awareness of the most prominent measures in the study of pain should facilitate professional
communication in consultancy with specialists or multidisciplinary pain treatment teams (Gatchel et al.,
2014; Townsend et al., 2006). To that end, the aim of the current study is to identify the most prominent
methods (i.e., measures, scales, inventories, tests) in the research literature, reported in studies with a
focus on pain or pain states, 2006-2018. Hence, an extension of a similar study design reported by
Piotrowski (2007, 2019).

Method

The design followed the parameters of a bibliometric ‘Content Analysis’ of the literature (see
Krippendorff, 2004), which has been recently applied in the study of pain states (Piotrowski, 2014). The
initial challenge was to obtain a listing of the major evaluation measures, tests, and scales in the field of
pain assessment. To that end, researchers have utilized systematic reviews of the extant literature to
identify key instruments with high visibility in research studies (e.g., Zijlema et al., 2013). For the current
analysis, a 3-prong procedure was applied: 1) scanning test coverage in several recent textbooks on the
topic of pain and mental health assessment (e.g., Marchand et al., 2014; Sajatovic, 2012), 2) identifying
listings of top tests noted in review articles on the measurement of pain states (i.e., Banerjee et al.,
2017; Epker, 2013; Piotrowski, 2007) and quality of life (e.g., Hall et al., 2011), and 3) scanning the
results of a bibliometric search (see De Bellis, 2009) of the recent mental health literature on the topic
of pain (PsycINFO database; a menu tab displays the most frequently cited assessment instruments
across specific ‘pain’ domains). This systematic approach yielded nearly 200 assessment instruments
determined to be the most visible scales/tests discussed in the literature regarding the topic of Pain.

Next, the author conducted an online search in the ProQuest database, restricted to years 2006-2018.
This repository of extensive literature indexes scholarly studies across the medical, health, psychological,
and social sciences, containing over 125 billion digital pages. In order to determine which measures
were the main focus of study, the search option ABSTRACT was used in order to identify which
scales/tests were specifically noted by investigators. Using Boolean logic (name of
test/questionnaire/scale/measure/inventory + pain) on each of the instruments, individual searches
produced the total number of scholarly articles where the test was noted in the Abstract. A running
frequency tabulation was maintained during all online searches which identified the 130
measures/scales that appeared in at least 5 articles. This scoring template then illustrated the ranking of
individual assessment techniques, based on frequency distribution.

Discussion

First, the most striking observation of the data analysis is the vast scope, comprehensive nature, and
impressive number of measures which serve as part of the methodology across the research spectrum in
the pain literature. In and of itself, this finding may have both positive and negative implications. One
possibility is that such a voluminous foundation of measurement techniques and methods may reflect
the robustness of the burgeoning literature of a multidisciplinary field; on the other hand, the vast array
of distinct methods and assessment tools may be an indicator of disparate investigatory interests and
research designs which, to some extent, contribute to a lack of conceptual cohesion and clinical
consensus regarding both research focus and relevance of research findings. Thus, advances in
scholarship in the study of pain may be stymied or side-tracked by fragmentation in investigatory
streams, leading to an opaque sense of direction for future research.

Table 1 displays, in rank order, the most mentioned or cited scales/measures used in studies on the
evaluation of pain across a myriad of pain states and conditions since 2006. While this listing is rather
exhaustive (encompassing 130 assessment tools), a select 49 appeared in study abstracts more than 100
times. Moreover, several of these ‘popular’ tests were measures of psychopathology, outside the
specific domain of ‘Pain’, such as the Beck Depression Inventory, the Geriatric Depression Scale, the
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the MMPI series (Banks & Kerns, 1996; Lee et al., 2017; Piotrowski,
2018). Apparently, researchers who are involved in the study of pain have a strong clinical interest in
mental health co-morbidity factors, particularly levels of depression and anxiety, and related general
psychological indices of pain patients (see Bair et al., 2003; Morgan, 2009; Okifuji & Turk, 2014 for
discussion). Furthermore, many of the most prominent scales, noted in Table 1, reflect general health
assessment and quality of life issues. In addition, the assessment on the extent of functional disability is
well represented in the top ranked scales/measures (e.g., Oswestry Disability Index, the DASH
Questionnaire).

The issue of chronic pain has been a major area of research concentration (e.g., Alschuler & Otis, 2014;
Dansie & Turk, 2013; Dysvik et al., 2013), exemplified by the vast number of measures with the specific
aim to evaluate patients experiencing and coping with long-term pain. In this regard, prior research
studies suggest that common psychological features, evident in chronic pain sufferers, support the
characterization of the ‘pain personality’ in the clinical evaluation of these patients (Doherty et al., 2017;
Kennedy et al., 2011; Naylor et al., 2017; Zhang, 2002). Moreover, in the aggregate, Quality-of-Life issues
appear to be a major emerging assessment area in the study of chronic pain populations (Dezutter et al.,
2013; Dusova & Cseszarova, 2008; Trost et al., 2015), evident by the proliferation of Quality-of-Life
scales noted in the current analysis.

Conclusion

Table 1 should be relied upon as a handy clinical assessment reference guide in the treatment of pain
patients. While this list of measures appears rather extensive, new assessment tools in the area of pain
assessment continue to be introduced in the literature (e.g., Meyer et al. 2016). Thus, staying abreast of
the emerging literature in the study of pain will surely be challenging. The current content analysis
exercise provided the opportunity to deduce several key developments regarding recent investigatory
research streams in pain scholarship:

* Despite the popularity of tests of psychopathology such as the MMPI and Millon inventories
(Frauenhoffer et al., 1998), these broadband measures seem to be used selectively in pain-related
research. Perhaps, as health care providers become more familiar with the efficacy of these robust
instruments in pain-related conditions, there use may increase in the future (see Gatchel et al., 2006;
Haggard et al., 2008; Marek & Ben Porath, 2017; Tarescavage et al., 2015; Vendrig, 2000).

*With the aging U.S. population, there should be more research attention devoted to the study of pain,
particularly chronic pain states, in the elderly; such robust investigatory emphasis has been quite
evident over the past decade (Buffum et al., 2007; Gagliese, 2009; Jacobs et al., 2006; Kang & Demiris,
2016; Molton & Terrill, 2014; Sofaer-Bennett et al., 2007; Tse et al., 2013; Yohannes & Caton, 2010). In
this regard, ‘Collateral’ assessment of family and other caretakers of long-term pain patients will be a
critical factor in mental health evaluations (see Leonard et al., 2006).

* Whereas the issue of suicidal ideation has been discussed in the extant literature with regard to
chronic pain patients (Edwards et al., 2006), few measures that tap suicide potential or cognitions in
pain populations were evident in the current analysis.

*Interestingly, there is a dearth of research focus on racial and ethnic factors in pain assessment (Tait &
Chibnall, 2014).

* While the study of pain states in children has been a bourgeoning area of research (e.g., Azize et al.,
2014; Gorodzinsky et al., 2011; Lollar et al., 1982; McGrath et al., 2013; Stefanatou & Bowler, 1997), the
availability and range of assessment measures specifically designed for this unique clinical population
(including adolescent-age patients) are somewhat limited.

Future Research

This study, by design, was limited to published journal articles in the database ProQuest. Although
journal coverage was multidisciplinary, further research efforts should concentrate on scholarly
literature files and repositories such as MEDLINE and related health care databases. In addition,
bibliometric studies on pain assessment regarding specific clinical conditions or specialty-area journals
(e.g., cancer, headache, musculoskeletal, orofacial, fibromyalgia) should not only be informative, but
also introduce a template for mapping the extant scholarship on pain assessment while providing
directions for future research on these clinical conditions.

Table 1. Measures in Abstract of Scholarly Articles on Pain in ProQuest Database (2006-2018)

Measure/Test/Scale # of Mentions
Visual Analogue Scale 13551
Oswestry Disability Index 3818
Numerical Rating Scale 2607
Brief Pain Inventory 2123
McGill Pain Questionnaire 1550
Health Assessment Questionnaire 1518
Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale 1420
Beck Depression Inventory 1229
Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire 906
Short-Form-36 Health Survey 632
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index 582
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory 540
PROMIS 482
Shoulder Pain and Disability Index 409
Faces Pain Scale 363
Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand Questionnaire (DASH) 314
Health Assessment Questionnaire 313
European Org. for Research & Treatment of Cancer QoLQ 310
Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy 282
Barthel Index 277
Nottingham Health Profile 266
PHQ-9 250
Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire 236
Health Assessment Questionnaire-Disability Index 236
Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia 224
General Health Questionnaire 224
Geriatric Depression Scale 222
CES-D 219
Multidimensional Pain Inventory (West Haven-Yale) 207
SCL-90 193
Functional Independence Measure 180
Coping Strategies Questionnaire 171
Edmonton Symptom Assessment System 168
Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory 165
Migraine Disability Assessment (MIDAS) 161
Disability Status Scale 160
Profile of Mood States (POMS) 159
WOMAC Osteoarthritis Index 155
Health Utilities Index 149
Memorial Symptom Assessment Scale 145
Pain Drawing 136
Headache Impact Test (HIT) 134
Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory 131
Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression 121
Neuropathic Pain Symptom Inventory 117
Oswestry Low Back Pain Disability Questionnaire 114
Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire 111
Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire 105
MMPI 100
Graded Chronic Pain Scale 98
Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale 97
Neuropathic Pain Scale 91
Sickness Impact Profile 86
Toronto Alexithymia Scale 85
Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale 82
Arthritis Self-Efficacy Scale 75
Short-Form-12 Health Survey 71
Pain Coping Inventory 69
EORTC Quality of Life Questionnaire 69
Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale 62
Start Back Screening Tool 61
Symptom Distress Scale 61
Fear of Pain Questionnaire 60
Arthritis Impact Measurement Scale 54
Pain Catastrophizing Scale 53
Fatigue Impact Scale 52
Functional Disability Inventory 49
GAD-7 48
Children’s Depression Inventory 47
Back Beliefs Questionnaire 44
MD Anderson Symptom Inventory 44
Musculoskeletal Pain Screening Questionnaire 43
SOAPP-R 42
Chronic Pain Coping Inventory 41
WHO-5 Well-Being Index 40
Pain Coping Questionnaire 39
Box Scale 38
PASS-20 34
 MSQoL 31
Survey of Pain Attitudes 31
Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) 31
Functional Movement Screen 30
Euro-QoL-5D Scale 30
Beck Hopelessness Scale 29
Injustice Experience Questionnaire 28
Multidimensional Health Locus of Control 28
Geriatric Pain Measure 27
Pain and Impairment Relationship Scale 27
Chronic Pain Self-Efficacy Scale 27
Somatic Perception Questionnaire 25
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (HRQoL) 24
Pain Stages of Change Questionnaire 23
Pain DETECT Questionnaire 22
Pain Beliefs Questionnaire 22
Low Back Pain Questionnaire 21
Vanderbilt Pain Management Inventory 21
ID Migraine 20
Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale 20
Headache Disability Inventory 19
Pain Discomfort Scale 18
Cornell Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire 18
Pain Beliefs & Perceptions Inventory 17
Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey 17
Positive & Negative Affect Scale 17
Battery for Health Improvement 16
McMaster Health Index Questionnaire 15
Life Satisfaction Index 15
Breakthrough Pain Assessment Tool 14
Pain Experience Scale 13
Fibromyalgia Rapid Screening Tool 13
PPMQ-R 13
Pediatric Pain Questionnaire 12
MOBID-2 12
Health Anxiety Inventory 11
Psychological General Well-Being Index 10
Illness Behavior Questionnaire 9
Quality of Well-Being Scale 9
Social Support Questionnaire 9
Avoidance-Endurance Questionnaire 8
Headache Management Self-Efficacy Scale 7
Duke Health Profile 7
Millon MCMI 7
Functional Status Index 7
Depression Anxiety & Personal Outlook Scale (DAPOS) 7
Personal Health Questionnaire 7
Radboud Skills Questionnaire 6
Ferrans and Powers Quality of Life Index 6
Medical Outcomes Study Pain Measures 5
Child Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale 5
Multidimensional Pain Readiness to Change Questionnaire 5
Note. Measures with less than 5 mentions are not listed.
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