Haberman / Kling MTH 95

Section III: Rational Expressions, Equations, and Functions

Module 1: Introduction to Rational Functions

DEFINITION: A rational function is a ratio of polynomial functions. If p and q are

p( x)
polynomial functions, then r ( x) = q ( x ) is a rational function. Since the
denominator of a fraction can never equal zero, the domain of r is the
set {x x ∈ R and q ( x) ≠ 0}.

EXAMPLES OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS:

a. 2
f ( x) = x + 4 x − 13 x − 3

The domain of f is {x x ∈ R and x ≠ 3} since when x = 3 the denominator is zero.

5 4 2
7x −x +2x + 5x − 6
b. g ( x) = 2
x +5x+6
To determine the domain of g we must find the values of x which make the denominator
2
zero. So we need to solve x + 5 x + 6 = 0 .
2
x +5x+6=0
⇒ ( x + 2)( x + 3) = 0
⇒ x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
⇒ x = − 2 or x=−3

Thus, the domain of g is {x x ∈ R and x ≠ − 2 and x ≠ − 3}.

h ( x) = x
c. x2 + 7
The domain of h is R (all real numbers) since the denominator can never equal zero.

12
d. k ( x) = x
The domain of k is {x x ∈ R and x ≠ 0} .
 2

GRAPHS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Graphing rational functions is discussed in detail in College Algebra (MTH 111b/c). Here we
only wish to get an idea about what happens to the graph of a rational function as the x-values
get closer and closer to numbers that make the denominator of the function zero.

4
EXAMPLE: What happens to the graph of the function f ( x) = as x gets closer and
x−2
closer to 2 (in symbols: “ x → 2 ”).

SOLUTION:

4
Since 2 is not in the domain of f ( x) = (the domain of f is the set
x−2

{x x ∈R and x ≠ 2} ), we cannot evaluate the function at x = 2 . So all we can do is get

an idea about what happens to the graph of f as x gets closer and closer to 2 (i.e.,
x → 2 ). We can use a table of function values to see what happens to the outputs as the
inputs get closer and closer to x = 2 .

Table 1 Table 2
4
x f ( x) = x − 2
x f ( x) =
x
2.1 40
1.9 –40
2.01 400
1.99 –400
2.001 4000
1.999 –4000
1.9999 –40000 2.0001 40000

The values in these tables suggest that if you start from a number less than 2 and get
closer and closer to 2 (e.g., 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, …) then the outputs get smaller and smaller,
while if you start from a number larger than 2 and get closer and closer to 2 (e.g., 2.1, 2.01,
2.001, …) then the outputs get larger and larger. To describe this behavior people
sometimes say things like, “as x approaches 2 from less than 2, the outputs approach
negative infinity while as x approaches 2 from larger than 2 the outputs approach positive
infinity.” We can describe this behavior more technically as follows:

The function values in Table 1 suggest that as x gets closer and closer to 2 (but
remains less than 2) the outputs get smaller and smaller. To describe this behavior
mathematicians usually say, “As x approaches 2 from below, f (x) decreases
−
without bound.” We can write this using symbols: “As x → 2 , f ( x) → − ∞ .”

The function values in Table 2 suggest that as x gets closer and closer to 2 (but
remains greater than 2) the outputs get larger and larger. To describe this behavior
mathematicians usually say, “As x approaches 2 from above, f (x) increases
without bound.” We can write this using symbols: “As x → 2+ , f ( x) → ∞ .”
 3

4
In Figure 1, a graph of f ( x) = x − 2 is given. The behavior of the graph supports the
analysis given above. The line x = 2 is called a vertical asymptote. The graph never
crosses the vertical asymptote, which is what we would expect since the function isn’t
defined when x = 2 !

4
Figure 1: Graph of f ( x) = x − 2.

x+4
2
EXAMPLE: Consider the function g ( x) = x − x − 6 . To determine the domain of g we
need to find out which x-values make the denominator of g zero.
2
x −x−6=0
⇒ (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0
⇒x − 3 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
⇒ x = 3 or x=−2

Since 3 and –2 make the denominator of g zero, these values m

excluded from the domain. Thus, the domain of g is th

{x x ∈ R and x ≠ 3 and x ≠ − 2} . The graph of g has two v

asymptotes: x = 3 and x = − 2 (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Graph of g ( x) = x
 4

EVALUATING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

x 2 + 4 x − 13
EXAMPLE: If f ( x) = , evaluate the following.
x−3

a. f (2) b. f (0)

c. f (3) d. f (−4)

SOLUTIONS:

a. f (2) = (2)
2
+ 4(2) − 13
(2)−3
=4+8−13
−1
−1
=
−1

b. f ( 0) = (0)2 + 4( 0) − 13

(0)−3
=0+0−13
0−3
− 13
= − 3
13
= 3

c. Since 3 isn’t in the domain of f (i.e., when x = 3 the denominator is zero) we say, “ f (3)
is undefined.”

2
(−4) + 4(−4) − 13
d. f (−4) =
(−4) − 3
= 16 −16 −13
−7
−13
=
−7
13
=
7
 5

Try these yourself and check your answers.

7x 5 − x 4 + 2x 2 + 5x − 6
If g ( x) = , evaluate the following:
x 2 + 5x + 6

a. g(−1) b. g(0)

c. g (1) d. g (−2)

SOLUTIONS:
5 4 2
7(−1) − (−1) + 2(−1) + 5(−1) − 6
a. g( −1) = 2
(−1) + 5(−1) + 6
= −7−1+2−5−6
1−5+6
−17
=
2
17
=−
2

5 4 2
7(0) − (0) + 2(0) + 5(0) − 6
b. g(0) =
(0)2 +5(0)+6
= 0−0+0+0−6
0+0+6
− 6
= 6
= −1

5 4 2
c. g(1) = 7(1) − (1) + 2(1) + 5(1) − 6
2
(1) + 5(1) + 6
= 7−1+2+5−6
1 +5+6
7
= 12

d. Since the denominator of g is zero when x = − 2 , g (−2) is undefined.