Computer Vision

Course Code: 234CS

Chapter 2
Basic Relationships between pixels, Geometric Transformation and Pin hole Camera

Subject Coordinator: Dr. Gran Badshah

Subject Teacher: Mrs. Mariyam Aysha Bivi
Lecturer,
Department of Computer Science,
King Khalid University
Abha,KSA

REFERENCE DETAIL FOR CHAPTER - 2

Topic Text Reference Chapter No. Page No
Basic relationships between pixels, Neighborhood, II Chapter 2 66,67
Connectivity

2D Geometric Transformations, Camera Models. I Chapter 1 1

Chapter 6 158
27
2.1 Basic Relationships between pixels
There are important relationships between pixels in a digital image.
A digital image is denoted by f(x, y).

 The coordinates (x, y) are discrete spatial quantities.

 The values of the coordinates at the origin are (x, y)=(0, 0). The next coordinate values along the first row
of the image are represented as (x, y)=(0, 1).
 Each element of this matrix array is called an image element, picture element, pixel, or pel.

 This image has a spatial resolution of M*N pixels and a gray-level resolution of L gray levels.
 L=2k is the number of discrete gray levels from [0, L-1].

 k is the number of binary bits required to store a gray level.

 When an image can have 2k gray levels, it is common practice to refer to the image as a “k-bit
image.”
 For example, an image with 256 possible gray-level values is called an 8-bit image.

28
2.2 Neighbors of a Pixel:
 A pixel p at coordinates (x, y) has two horizontal and two vertical neighbors whose
coordinates are given by
(x+1, y), (x-1, y), (x, y+1), (x, y-1)

 This set of pixels, called the 4-neighbors of p, is denoted by N4(p).

 Each pixel is a unit distance from (x, y).

 Some of the neighbors of p lie outside the digital image if (x, y) is on the border of
the image.

29
The four diagonal neighbors of p have coordinates
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1, y-1)
and are denoted by ND(p).

8-neighbors of p
 four diagonal neighbors of p, together with the 4-vertical and horizontal neighbors,
are called the 8-neighbors of p, denoted by N8(p).
 Some of the points in ND(p) and N8(p) fall outside the image if (x, y) is on the
border of the image.

30
2.3 Connectivity:
 Let V be the set of gray-level values used to define adjacency.
 In a binary image, V={1} if we are referring to adjacency of pixels with value 1. In a grayscale
image, the idea is the same, but set V typically contains more elements.

 For example, in the adjacency of pixels with a range of possible gray-level values
0 to 255, set V could be any subset of these 256 values.

 4-conneceted. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4-connected if q is in the set N4(p).

 8- conneceted. Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8- connected if q is in the set N8(p).

31
2.4 Basic Geometric Transformations:
 Geometric Transformation is an operation which alters the position, size and shape of an object.
 It includes translation, rotation, scaling, reflection, shear etc.
 These transformations are very important in the fields of Computer Graphics and Computer
Vision.
 Basic transformations are translation, rotation, scaling.

2.4.1 Translation

 It is an operation which alters the position of an object.

 It moves every point of the object by a fixed distance in the same direction.
 Equation of translation is defined by
x' = x +tx
y' = y +ty
 where (x , y) is the initial co-ordinates and (x’, y’) is the output co-ordinates and tx and ty are the
translation distances respectively in x and y directions.
 The homogenous matrix representation for translation is defined by

32
2.4.2 Rotation

 A rotation is a transformation that is performed by spinning the object around a fixed point
known as center of rotation (the pivot).

 The object can be rotated at any degree. The rotations are done counter-clockwise for
positive rotations and vice-versa.

 Equation of Rotation is defined by

 The homogenous matrix representation for rotation is defined by

33
2.4.3 Scaling

 It is an operation which alters the size of an object.

 Equation of Scaling is defined by

x' = x . Sx y' = y . Sy

 where (x , y) is the initial co-ordinates and (x’, y’) is the output co-ordinates and Sx and Sy
are the scaling factors respectively in x and y directions.

o If Sx = Sy > 1, the scaling is enlargement.

o If Sx = Sy < 1, the scaling is compression

34
2.4.4 Reflection

 It is an operation which gives the mirror effect to an object with respect to axis.

2.4.5 Shear

 It is an operation which rotates one of the axis of the object so that both axes are not perpendicular.
 After shear a rectangle becomes a parallelogram and a circle becomes an ellipse

35
2.5 Pin Hole camera model
 The pinhole camera model also known as dark chamber is a simple optical imaging device.

 It describes the mathematical relationship between the co-ordinates of a 3D point and its
projection onto the 2D image plane.

 An ideal pinhole camera is a light proof box, the camera aperture is described as a point and no
lenses are used to focus light.

 Light from a scene passes through this point and projects an inverted image on the opposite
side of the box.

 The model does not include, for example, geometric distortions or blurring of unfocused
objects caused by lenses and finite sized apertures.

 It also does not take into account that most practical cameras have only discrete image
coordinates.

 This means that the pinhole camera model can only be used as a first order approximation of
the mapping from a 3D scene to a 2D image.

 Its validity depends on the quality of the camera and, in general, decreases from the center of
the image to the edges as lens distortion effects increase.

36
37