ChE 111

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

Module 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

This module presents principles, data and procedures for the beginning Chemical Engineering students. The
procedures are presented with a distinct chemical engineering flavor. We will be integrating some knowledge from
chemistry, physics, and mathematics, as well as other relevant courses to fit into the chemical engineering
knowledge.

You may be familiar with the principles and theories to be discussed. However, the presentation and
techniques are now in a chemical engineering orientation.

At the end of this module you are expected to explain and discuss terms and concepts related to engineering
calculations which are mainly the principles necessary in mass and energy balance calculations. These terms will be
used all throughout the study of this course, as well as other Chemical Engineering courses so it is important for
students to be acquainted with all these terms and concepts. These principles should be of second nature to you.

Practice exercises (PE) are given at the end of each particular topic. You are expected to solve them and
submit to the professor on/before the due date.

LESSONS 1 & 2

DEFINITION OF TERMS & UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

1.1 Units and Dimensions

Dimension – basic concept of measurement

Unit –means of expressing dimensions, i.e., meter, feet or centimeter for length, etc.

Fundamental Dimensions and Units (SI base units)

a) LENGTH (L)
1
Meter (m) – the distance light travels in a vacuum during of a second
299,792,458
b) TIME (θ)
Second (s) – duration of 9,129,631,770 cycles of radiation associated with a specified transition of
the Cesium atom
c) MASS (M)
Kilogram (kg) – mass of a Platinum/Iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and
Measurements at Sevres, France
d) TEMPERATURE
Kelvin (K)
0 K – theoretically the lowest temperature that could be attained in nature.
e) MOLE (mol)
- Measure of the amount of substance represented by as many elementary entities (atoms,
molecules, etc.) as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of Carbon-12
f) ELECTRIC CURRENT (ampere, A)
g) LUMINOUS INTENSITY (candela, cd)
** These are base units on which the entire system is founded

Table 1 Combination of Fundamental Dimensions (WI Jose 2004)

Quantity Definition Dimension

Area (A) Measure of extent of surface L2
Volume (V) Measure of extent of space L3
Density (ρ) Mass in unit volume M/L3
Force (F) Mass x acceleration ML/θ2
Velocity (v) Distance covered per unit time L/θ
Acceleration (a) Rate of change of velocity L/θ2
Weight (W) Force resulting from the gravitational attraction ML/θ2
of a body
Work Force x distance ML2/θ2
Power Rate of performing work ML2/θ3
1
 Pressure (P) Force per unit area F/L2
Specific volume Reciprocal of density L3/M
Surface tension Force exerted by a surface of length F/L
Viscosity (µ) Resistance to flow M/Lθ

HANDLING UNITS:
- You can add, subtract or equate numerical quantities only if the units of two terms are the same.
- You can multiply or divide units at will but you cannot cancel or merge unless they are identical
SYSTEM OF UNITS
The standard system of units today is the SI Units (System Internationale d’Unites), which is based on the metric
system. However in some parts of the world especially the United States, units in the old system such as the English
system still persist. Units other the SI units are referred to as

SI UNITS (International System of Units)

The SI units, adopted by the General Conference on Weights and Measures, is the modernized metric
system - a gradual improvement of the system first proposed in 1670. The SI units have many advantages, being a
uniform system.

Customary units and their bases

MKS and CGS Systems
The metric system originated in France and provided simplicity in measurements. In this system,
fundamental units are meter for length, kilogram for mass and second for time.
English Absolute System (or American Engineering system or simply English System)
In this system, the fundamental units are foot meter for length, pound mass (denoted as lb m for mass and
second for time.

 Conversion of SI units is simpler than conversion in the English system, plus it is facilitated by the use of Greek
prefixes.

Table 2 Common Conversions (WI Jose)

Mass 454 g/lb 2,240 lb/long ton
2.2 lb/kg 1,000 kg/metric ton
1,000 g/kg 16 oz/lb
2,000 lb/short ton
Time 60 s/min 60 min/h
Length 2.54 cm/in 3 ft/yd
100 cm/m 5,280 ft/mile
1,000 mm/m 106 µm/m
12 in/ft
Area 43,560 ft2/acre
Volume 1,000.0217 cm3/liter 231 in3/US gal
7.48 US gal/ft3

Example 1.1 Convert 60 miles/h to cm/min

mi 5280 ft 2.54 cm h cm
Solution: 60 x x 12∈ ¿ x x =1.61 x 105 ¿
h mi ft ¿ 60 min min

Practice Exercises (PE):

1) Convert 60 mi/hr to cm/min
2) Change a viscosity of 9 cP (centipoise) to viscosity in BVU (British Viscosity Unit) where
g
1 poise=1 P=1
cm−s
1 P=100 cP
lbm
1 BVU =1
ft−h
2
3) What is the equivalent of 0.229 cm2/s in ft2/h? (This quantity is called diffusivity)

1.2 PROCESS VARIABLES

Variables are necessary to describe chemical systems and processes. These variables are properties that
can be measured and recorded. They define the conditions of a system at any time.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature, of a substance in a particular state of aggregation (solid, liquid, gas) is a measure of

the average kinetic energy possessed by substance molecules or atoms.
Since this energy cannot be measured directly, the temperature must be determined indirectly by measuring
some physical property of the substance whose value depends on temperature in a known manner.
: volume of a fixed mass of fluid – thermometer
: spectra of emitted radiation – pyrometer
: voltage at the junction of two dissimilar metals – thermocouple
: electrical resistance of a conductor – resistance thermometer

Temperature scales can be defined in terms of any of these properties, or in terms of physical phenomena
such as freezing and boiling that take place at fixed temperature and pressure.
Example: The temperature at which the resistivity of a Cu wire is 1.92x10 -6ohm/cm3 is ______.

In addition to these physical scales, there is a defined temperature scale obtained by arbitrarily assigning
numerical values to two reproducible measurable temperatures such as these two most common temperature scales
that are defined using the freezing point and boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure.

CELSIUS (CENTIGRADE) SCALE

Tf = 0 °C
Tb = 100 °C
o Absolute zero (theoretically the lowest temperature attained in nature) falls at -273.15 °C

FAHRENHEIT SCALE
Tf = 32 °F
Tb = 212 °F
o Absolute zero falls at -459.6 °F

KELVIN AND RANKINE SCALES – scales are defined such that absolute zero has a value of 0 (zero) and
the size of a degree is the same as a Celsius degree

 Relationships used to convert a temperature expressed in one defined scale unit to its equivalent in another:

T ( K ) =T ( ° C ) +273.15 ¿.1)
T ( ° R )=T (° F )+ 460(1.2)
T ( ° R )=1.8 T ( K ) (1.3)
T ( ° F ) =1.8T ( ° C )+ 32(1.4)

Example 1.2 Convert 300 K to °C, °F and °R

Solution:

300=T ( ° C ) +273.15 T ( ° F ) =1.8T ( ° C )+ 32 T ( ° R )=T (° F )+ 460

T ( ° C ) =300−273.15 T ( ° F ) =1.8T ( 26.85 ) +32 T ( ° R )=80.33+ 460
T ( ° C ) =26.85 T ( ° F ) =80.33 T ( ° R )=540.33

Practice Exercises (PE):

4) Convert the following temperature readings
3
 a) 800 °F to K, °C and °R
b) 100,000 °C to K, °F and °R
5) Convert a thermal conductivity of
BTU J
1.3 ¿
hr .° F . ft s . K . m

DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

A substance possesses a definite amount of mass in a specified volume. This is the density (ρ), mass per unit
volume (M/L3). In SI, its unit is kg/m3.
In general, temperature affects density. When heated a substance expands and its density decreases. Liquids
and gases expand more than solids.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (SP. Gr. or simply G) – is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass
of an equal volume of water at a specified temperature. Sp. gr. is dimensionless.

At 4°C, the density of water is 1 g/cm3 so that when 4°C is the reference temperature the
sp. gr. is numerically equal to the density in g/cm3. Dry air at a specified temperature and pressure
can also be used as reference for gases. The temperature of the substance and the reference are
frequently included with the specific gravity data. Sp. Gr. 25°/4° means the substance is at a
temperature 25°C and the density is referred to the density of water at 4°C or

25 ° Density of a substance at 25 ℃
Sp .Gr . = (1.5)
4° Density of wsater at 4 ℃

 Some special scales for specific gravity are in use such as the following:

1) BAUME’ SCALE – used in chemical industries

a) Lighter than water: G < 1

140
° Be= −130 ( 1.6 )
G
b) Heavier than water: G > 1
145
° Be=145− ( 1.7 )
G

2) TWADDEL SCALE – used in leather/tannery industries

° Tw=200 ( G−1 ) ( 1.8 )

3) API SCALE (American Petroleum Industry)

141.5
° API = −131.5 ( 1.9 )
G
4) BRIX SCALE (Sugar Industry)

400
° Brix= −400 ( 1.10 )
G

Example 1.3 What is the equivalent of 14°Be in °Tw?

Solution:
Assuming it is heavier than water Assuming it is lighter than water

4
 145 140
° Be=145− ° Be= −130
G G
145 140
14=145− 14= −130
G G
G=1.11 G=0.97

° Tw=200 ( 1.11−1 )=22 ° Tw=200 ( 0.97−1 )=−6

(reject)
Therefore: 14°Be = 22°Tw

Practice Exercises (PE):

6) Get the equivalent of 264 °Tw in °Be, °API and °Brix

PRESSURE

Pressure, one of the most readily measurable properties of a gas, is the normal force acting on a unit area of
a surface. The force can be the result of gravity, the expansion or contraction of material, compression, tension and
thermal stresses, among others. In chemical engineering, pressure commonly refers to the forces exerted by
contained fluids (static pressure) or from forces of moving fluids (dynamic pressure).

F mg
P= = (1.11)
A A

In terms of the equivalent height of a fluid column, pressure is expressed as:

P=hρg(1.12)

COMMON UNITS OF PRESSURE

The common units of pressure (F/L2) are:

 Pascal, Pa (kPa and MPa are more common since Pa is small)
 Pound force per square inch, psi or lbf/in2
 Dynes/cm2
In terms of the height of a column of liquid
 cm of mercury, cm Hg
 inches of mercury, in. Hg
 meters or feet of water
Pressure can also be exerted in terms of the force exerted by the atmosphere around us. This pressure at
sea level and 45 degrees latitude is designated as the normal atmospheric pressure or the standard atmosphere. A
normal atmosphere has a value of 1 atmosphere (1 atm). In terms of the other units,
1 atm = 1.01325 x 105 Pa
= 14.7 lbf/in2
= 760 mm Hg
= 29.92 in Hg
= 33.9 ft of H2O
= 1.01325 x 106 dynes/cm2

 Barometric pressure is also used/substituted for atmospheric pressure.

 For convenience, memorize the above values which could be used as conversion factors.

Example 1.3 How many atmosphere is 14 psi?

1atm
Solution: 27 psi x =0.95 atm
14.7 psi

Example 1.4 If the pressure is 107.6 psi, what is the equivalent in inches of Hg? In feet of H 2O?
5
 29.92∈ Hg
Solution: P=107.6 psi x =219.0∈Hg
14.7 psi
33.9 ft H 2 O
P=107.6 psi x =241.8 ft H 2 O
14.7 psi

ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE PRESSURES

The three major classes of pressure-measuring elements are:
 A liquid column where the density and height of the fluid determines the pressure. Manometers
and barometers are examples.
 Formed metal elements such as diaphragm, bellows and bourdon gages.
 Electronic or electrical devices, thermal conductivity gages, strain gages and ionization gages.
The bourdon gage indicates pressure by the deflection of a pointer. Normally, the zero reading of most gages
corresponds to the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. The indicated pressure therefore is the “gage pressure”.
Gage pressure is the pressure above that of the atmospheric pressure. Therefore,

P|¿|= P atm + Pgage (1.13 )¿

Where: Pabs is the absolute pressure

Patm is the atmospheric/barometric pressure
Pg / Pgauge is the gauge pressure

All three terms must have the same units to maintain dimensional consistency.

Gage pressure is expressed as psig, in Hg gage, mm Hg gage, etc. and absolute pressure as lb-force per
square inch absolute or psia, in. Hg abs., mm Hg abs, etc. In S.I. however, only absolute pressures are used.

Example 1.5 If the atmospheric pressure is 1.1 atm, what is the absolute pressure if the gage
indicates 28 psig?

Solution:

P|¿|= P atm + Pgage ¿

P| | 14.7 psi
¿ =1.1 atm x +28 psi=44.17 psia ¿
1 atm

Note: The value of the atmospheric pressure is dependent on the actual pressure exerted by
the atmosphere.

VACUUM, HEAD AND DRAFT PRESSURES

Pressures below atmospheric may be expressed in terms of “vacuum”. “Vacuum” refers to the value by
which the pressure is less than atmospheric. The absolute pressure, P abs is related to the “vacuum”, Pvac, by:

P|¿|= P atm −Pvac (1.14)¿

At pressures near atmospheric the term “head” is used in lieu of gage pressure and “draft” instead of
vacuum.

“Head” is the quantity by which a pressure is more than atmospheric while “draft” is the quantity by which a
pressure is less than atmospheric.

Example 1.6 If a vacuum gage indicates 26 in Hg, what is the pressure if the atmospheric pressure
is 28 in. Hg?

Solution: P|¿|= P atm −Pvac ¿

P|¿|=28 ∈Hg−26∈ Hg=2∈ Hg|¿|¿

Example 1.7 The pressure of a gas is reported as 3” water head. If the atmospheric pressure
is 758 mm Hg, what is the absolute pressure?

6
 Solution: 3” water is equivalent to

ft 760 mm Hg
3∈H 2 O x x =5.60 mm Hg
12i n 33.9 ft H 2 O

The pressure of the gas is therefore, 5.60 mm Hg higher than the atmospheric pressure.

P|¿|=758+5.60=763.6 mm Hg ¿

Example 1.8 What is the equivalent of 5” H 2 O draft in psia if the atmospheric pressure is
28 in Hg?

Solution:
P| | 14.7 psia
¿ =28 ∈Hg x −¿¿
29.92∈ Hg

Practice Exercises (PE):

7) The pressure gage of a vacuum oven reads 28.2” Hg vacuum. If the barometric pressure is 751 mm Hg, what is
the absolute pressure in kPa? In psi (lb/in2)? In psf (lb/ft2)?
8) Express the following absolute pressures in terms of vacuum and gage pressures if the barometric pressure is
753 mm Hg.
a) 65 ft of water
b) 3.07x106 Pa
c) 1,500 cm of carbon tetrachloride
d) 7 cm of air, ρ = 1.2928 g/L
9) What is the equivalent of 7 cm of mercury (sp.gr. = 13.6) in meters of air (density = 1.29 g/L)?

COMPOSITION – It denotes the amount of substance present in a mixture. It can be expressed in

various ways depending on the type of substances, convenience or convention.

Mass Fraction and Mass Percent

Mass fraction is the ratio of the mass of component i in a mixture to the total mass of the
mixture.

Mi
Xi= (1.15)
Mt
Where: Xi = mass fraction of component i
Mi = mass of component i
Mt = total mass of the mixture

And Mass %=10 0 X i

Mass fraction is usually used for solids and liquids, and less commonly for gases.

Mole Fraction and Mole Percent

Mole fraction Xi (or Yi) is the ratio of the moles of component i of a mixture to the total moles of the mixture.

moles component i
Xi= ( 1.16)
total moles of mixture

And Mole %=100 X i

While mole fraction is applicable for all types of substances, it more commonly used to express the
composition of mixture of gases.

7
Volume Fraction and Volume Percent

Volume fraction refers to the ratio of the volume occupied by a component to the total volume occupied by
the total mixture under the same conditions. This is commonly used to express the composition of gases and
occasionally of liquids. The volume fraction is applicable only for “ideal mixtures”, i.e., mixtures with
components that do not expand or contract when mixed together.

Volume %=volume fract ion x 100

CONCENTRATION

Concentration refers to the amount of component present per unit volume of the total mixture. The unit is
either mass per unit volume of mixture or moles per unit volume of mixture.
Concentration Units in Chemistry

Concentration in chemistry is expressed in terms of molarity, formality, molality and normality.

Molarity is the number of gram moles of a solute dissolved in a solvent per liter of the solution.
Formality is the number of formula weights per liter of solution.
Molality is the number of gram moles of a solute per 1,000 grams or 1 kilogram of solvent.
Normality is the number of gram-equivalent weights of a solute per liter of solution.

Concentration of Trace Quantities

In reporting trace or small quantities, the mass fraction is expressed in terms of ppm, parts per million (parts
of a specific substance per 10 6 parts total mixture), or ppb parts per billion (parts of a specific substance per 10 9
parts total mixture).
In aqueous solutions, where concentrations may be expressed in mg solute/liter solution, ppm is
approximately equal to mg/liter.

Practice Exercises (PE):

10) In a process plant, benzene is evaporating and is leaking into an air stream at the rate of 0.1 kmol per hour. If
the air flow rate is 8,000 kg/min, what is the concentration of benzene in the air in ppm?
11) 57 kg of sucrose is dissolved in a 100-liter can containing 18 liters of water. What is the sugar concentration of
the solution formed in:
a) mass fraction?
b) mole fraction?
c) molarity?
d) Molality?

 In solving the practice exercises, follow the format below:

Given:
Required:
Solution:
Answer: Note: box your final answer. Include units where needed. No units, no points.

You can solve using yellow papers or coupon bonds, then take a clear shot of your solutions and submit
them to my email ad: [email protected]. Solutions using MS word or any other means are also accepted.

 Due date for online submission of solution to practice exercises will be on/before 8:00 PM of August 16, 2020.

 First long exam schedule:

2A: August 18, 2020 8:30 – 9:30 AM
2B: August 17, 2020 10:00 AM – 12:00 NN
2C: August 17, 2020 2:30 – 3:30 PM

8
References:
R.M.Felder and R.W. Rousseau, Elementary Principles of Chemical Process, 2nd edition. New York: Wiley, 1986
W.I. Jose, Introductory Concepts in Chemical Engineering, 2004
H.S. Stoker, Introduction to Chemical Principles, 2nd edition. New York: Macmillan, 1986

Prepared by:

ENGR. MARIA TERESA M. MINA, MSChE

Subject Professor