INTRODUCTION

Graphic communication has been around since prehistoric man told his stories in pictures carved
on pieces of bone or painted on the walls of caves. Such images are the earliest
attempts to communicate a message visually.

By the time of the pharaohs, the ‘decorative arts’ were wellestablished, predating the Christian
era by thousands of years. The images used in the tombs of Egyptian kings took on deep
symbolic meaning.

A coffin mask of theEgyptian pharaoh

Tutankhamun, the “boy king” who died in 1343B.C.

Visual expression progressed from pictures of events to depictions of ideas, to recorded history
and recorded thought. In many instances, past cultures are available to us only through the work
of some ancient graphic designer.

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Through history, architects have manipulated visual imagery to assist the design process. Such
imagery has assumed the form of construction documents, design drawings, analysis and details,
various forms of sketches, and images conceived in the mind’s eye. The philosopher Richard
Wollheim writes that representational seeing involves ‘seeing as’ (1971).

It requires foresight and imagination to comprehend a two-dimensional visual image as a

three-dimensional inhabitable structure. Through visual artifacts, architects can transform,
manipulate, and develop architectural concepts in anticipation of future construction. It may, in
fact, be through this alteration that architectural ideas find form.
The architectural theoretician Marco Frascari suggests that drawing can guide architects to an
understanding of architecture as both constructed and construed, because drawings intrinsically
convey theory: ‘Real architectural drawings are not illustrations, but pure expression of
architectural thinking.’

DEFINITION OF SKETCHES
The word ‘drawing’ presents a general term, whereas ‘sketching’ focuses on a specific
technique. Both can take the form of an action or object, verb or noun, as each can imply
movement.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a sketch as a brief description or outline ‘to
give the essential facts or points of, without going into details.’ Sketches document the primary
features of something or are considered ‘as preliminary or preparatory to further development’
(1985).
Historically, the act of sketching or drawing on paper involves line. At its most basic level, the
production of line constitutes making marks with a pointed tool, initiated by movement and
force. In reverse, eyes follow a line and with that action the ‘line’s
potential to suggest motion is basic’ (Lauer, 1979, p. 151). A line, or mark, made with the bodily
action of the hands, demonstrates its ability to cause reflective action, as it attracts the human eye
to follow it.
The control of a hand on the drawing tool yields not a consistent line, but one that is
varied, thick or thin. The quality of the mark is important, since individual lines produce
association in the minds of architects.
Architects contain within themselves the experiences and faculties necessary to interact
with this visual stimulus, because the act of sketching is in some ways dependent upon memory.
Thoughts, images, and experiences – all part of the architect’s whole being – determine what the
sketch will be. Body memory, interpretation, and even specific items that are retained in memory
over other experiences, influence what the architect sketches.
The sketch, for an architect, may allow for the discovery of a concept at the beginning of a
project; however, they can be employed in all stages of the design process, even as an
observational recording long after the building is constructed.

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Artists’ and architects’ sketches maintain some similarities but are intentionally very different.
Displaying the physical qualities that convey observational likeness, artists use sketches as
artistic expression, where they act as preliminary to two-dimensional finished drawings or
paintings or represent a completed entity. Sculptors employ sketches as preliminary thoughts for
three-dimensional artifacts. Conversely, architects very seldom consider sketches as a final
product. They are primarily intended to envision a future building.

Communication in all its forms is vital to society and the means of passing on information
graphically is an important and relevant skill. Communication through graphics, in whatever
medium, permeates all spheres of life, including education, industry and commerce. In
increasingly global markets, graphic communication is a chosen medium in aspects of life from
consumer to education, industry and commerce. The development of skills in the production,
interpretation and analysis of graphics in a range of contexts is of broad educational value.

Types of Drafting Tools

Drafting tools are used for design in both architecture and design. Without some of the simplest
tools known to man, none of the most amazing examples of architecture or marvels of
engineering could exist. Interestingly, most of the drafting tools still used today are little
different from tools used upon inception, although today's versions tend to be far more precise.

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Drawing Board
A proper drawing board supplies a very smooth and flat drawing surface. Some people prefer to
use an actual drafting table for this process rather than a board that can be laid across any table.
For those who are right-handed, the left edge of the drawing board becomes the working edge.

T-Square
The T-square is a device that resembles letter for which it was named. It is used not just for
drawing straight horizontal lines, but it was also used for locating reference points. It can also be
used for guiding an affixed triangle used for drawing vertical lines.

Compass
In the world of drafting, a compass is not that device that tells where true north is located. It's the
device often used by students in math class. The needle is placed stationary so that the compass
can draw perfect circles and arcs.

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Divider
A divider resembles a compass and is even often called a measuring compass. Where the
compass has a needle on one end and a pencil on the other, the divider has two spikes. The two
spikes can be adjusted for precise measurements.

Protractor
A protractor is also similar to a compass and is used in drafting to measure angles on the
drawings. Whereas a compass tends to be metal, even a high quality professional protractor is
usually plastic. Protractors are especially useful for determining gradations of the degrees when
measuring circumference.

Scales
Scales are a necessary tool in drafting because very accurate measurements must be made to
complete mechanical drawings. So important are scales in drafting that they come in a variety of
sizes, shapes, and lengths. Since each and every line must be measured precisely, scales are of
extreme importance in the art of drafting.

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Pencils
Pencils are quite obviously a necessary tool for drafting, but it is important to realize that
drafting pencils are not the same as regular pencils. There are no less than 17 different grades of
drafting pencils that range from very hard to very soft. Draftsmen typically want to use a pencil
that leaves a very sharp and dense line because this facilitates printing. There are two general
types of drawing pencil, soft and hard. This refers to the softness or hardness of the graphite in
the pencil. Each is used for different techniques in drawing. You may even prefer to use one type
more over the others.

As of 2009, a set of pencils ranging from a very hard, light-marking pencil to a very soft, black-
marking pencil usually ranges from hardest to softest as follows:

9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H 3H 2H H F HB B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 9B
Hardest → Medium → Softest

Hard Drawing Pencils

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Hard pencils have harder graphite, as expected by the name, and draw thinner and lighter grayish
lines. You can use them for light drawing and outlining to start a sketch. You can also use hard
pencils lightly on canvas before painting because it doesn’t leave dark marks.
You shouldn’t press too hard with hard pencils because it will leave marks in your
paper. Pressing hard and shading should be saved more for soft pencils.
Hard pencils are designated by the letter H. It is preceded by a number that stands for the exact
hardness of the pencil. For example, there are 3H, 4H, 5H, etc. pencils available starting at
0H. The higher the number is, the harder the pencil is.

Soft Drawing Pencils

Soft pencils are darker and thicker because the graphite has more oil, is softer, and breaks away
more easily. Soft pencils are used for shading and darker lines. To visualize how a soft pencil
works, think of chalk. It is soft and comes on thick. This is how a soft pencil works.
Soft pencils are designated by the letter B. Soft B pencils also have numbers such as 2B, 3B, 4B,
etc. The higher the number the softer and darker the pencil is. Soft pencils are best used for
shading. After sketching lightly with an H pencil, you can use different gradations of B pencils to
shade and put life into your drawing.
Pencil is special. Pencil is versatile. There is not a single drawing medium that can perform so
many tasks as a pencil. Because it can produce lines of different widths, the same pencil can be
used for shading, texture making, and emulating a wide range of tonal differences.

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TECHNIQUES
Holding the Pencil
There are many ways to hold the pencil but the key word to remember when sketching is “relax.”
Avoid holding the pencil as if you were writing because the writing grip is rather firm and tight.
The sketching grip is comparatively looser and easier. Hold the pencil approximately two to
three inches from the tip of the lead. The grip position should involve the thumb and the first two
fingers only, with the pencil resting comfortably on the inside of the tip of the third finger. Use
the second finger and the thumb to stabilize the pencil and to prevent it from slipping out.

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 Control the pencil with three fingers.

The relationship between the second finger and the thumb usually dictates the type of lines and
sketching style. When the tips of the two are relatively close together, anchoring the pencil, the
entire hand generally folds inward; and thus the mobility and reach of the pencil movement is
limited by how far the fingers can stretch. This position is called Position A and is quite similar
to the writing grip. It is very useful in sketching short strokes and details, and it gives the artist
more control of the tool while it is less prone to making mistakes.

The grip should be relaxed but firm. Control the movement with the same three fingers.

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SKETCHING POSITIONS
• looser grip
• flexible
• hold farther up the shaft

POSITION
Position B is when the tips of the second finger and thumb are far apart. The second and third
fingers are usually straight instead of being curled inward, increasing the mobility and reach of
the pencil. By sweeping up and down with the extended second and third fingers, the strokes can
reach six to seven inches. This is an ideal position for shading because the grip is loose and the
fingers are much easier to move. This position also allows the artist to hold the pencil sideways
and maximizes the effectiveness of the entire pencil tip. Broad strokes are one result of this grip.
Simply extend the fingers of the entire hand with the palm down and glide the pencil across the
page. The angle of the pencil must be adjusted to the individual artist’s hand and degree of
flexibility. One should be able to switch from Position A to Position B in a continuous
movement without hesitation or stoppage.

The third position (Position C) involves holding the pencil as if holding a putty knife or small
hand tool. The pencil is held between the thumb and the second finger. This eliminates any form
of finger or hand movement and is therefore mainly suited for long and broad strokes. The entire
forearm is used, giving the artist maximum reach. Depending on the size of paper available and
the reach of the artist’s arm, pencil strokes can reach over three feet. This position can also be
used to create chisel strokes. Just hold the pencil and strike it up and down using short and abrupt
strokes.

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 POSITION B

POSITION C

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Movement of the Hand
In essence, movement of the hand refers specifically to the act of sketching. The three grip
positions described correlate directly to the three different kinds of movement.

Up/down strokes Diagonal strokes

Normal finger movement

Maximum finger movement (notice slight Up and down movement of Position A

arc in strokes)

Finger movement (Position A)

Because the grip is relatively tight in this position, movement is limited to just the fingers. Lines
and strokes can be drawn by the gentle motion of pushing and pulling the pencil with the thumb
and the second and third fingers. Vertical strokes can be easily drawn by moving the fingers up
and down while planting the hand steadily on the drawing surface. Horizontal strokes, however,
require fixing the finger grip while moving the wrist from left to right and keeping the hand
loose at the same time. By turning the hand slightly to the side, you can increase the reach. This

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gives the artist more freedom to move the pencil and the ability to create longer strokes. The shift
in the grip and angle signals the gradual change from Position A to B.

Hand movement (Position B)

The grip in Position B is slightly higher and gives the artist the greatest flexibility to draw a wide
range of strokes and lines. By moving the hand, the strokes can cover a larger area. The fingers
must be locked in a fixed position, allowing the entire hand to move freely, pivoting from the
wrist. The center of the wrist in this kind of movement becomes the center while the hand
becomes the radius. Strokes therefore tend to appear as an arc but the effect can be modified by
extending the arm.

POSITION B

Up and down movement of position B. (Note thelonger reach and slight arc.)

Strokes tend to be more diagonal; consistently adjust the position of the hand to change the
direction of strokes; notice the strokes tend to get wider because of the angle at which the lead
strikes the paper.

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Arm movement (Position C and others)

Arm movement (Position C and others) Sketching goes “big time” when the arm begins to get
involved. It’s also when you need to move beyond the small 81⁄2" by 11" sketch pad and onto
something bigger. By changing the grip and by moving and extending the entire arm, an artist
can create long, sweeping strokes that fly across the page (or wall, if necessary). Large format
sketching must be accompanied by a proper sketching medium, such as a large pencil with soft
lead. Charcoal stick is also a very appropriate medium to use. This kind of movement is very
suitable for expressing landscape scenery on a grand scale.

POSITION C
Left to right movement of Position C
Lines and Strokes

Strokes Lines

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Strokes

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Shade and Shadow

1. The drawings of which an architect makes use can be divided into two general kinds: those for
designing the building and illustrating to the client its scheme and appearance; and "working
drawings" which, as their name implies, are the drawings from which the building is erected.
The first class includes "studies," "preliminary sketches," and "rendered drawings." Working
drawings consist of dimensioned drawings at various scales, and full-sized details.

2. It is in the drawings of the first kind that "shades and shadows" are employed, their use being
an aid to a more truthful and realistic representation of the building or object illustrated. All
architectural drawings are conventional; that is to say, they are made according to certain rules,
but are not pictures in the sense that a painter represents a building. The source of light casting
the shadows in an architectural representation of a building is supposed to be, as in the "picture"
of a building, the sun, but the direction of its rays is fixed and the laws of light observed in nature
are also somewhat modified. Thepurpose of the architect's drawing is to explain the building,
therefore the laws of light in nature are followed only to the extent in which they help this
explanation, and are, therefore, not necessarily to be followed consistently or completely. The
fixed direction of the sun's rays is a further aid to the purpose of an architectural drawing in that
it gives all the drawings a certain uniformity.

3. Shade: When a body is subjected to rays of light, that portion which is turned away from the
source of light and which, therefore, does not receive any of the rays, is said to be in shade. See
Fig. 1

5. Shadow: When a surface is in light and an object is placed between it and the source of light,
intercepting thereby some of the rays, that portion of the surface from which light is thus
excluded is said to be in shadow.

8. Ray of light: The sun is the supposed source of light in "shades and shadows," and the rays are
propo-gated from it in straight lines and in all directions. Therefore, the ray of light can be

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represented graphically by a straight line. Since the sun is at an infinite distance, it can be safely
assumed that the rays of light are all parallel.

Shadowing and shading are important techniques because of the extra detail they add to a picture
or painting. The key to being successful when shading is to always have a point where the sun is
shining from.

When you shadow you should always draw a fine outline. That is a key to shadowing. For
shadowing most people hold their pencil or other item differently. If you hold your pencil, like
when you write, it will be easier to add more detail. Detail is more important in areas such as,
painting, pastels and clay. Another key to shadowing is to make sure that you have almost a
perfect outline of your figure before you start shadowing. Then after you make an outline you
can start to shade in the outline lightly. Once you’ve done that you’re practically done except for
the extra detail you want in your picture like houses, trees, mountains, etc.

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