Handout 1: HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

● Human Resource planning sees to it that the company can achieve its
mission and vision by having the right people with the right skills in the
right departments at the right time.
● The strategic objectives of the organization in the different functions are
accomplished with the employment of people suited for the different tasks
assigned to each department
● The human resource planning process is divided into four stages:
environmental scanning; forecasting human resource requirements;
decision analysis; and action plans/program implementation.
● The human resource manager needs to be guided of the following: the HRP
team, current and long-term workforce requirements, the evaluation of the
present roster of personnel in the company, and the assessment of the
external labor environment which can affect the future supply of
employees.
● Information that forecast external supply is made available through private
websites and government agencies.
● The methods of forecasting internal labor supply are as follows: trend
analysis, skills/competency models, replacement chart, succession
planning, staffing tables, and Markov analysis.
● The quantitative methods of forecasting HR demand are trend analysis,
ratio analysis, and regression analysis.
● The main types of qualitative techniques are as follows: Delphi method,
nominal group technique, and scenario analysis.
● Decision analysis identifies three crucial decisions: labor equilibrium, labor
shortage, and labor surplus.

It is difficult to imagine how a company can continue functioning without human

resource planning (HRP). To accomplish its mission and vision statements, which
are specifically highlighted in its strategic objectives, a company should effectively
employ and utilize human resources – manpower – in all aspects of its operations.

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HRP means devising plans, strategies, and tools to provide the right number of
people with the right skills and qualifications at the right time. It is critical to
highlight the link between human resource planning and the overall strategies of
the organization. The former specifically determines the demand and supply of
people in the organization.

HRP sees to it that the company can achieve its mission and vision by having the
right people with the right skills deployed in the right departments at the right
time. One department cannot function independently or avoid coordinating with
the other functional departments. The number of people as well as their skills,
abilities, experience, and educational background will always matter to the other
departments since human resource is a core resource. The accomplishment of the
company’s strategic objectives is always grounded on the following: quality
product/service offerings, a highly reputable corporate image, and competent and
reliable personnel.

Link between Strategic Planning and Human Resource Planning

The strategic objectives of the organization in the different functions are

accomplished with the employment of people suited for the different tasks of
each department. As mentioned in the Introduction, HRP has three components:
coordination, concentration, and consideration. These provide the framework by
which human resource planning accomplishes its tasks as a key function in HRM.

COORDINATION

Bulla and Scott (1994, cited in Armstrong, 2009) define HRP as “the process
for ensuring that the human resource requirements of an organization are
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identified and plans are made for satisfying those requirements.” Reily (2003,
cited Armstrong, 2009) describes it as “the process in which an organization
attempts to estimate the demand for labour and evaluate the size, nature, and
sources of supply which will be required to meet the demand.” The HRP process
is summarized in the following diagram.

A.ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING

Environmental scanning is critical to HRP because it assesses the

factors that presently affect the labour market as well as the ability of the
company to respond to these factors. Examples are:

1. The current economic conditions have a great impact on the

labour market. If unemployment is generally high, it will be
relatively easy for an organization to get an inexperienced, new
graduate for a customer representative position.
2. An increase in minimum wage, for instance, may deter a company
from hiring new employees at the moment due to budgetary
considerations.
3. Organizations may now be particular about educational
background, rather than experience. A master’s degree is now a
must for promotion purposes or for better pay.
4. Technological breakthroughs may decrease labour demand to a
previously labour-intensive company.

As a process, HRP looks at the organization’s strengths, weaknesses,

opportunities, and threats (SWOT). SWOT reveals the current strengths of

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 the organization and how they can be maintained in terms of its market
position or standing; how its products /services fare in the market; and how
its weakness in its current distribution set-up can reduce personnel
capability to transport its products in certain key cities. In terms of
opportunities, there is a big chance for the company to succeed in a new
branch or area, even if the likelihood of failing or getting surpassed in
another area is not far behind. SWOT analysis can spell the difference
between getting new personnel, retaining the same number of people, or
laying off some employees. It is very critical in planning out the
organization’s manpower complement. The term describes how many
people are currently employed in the organization. It also describes how
many personnel occupying different positions are in each department.

B.FORECASTING HUMAN RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS

Forecasting refers to the decision maker’s perception of a certain
behaviour based on an objective study of the factors affecting the
perceived behaviour. In short, this is making predictions based on critical
factors to come up with a key decision. Predictions on human resource
requirements are an example.

CONSIDERATION

During the second stage of the HRP process, there are certain
considerations that the HR should deal with. To be successful, there is a need for
an HR manager to be guided by the following information;

1.The Human Resource Planning (HRP) Team

It should consist of individuals across all levels and departments who

understand the value of HRP in the organization. Once chosen, they should
commit themselves to the execution of the plan. The following personnel
should be considered in the HRP team:

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 a. Senior members of top management – provides the necessary support
and the “go ahead” signal to execute the plan.
b. Department managers – assist in analysing the human resource
requirements and aligning them correctly in the organization.
c. HR support professionals – are the support group that ensures that all
department managers are provided with all the help they need to
implement the process.
d. Information technology (IT) professionals – undertake the process
automation.
e. Finance/Budget analysts – make the necessary linkages between human
resource requirements and the corresponding monetary limitations.

2.Current and Long-term Workforce Requirements

During HRP, there are certain changes that have to be made on the
current workforce. The HR department should replace those who are due
for retirement; consider those who can be promoted; and look into current
vacancies that need to be filled immediately.
It is also important to be concerned with long-term workforce
requirements. During HRP, a succession scheme becomes crucial to key
management positions. Employees who have the potential to assume key
positions later on should be identified and honed further to be future
executives in the organization. HRP also looks into the skills that may be
needed by the employees in the future, working hand in hand with schools
which offer specific courses that are required for the company’s betterment
in the coming years.
The beauty of HRP is that it not only takes charge of future human
resource requirements but also equips employees with skills that may be
needed to attain the company’s organizational goals.

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 3.Evaluation of the company’s current roster of personnel

There is a need to assess how many regular or full-time employees

and part-time or temporary workers there are in an organization. The
group of temporary hires is called contingent workers. In evaluating the
workforce, a skills inventory is needed. It entails comprehensive
information on an employee’s educational background, experience,
compensation history, and specialized skills.

4.Assessment of external labour environment which affects the future supply

of employees

The external environment is evaluated on the basis of the average

number of graduates and the corresponding courses per year, as well as the
average age of the labour force. It is also imperative to identify what
industries are labour-intensive and which among them grow faster in terms
of profitability, as this can also affect the number of workers employed.

a. Forecasting external supply – it is necessary to determine

potential employees from information available in government
offices such as the DOLE and NSO. There are also private websites
where one can access employment statistics and industry data.
The information gathered from these sources can help in
understanding future HR supply.
b. Forecasting internal supply – on the other hand, there are
actuarial losses which are unavoidable in any organization.
Actuarial losses refer to life events like death, disability, and
retirement. An organization can plan these life events through a
study of occupational health risks, medical histories of employees,
and other data related to the average age of the incumbent
workforce. The term turnover refers to the total number of
employees leaving the organization divided by the total number
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 of employees in an organization. There are two kinds of
turnovers: voluntary and involuntary. A voluntary turnover refers
to resignations which are initiated by employees. An involuntary
turnover refers to dismissals and layoffs initiated by the employer.

Methods of Forecasting Internal Labor Supply

● Trend analysis. It is a simple method used in forecasting

internal HR supply. The main requirement in using trend
analysis is a record of past trends. Future trends can be
predicted easily through past retirement, hiring, and turnover
patterns. The advantages of using trend analysis are that it is
easy and inexpensive. Information on past trends can be
accessed without difficulty as long as yearly HR audit is done in
the organization. However, trend analysis is limited to
organizations with stable HR trends. In complex organizations,
trend analysis cannot be used alone. It can only be used as a
preliminary step in understanding the current workforce
better. Another disadvantage is that in its simplicity, it can
ignore or overlook significant events which have occurred
during the present year or recent years.
● Skills/Competency models. Based on the information gathered
from the skills inventory, the skills/competency model matches
the skills and competencies needed for each job with those of
the employees in the organization. Competency includes skills,
abilities, knowledge, and personal attributes and traits which
are needed for a particular position and the required tasks in
such a position. Usually, an organization considers the top
performers and compares them to other employees. The
advantage of using this model is that it provides a good picture
of the competencies of the employees which helps in setting
up an ideally competent workforce in the future. This kind of
competency model is also less costly and fairly easy to employ.

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 Its advantages are that there is no guarantee that the past
information contained therein is valid. Failure to obtain
accurate information in the past audit will make the
competency model useless.

● Replacement chart. It is used to identify vacancies in superior

positions and the possibility of filling those vacancies current
employees through horizontal or vertical movements. In
horizontal movements, also called lateral movements,
employees are transferred to another position but of the same
level. Vertical movements refer to promotions or the
advancing in position such as from a supervisor to a manager,
or from production operator to a supervisor. The advantage of
this method is that it clearly identifies the top performers and
the vacancies they can fill in the organization. Another
advantage is the organization’s easy identification of a person
who will fill a particular position in the future and the time to
adequately prepare people who will replace those leaving the
superior positions. The disadvantage is that it can only be
applied to internal movements.
● Succession planning. Succession planning is a long-term
process since grooming a successor entails training, mentoring,
and coaching the potential employee until the time that
he/she assumes the key position. Its advantage is that it
adequately prepares successors to assume key positions. Its
disadvantageous and expensive to hone and train a potential
leader who may decide to leave the organization sometime in
the future for a better pay or position elsewhere.
● Staffing tables. Staffing tables help the organization predict HR
internal supply by assuming a constant mix of employees in
the organization. Using the chart, the organization can make

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 adjustments concerning the predicted number of employees in
the future. However, numbers do not indicate anything,
making staffing tables mere preludes to more complex
forecasting methods.
● Markov analysis. It forecasts internal movements from one
year to the next year by determining the percentage of
employees who remain in their jobs, are promoted,
transferred, dismissed, or have resigned for the organization.
This type of analysis identifies areas of high turnover so the
organization can focus on the probable causes and how they
can be minimized. The Markov analysis is useful in identifying
how many are likely to be promoted so that the organization
can prepare for possible vacancies created by those who will
be promoted. On the other hand, Markov analysis may
underestimate the size of the organization and such a mistake
will lead to a failure in forecasting.

CONCENTRATION

The concentration of efforts is very crucial in the organization’s

achievement of its strategic objectives. In determining the shortage or surplus of
manpower, it is very important to forecast future requirements.

FORECASTING HR DEMAND

There are a number of quantitative and qualitative methods of forecasting

HR demand. The three types of quantitative techniques are the following: trend
analysis, ratio analysis, and regression analysis.
1. Trend Analysis. It predicts demand for personnel based on past trends over
a number of years between an operational index (revenue per employee,
productivity per employee, and the demand for labour). Critical to the use
of trend analysis id the choice of an operational index. The common
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 practice is to have five of historical years’ worth of historical data for trend
analysis. Trend analysis makes forecasting HR demand easy. It is also not
time-consuming since the historical data are available at HR’s discretion.
Furthermore, it is inexpensive since there are new software’s and systems
that can perform it. However, trend analysis is based on only one criterion.
Another disadvantage is that it may be subjective, depending on the
discretion of the one doing the trend analysis on the choice of operational
index.
2. Ratio Analysis. It predicts HR demand based on ratios between selected
factors and the number of employees needed. It is assumed that each level
id fixed. The advantage of using ratio analysis is that there is no need to get
five years’ worth of historical data to forecast HR demand. It is also easy to
use. Previous sales information is readily available to predict HR demand.
Ratio analysis is very useful for benchmarking purposes within the industry.
However, ratio analysis may predict inaccurate sales growth. It is always
good to be conservative in predicting sales growth since there are
uncertainties in the environment that may affect sales.
3. Regression Analysis. It is a statistical method of predicting HR demand by
determining the relationship between various factors (independent
variables) and the company’s employment level (dependent variables).
Regression analysis is advantageous because it predicts the effect of a
particular factor on a number of employees. As a result, the company can
think of ways to improve the workforce in the future. Biases and
subjectivity are removed since it uses mathematical formulas to make
predictions. This method is difficult for it may take some time to fully use
and understand the data generated by regression softwares. Management
should perceive proper training on how to interpret the data.

The main types of qualitative techniques are the following: Delphi method,
nominal group technique, and scenario analysis.

1. Delphi Method. This method uses a panel of experts to project the number
of personnel through various factors such as economics, demographics, and

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 the technological and social conditions of the environment. There are
internal factors used such as educational background, experiences, and
productivity of the workforce. The Delphi technique uses a “middle person”
to gather the data of each of the members of the panel who are assigned to
make manpower forecasts. The role of the middle person is to summarize
the comments of the panel. The process continuous until a consensus is
reached. The Delphi technique is ideal because judgments come from a
panel of experts and sources of information are verified before they are
used during deliberation. However, the process is time consuming and
somewhat subjective in nature. Another disadvantage is that some experts
cannot help but disclose their judgments to others, especially when they
are working in close proximity to one another.
2. Nominal Group Technique. It uses a panel of experts, mostly line managers,
who discuss, meet face to face, and project HR demand. Advantageously,
the panel of experts will strive very hard to come up with an accurate
forecast. Also, the assessment can lead to solving other organizational
issues. The disadvantage of this technique lies in the subjectivity of the
assessment of the experts. Biases cannot be avoided when assessments are
done by people. It is also time-consuming since discussions are done until
confidence in the results is obtained.
3. Scenario Analysis. This method applies multiple scenarios to predict HR
demand, based on a number of assumptions. Because of the
unpredictability of the future, an organization may opt for different
scenarios, each with corresponding predictions based on the characteristics
of a particular situation. This method is beneficial because it provides
different scenarios which make the organization very flexible in facing the
future. It is also very useful when past trends do not necessarily become
the best predictors of the future. It is also advantageous in an environment
which continues to change. Anticipating different scenarios can safely lead
the organization to future exigencies. There is one caveat: the organization
must keep on monitoring factors that influence the scenarios created.

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 C.DECISION ANALYSIS

During this stage, HR conducts a gap analysis – the process of finding the
difference between the forecasted HR supply and HR demand. Decision
analysis identifies three crucial decisions: labor equilibrium (where HR demand
equals HR supply), a shortage of workers (where HR demand is more than HR
supply), and a surplus of workers (where HR supply is more than HR demand).
Labor equilibrium is an ideal situation but this happens rarely.

D.ACTION PLAN/IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROGRAM

After the gap analysis and a particular decision is obtained (e.g., a labor
equilibrium, shortage, or surplus), the organization is now ready to identify the
strategies for its implementation.

a.Labor equilibrium or labor demand equals labor supply

During labor equilibrium or status quo, current employees are
trained and develop further in their respective fields. There are also
instances when employees are transferred from one department to
another based on their experience and educational background.

b.Labor surplus or labor supply is more than labor demand

The company has several options when there is a labor

surplus. When this occurs, the company looks at the attrition rate of
the employees. Attrition is the normal separation of employees from
the organization such as resignation or retirement. The company may
opt to offer an early retirement program for those who have reached
the age of fifty. An early retirement package should be planned
carefully in order for it to effectively entice people. A higher
separation pay will enhance the offer’s appeal. Another option is to
declare a hiring freeze. A hiring freeze prevents new hires and assigns
qualified incumbent personnel to fill job vacancies. Layoff is another
option of a company that wants to get rid of redundant positions
since some manual services or functions may no longer ne needed
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 because of technological innovations. When a layoff occurs, the
company reviews the performance of its current workforce and may
decide to terminate employees with consistently low performance
ratings for the past several years.

c.Labor shortage or labor demand is more than labor supply

There are several ways to address labor shortage. The first option
is to schedule overtime work hours. This is an additional cost top the
company, but it may help in avoiding work backlogs on a temporary
basis. Another option is to hire contractual/temporary or project-based
works. There are workloads or projects that will last only for a short time
like six months. Temporary workers can be hired. Another option is to
outsource the work. Instead of hiring directly, a company may use a
third party and let the latter get its own people to do the tasks such as
customer service. A possible option is to tap top performers for
promotion. This can motivate the workforce to perform well always.

Lastly, a labor shortage can be solved by external recruitment.

There are several methods on how to recruit the best people qualified
to fill the vacancies in the organization. Once the company chooses a
particular strategy based on the three scenarios, the organization
prepares a budget and provides a working plan on how to implement
the chosen strategy.

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Historical Background of HRM in the Philippines

Human resource management started when western capitalist view

personnel management seemed not conducive in the twentieth century, as when
Information Age dominates the world of business. Historically according to Oliver
Sheldon, personnel management was "labor management". Personnel
management has limited role only pattern in Industrial Age, where people work
more in mass production and the management invest much on machineries
rather than towards human asset. The

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 welfare of people is not as important as making profit. Human resource
management is the new practices which obliterate traditional personnel
management functions, shouldered broader responsibilities for the welfare of
its people that make it as integral part of the strategic development of the
organization. The history of human resource management in the country is
short and not so detailed.
It is a relatively new discipline in the Philippine history.
In pre-Spanish and Spanish occupation, the "mayordomo system" of the
foreign groups took on a master-servant type of relationship with no written
codes used as guidelines. Although there was some commerce between Manila
and Spain through Mexico, business organizations were very loose and
management-labor relations and personnel management was not known and was
unheard of. The relationship that existed was between master and domestic
servant or laborer. The plight of the workers who were treated like laborers was
lamented due to the absence of labor laws that regulated employment. At that
time, the natives were generally illiterate. Thus, they were veritable preys to
abuses.
The labor conditions during the American period, though not forced and
not as harsh as those in the previous foreign regime, were far from being fair and
just. Although, America gives importance to raised education, there is no labor
laws were passed against oppressed women and child labor conditions. But
America introduced “unionism” to anchor for protection of workers’ rights for the
farmhands and industrial workers, aside from oppressive working conditions,
suffered from lack of proper avenues for ventilating their grievances, exacerbated
by their fear of losing their jobs.
In World War II, the anemic union movement was smothered temporarily.
It decimated big trade, business and industry activities and also a suspension of
the normal educational system. Frenzied efforts to rise from the war debris were
exerted. However, after the rehabilitation work, attempts toward specialization in
various areas were registered and the movement permeated into personnel
management. Private and public organizations started to organize formally a
department that addressed personnel needs and added to the already organized

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departments of finance, production, marketing, administration; such as the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE), Government and Service Insurance
System (GSIS), Social Security System (SSS), the People Management of the
Philippines (PMAP), and other agencies which aimed to assist both management
and labor sectors on employment, training, security, benefits and services.
Although much knowledge about personnel or human resources
management was imbibed by individuals and organizations, practice fell short due
to “suppression” of rights when Martial Law Period (years when the late
Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos exercise his dictatorial/authoritarian
powers) took place causes severe economic and financial setbacks due to
international events and exacerbated by national state of affairs. The political
atmosphere and economic state of affairs were not conducive to operationalize
knowledge and implement policies.
However, the democracy was reinstituted; the exercise of freedom to
participative law making process through legislation for management and labor
has begun; many laws have been passed in protection for both sides of employer
and employee to date; the Personnel Management Association of the Philippines
(PMAP) has exerted and shown leadership in many years in the
professionalization of human resource management through formal and informal
training, and a giving-body award for most human resources program that excel
every year. PMAP is an association founded in 1956 to professionalize human
resources management. It pioneered also in promoting the profession of HR
management in Asia with the holding of the first Asian Association of Personnel
Management
Conference in 1973. (Pena, 2015)
In the education sector, schools on the tertiary level started to offer courses
directly or indirectly treating concepts on labor, manpower, human relations
industrial relations and other related topics. Through education, the development
of human resourcing in the Philippines was emerging dramatically. With the
purpose and need to keep pace with the demands of local and international
business environment to become globally competitive, Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) mandate Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) offering Bachelor

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of Science in Commerce (BSC) to adapt “Bachelor of Science in Business
Administration” (BSBA) that also covered specialization on course program like
Human Resource Development Management (HRDM). (CHED Memorandum
Order No. 39, Series of 2006)
Beforehand, human resourcing is already been practice prior in this
mandate. For example, many practitioners like psychology graduate has slide to
this field of work where most companies hired them merely to assess candidates’
behavior and personality. Not only psychologist has done contributions to human
resourcing but also to those HR practitioner who earned their HR work relevant
experience from their employers who somehow vested them the duties and
responsibilities of a human resource. And yes you read it right; there is no
preferred background for you to become a legit human resource. Yes, you can be
a human resource from nobody to somebody. So don’t be surprised if your HR has
a baccalaureate degree on I.T., AB Journalism, BS Accountancy, or Political Science
or any various educational backgrounds you know. It happens not by accident but
by different factors: such as due to urgency, the appointing power of employer
will give you the right to fill up the position because nobody is available to do it
and all you know nothing what you are going with, or you are just got lucky
because you complement with HR’s core competency based from your
coursework or work experience. Still, the complexity of human resource
management services calls for more professional qualifications not just having a
college degree but backed up by sound knowledge and apt skills in human
behavior. A human resource specialist is required since it hires key positions that
run the business.
As discussed above, the history of human resource management is a
product of its various events and influenced by most of the capitalist from local
and overseas. The economic, political, and educational environment influenced
various programs and services for manpower welfare. Today, the current status of
human resource is continually grow, spread and strengthen as the world
academe, government agencies and corporate world embrace the needs of
human resourcing not only to provide the organization with sustained competitive
advantage but also as important strategic partner in shaping the ideal human

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asset not only for collective organizational success but also in nations competitive
economic development.

Personnel Management

The precursor of the term human resource management is personnel

management. In the early days, the personnel function is confined to keeping
records of employees. Personnel management is merely an administrative and
record-keeping function. Personnel management became HRM in response to the
increasing pressures most businesses were experiencing at that time (late 1970s)
when the world was slowly embracing technological changes and globalization. It
came to a point that businesses have to align all departments in a strategic stance
to achieve organizational effectiveness.

Human Resource Development

Human resource development (HRD) is one aspect of HRM that deals with
training and development. The aim of HRD is to have a dynamic, growth-oriented
workforce. HRD helps in unlocking the potentials of the employees and
developing their skills and abilities. It includes employee training, career
development, performance management, coaching, succession planning, and
organizational development.

Human Capital Management

Human capital management (HCM) complements HRM as it focuses on

providing a strategic approach to managing a company’s staff. HCM helps a
company organize a full-blown strategy even before employees are hired until
their exit. HCM also employs succession planning and talent management. It takes
note of what people can contribute to organizational success and strengthens the
importance of people as assets rather than as costs. It also emphasizes the role
HR specialists as business partners. It champions the idea that the strategic role of

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human resources is to create values that are important in the achievement of
organizational goals.

Talent Management

One aspect of HCM is talent management. It is the process of attracting

highly skilled workers and retaining them. The responsibility of attaining both of
these processes rests on all managers in the organization. Talent management
involves key HR functions such as educational qualifications and skills,
experiences, training and potential and personal qualities of employees.

Knowledge Management

Knowledge management, on the other hand, is the effective and integrated

approach to identify, capture, evaluate, retrieve, and share a company’s
information assets. Asides from documents and databases, the biggest source of
knowledge is the expertise of employees. Needless to say, HR needs to take care
of employees who provide the expertise and skills to meet organizational goals.

//rga.handout1hrm7/2/18 & 11/20/18

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 Handout 2 Recruitment, Selection, and Placement
 Job analysis and job design pave the way for recruitment, selection, and placement.
 The following information can be collected through job analysis: specific tasks and activities,
required job behavior, required job standards, knowledge, tools and equipment used, work
conditions, and personal characteristics and requirements.
 The job analysis process follows a number of steps: formulation of objectives, selection of jobs,
application of job analysis techniques, actual implementation/conducting of job analysis, and
preparation of job description and job specifications.
 The results of job analysis are used in human resource planning, recruitment and selection,
compensation, training and development, performance appraisal, safety and health, and labor
relations.
 The job analysis techniques include the following: observation, interviews, questionnaire, and
logbook.
 A job description has the following parts: job title or position, reporting relationships, job
classification, general description of the job, specific duties and responsibilities, and job
specifications.
 Job design is commonly divided into job enrichment and job enlargement.
 The job design principles are task variety, skill variety, feedback, task identity, and task
autonomy.
 The main recruitment steps are planning and approval based on human resource planning,
position announcement, and selection of recruitment strategies.
 The main selection steps are psychological testing, screening, interview and background check,
and job offer and /or negotiations.
 The main placement steps are post-selection considerations, hiring, and signing of employment
contract.
 Applicants can be sourced internally and externally.
 Internal hiring is usually done through promotion from within.
 The following are the external sources of applicants: newspaper want ads, walk-ins, referrals,
job fairs, campus recruitment, and project basis.
 The three types of psychological tests used in the preliminary screening of applicants are mental
ability, aptitude, and personality tests.
 Psychological tests follow the criteria of validity and reliability.
 The types of interview used in screening are panel job interview, behavioral or experience-based
interview, and structured or unstructured interview.

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 This chapter focuses on recruitment, selection, and placement and discusses job analysis and job
design. These aspects are crucial prior to actual function of recruiting personnel. The key
components of this function are the following: acquisition, allocation, and adjustment. Job
analysis is the process of gathering all the needed information which is important in a particular
job. The collection of data is vital to recruitment, selection, and placement. This is when job
descriptions are made. Job descriptions are written summaries of various jobs consisting of
duties, responsibilities, and qualifications. Once job analysis is done, the information gathered
will help in designing jobs. If there is a need to redesign jobs, it is for the purpose of achieving
the company’s objectives.
These two functions pave the way for recruitment, selection, and placement. Recruitment is the
process of allocating qualified applicants who apply for various positions in a particular
organization. The process of selection and placement is rather tedious. It requires a keen and
analytical mind to make such selection decisions. Adjustment refers to the different ways by
which the organization together with new employees adapt to the work environment. This
includes the organizational structure with the inclusion of new employees.

ACQUISITION
The acquisition of information related to the jobs in the organization is done in job analysis. This is
executed in organizations that have already existed for quite some time. The reason for this
practice is that since these companies have existed for a number of years, and they have more
or less actual work experiences based on job titles or positions, therefore, they have adequate
knowledge concerning the said jobs.
Job analysis is the procedure of determining duties and skill requirements of a job and the kind
of person who should be hired for it. The following information can be collected through job
analysis:
1. Specific tasks and activities

A job analyst can obtain information on the different tasks required by a job such as
painting, writing, teaching, encoding, and cleaning skills. Additional information includes how
these tasks are done, the specific time they are performed, and the reasons why they should be
performed.
2. Required behavior on the job

Information about the behavior required in the performance of various jobs such as
communicating, writing, computing, driving, forklifting, among others.

3. Required job standards

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 The job analyst can also gather information regarding the performance levels or
standards required by the job. This is needed to evaluate the performance of the employee.

4. Knowledge, tools, and equipment used

Information on the tools and equipment used by the employee can be gathered during
the job analysis. Knowledge of software applications accounting procedures, and law among
others, is also taken into account.
5. Work conditions

These include the physical aspects of the aspects of the job such as work schedules,
physical environment (e. g., field work in the case of a production operator) and so on.
Information on social contact is also obtained (e.g., the kind of people the employee interacts
with, like suppliers in the case of a purchasing manager, or students in the case of a teacher).
6. Personal characteristics and requirements

These include the educational background, training or experience, as well as type of

personality, attitudes, values, and physical characteristics needed for the position.
To understand further the job analysis function, the diagram on the next page summarizes the
process through a number of steps.

Formulation Selection of Application of

of objectives jobs job analysis
techniques
Preparation of Actual Selection of
job description & conduct of job jobs
job specification
analysis

1. Formulation of objectives – in this first step, the firm identifies and formulates the goals of the
job analysis. It determines how the job analysis will be used.
2. Selection of jobs – large organizations usually have many jobs. Since job analysis is a time-
consuming process, jobs to be analyzed are carefully selected.

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 3. Application of job analysis techniques - there are many techniques that can be used in
conducting a job analysis. Proper selection of the appropriate techniques will be less costly for
the organization.
4. Actual conduct of job analysis – the actual data gathering needs considerable time and effort
since the data include the features of the job, the proper attitude towards the job, and the
characteristic of the employee who will perform the job.
5. Preparation of job description and job specification – after data gathering comes the time to
write the job description for each job analyzed.

The job description lists the duties, responsibilities, reporting relationships, and the job
specifications for each job. Job specification refers to the minimum qualifications required by a
particular job such as educational background, experience, skills, and abilities.
The preparation of job description and job specification is the heart of job analysis. They are
used in the following HR activities:
a. HR planning

During HR audit, the job descriptions of all jobs are reviewed. This review is
necessary to assess which of the jobs are available, which jobs should be combined, and
how many jobs may be needed in the future.
b. Recruitment and selection

Job specification is needed by the HR Department to update the educational

background of each employee and align it to the requirements of his/her work. A good
job analysis can also validate and ensure good decision-making in recruitment and
selection.
c. Compensation

Compensation indicates how much money an employee is paid for doing a

certain job based on the tasks and responsibilities attached to it.

d. Training and development

Information obtained from the job analysis can help in the employee’s
development. The HR department can identify the skills the employee should have to
improve on the job.

e. Performance appraisal
Performance standards are set during job analysis. This assessment can help
supervisors set up better performance measures.

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 f. Safety and health
The information obtained from employee’s evaluation of working conditions can
help the HR department eliminate health hazards to ensure work safety.

g. Labor relations
Job analysis helps in determining whether certain aspects of a job can be
covered by union agreements. It helps in avoiding future conflicts between the
management and the union regarding the coverage of jobs negotiated for the
employees.

Job Analysis Techniques

1. Observation – this method is very useful for repetitive jobs such as those performed by an
assembly line, service crew, or warehouse workers. It is crucial to identify key job behaviors.
The job analyst should not interfere while the job is being performed. Nonetheless, there are
jobs that cannot be observed like researching or computer programming.
2. Interviews – it provides an opportunity for the job analyst to clarify vague points and creates a
venue for a pleasant interaction between the employee and the job analyst. This personal
interaction allows the job analyst to obtain relevant information.
3. Questionnaire – the use of questionnaire is one of the least expensive tools for data gathering.
It usually includes the duties and responsibilities, working conditions, equipment used, and
requirements of the job. The questionnaire is usually structured and, therefore, very convenient
to answer. However, the accuracy of the answers to the questionnaire rests on the employee-
respondents. It also depends on how they understand the questions and their capacity to
answer them.
4. Logbook – the logbook is a good source of data regarding employees’ duties – how frequently
they have to be done and when they are scheduled to be finished. An example of this is the job
of an Engineer. The job is often very detailed and a job analyst may have a vague view on the
tasks being performed. It is also quite a complicated work, and a job analyst may skip some
important aspects pertaining to it. Logbook-keeping is the best technique to use.

Job Description – is a written summary of the particular job. It provides a clear overview of what
the job is all about and minimizes inconsistencies in the actual job and what is actually written.
Job Specification – is a part of a job description. It is found in the lower part of the job description
and contains the educational qualifications, skills, experiences, and traits that a job holder
should have in order to become effective in the job.
To sum up, a job description has the following parts:
a. Job title or position – this describes the exact job title or designation like HR Manager or HR
Assistant, and Production Manager, among others.
b. Reporting Relationships – this includes the job title for the position’s immediate supervisor. The
reporting relationship also includes the subordinates under the HR Manager’s supervision. In

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 the case of an HR Manager, the immediate supervisor may be a Vice President for HR or HR
Director.
c. Job classification – classification provides the rank or position of the job in the hierarchy of the
various jobs in the company. In large companies, job titles have different job classes or levels.
d. General description of the job – this portion provides a summary of the job and gives an
overview of its duties and responsibilities.
e. Specific duties and responsibilities – these include and clarify the functions of the job in detail.
f. Job specification – as discussed earlier, it lists the minimum requirements of the job.

Job Design – is usually formulated after a job analysis. There are some companies that make some
modifications on certain duties of jobs to achieve the company’s goals and objectives. Job
design is the process of work arrangement aimed at reducing or overcoming job dissatisfaction
and employee alienation arising from repetitive and mechanistic tasks.
Job design is commonly divided into two basic categories: job enrichment and job enlargement.
Job enlargement - is the horizontal approach to job design. A supervisor gives his/her subordinates
more tasks to do. There are different duties to perform, and the employee is not empowered to
decide on his/her own. He/she has no authority in decision-making.
Job enrichment – is the vertical approach to job design. It satisfies the need for growth since the
employee has a hand in decision- making. He/she is empowered and has some authority over
certain tasks. In this case, he/she is motivated to become more responsible. Hence, the
employee eventually enhances his/her self-worth.

Below are the following job design principles based on the job characteristics model.
a. Task variety – the company should attempt to provide employees with a variety of tasks.
However, one should note that too much variety can result in inefficiency whereas too little
can lead to boredom.
b. Skill variety – using a number of their skills makes employees happy.
c. Feedback – the employees should be informed if they have already reached their required
targets. Eventually, employees should learn to set the standards of work quality and
quantity they will follow.
d. Task identity – each group of tasks should be clearly defined, visible, meaningful, and
separated from one another.
e. Task autonomy – employees should have some form of control over their work. They
should be empowered to decide on some aspects of the job.

ALLOCATION

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 The allocation function is used in recruitment, selection, and placement. The word allocation
signifies the meaningful hiring of employees for the company. It becomes meaningful in the
sense that the HR department considers fully all the factors that may affect the recruitment
process.
Recruitment, Selection, and Placement Model
RECRUITMENT
Planning and Approval Selection of Recruitment
Position Announcement
based on HR Planning Strategies

SELECTION
Screening/Interview and
Psychological Testing Job Offer and Negotiation
Background Check

PLACEMENT
Post-selection
Considerations: Pre-
Signing of Employment
employment Hiring
Contract
Requirements and
Medical Examinations

RECRUITMENT
Is the process of attracting applicants qualified to occupy vacant positions in the company. It
consists of various activities that entice and influence qualified applicants to fill these vacancies.
The following are the main steps in recruitment:
1. Planning and approval based on HR planning
The recruitment function starts with the management’s decision to recruit based on the
findings taken from HR planning sessions. There are two types of planning which occur in well-
managed organizations. The first type utilizes strategic thinking about the future needs,
challenges, and opportunities of the organization’s personnel. This requires research, critical
thinking, and the willingness to change. The second type is the operation of strategic plans
when positions become available. Therefore, thorough planning is done before actual
recruitment process takes place.
2. Position announcement/Job posting
Once the job vacancies are identified, the next step is to choose between external and
internal recruitment. Job vacancies should be posted on company bulletin boards for a period
of two weeks. This should take place whether the company decides to either promote
employees or get applications from external sources. This policy constitutes fair treatment of all
employees since the job postings allow those who want to apply for vacant positions to apply,
thus giving them the chance to offer what they have in terms of skills and experience.
3. Recruitment strategies

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 There are various techniques on how to recruit applicants. There are two sources of
recruitment: internal and external

Sources of Applicants

Internal Hiring External Hiring

Promotion transfer Newspaper advertisement Referrals
Internet Job fairs
Manpower agency Campus recruitment
Executive search Project basis
Walk-ins

Internal hiring usually involves and favors promotion. When an employee is promoted,
they are given the opportunity to enhance their skills, especially in leadership and decision-
making. The promotion percentage of internal and external hiring is something that poses a lot
of issues. At this juncture, there are two sources of applicants: internal hiring (promotion) and
external hiring.

Comparison of the Two Sources of Applicants

Internal Hiring
External Hiring
(Promotion from Within)
Advantages
Employees are motivated to work harder New employees bring in new ideas to the
company
Employees are already familiar with the The company has the opportunity to select
company’s system or culture the best candidates.
Companies incur less costs in terms of The company can provide jobs to more
recruitment expenses people.
Salary distortion is avoided since employees The company can maximize its recruitment
who are promoted get pay increases based efforts and improve its roster of employees
on the company’s salary scale. by hiring competent and high-caliber people.
Disadvantages
It paves the way for creative stagnation in the The company incurs more costs especially in
company. If no new employees enter the training new employees and executing
workforce, no fresh ideas come in. massive recruitment efforts.
Employees become too familiar with each It may take time before the best candidates
other and this may promote internal friction for the positions are chosen, especially those
that can upset the harmonious relationship that are critical of the company’s
among them. achievement of objectives.
Employees who are not promoted may feel New employees may also take time to absorb
demotivated and lose interest or enthusiasm the culture of the company. Anything that

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 in their jobs. does not fit into their own values may spark
friction or trigger resignation.

The following are the external sources of applicants:

a. Newspaper advertisement – used to be the most popular medium for recruiting applicants.
Newspaper advertisements vary in size and usually companies prefer to advertise in
broadsheets rather than tabloids. The downside to the newspaper ad is that it is limited in
terms of exposure. HR pays on a per day basis and the likelihood of people reading the
newspaper has gone down because of the growing popularity of the Internet as a medium
for job hunting.
b. Internet – job websites and company web pages are now the most popular source of
applicants. Job websites offer companies a cheaper package to carry the advertisements.
As more and more people gain access to the Internet, more and more companies advertise
in this medium. Using the Internet for posing job vacancies gives maximum exposure both
for the applicants and the organization.
c. Manpower Agency – companies which need temporary workers use the service of a
manpower agency. Temporary workers are hired to relieve employees (e.g. employees who
gave birth, who are sick etc.). contractual employees have no employee-employer
relationships because they are not hired directly but are under manpower agencies.
Advantage is the HR can devote more time to important tasks while the disadvantage of it is
that the HR must invest time to establish a good trust-based relationship with a manpower
agency which can really attend to the needs of the workforce.
d. Executive Search – executive search firms or headhunters are employed by companies to
look for applicants for managerial or executive positions. They usually have a resume bank
of professionals. These professionals who are usually executive officers submit their
resumes to executive search firms for various reasons. First of which is for greener pastures.
Second is they simply like to find out their “marketability” or see if other companies still
want to avail of their services. Third, want a totally different environment or a new industry.
Nonetheless, it is costly for a company to use a headhunter rather than recruit on its own.
Another disadvantage is that there are certain information revealed to the headhunter (e.g.
salaries and benefits) which may encourage him/her to recruit for other firms in the future.
e. Walk-ins – as walk-in, applicants are already at the company’s doorstep. There is no need to
contact them, and they are ready to be interviewed right away. Applicants who hop from
one company to another submit their resumes anytime. Usually, fresh graduates are walk-
ins and companies with strict admission policies usually let them leave their resumes with
company guards. The downside is that the HR wastes its time entertaining many applicants
who are not called for appointment and who do not know whether the position they are
applying for is still vacant or not.
f. Referrals – some applicants are referred by people who know employees in the companies
that have vacancies. Some are referred by company employees themselves. Being referred
to is advantageous since the process assures the applicants that the HR will take a look at

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 their resumes which are submitted directly to the requisitioning department. However,
despite the power and influence od people who made the referrals, it still boils down to the
applicants’ qualifications – whether or not they are fit for the job. Unfortunately, however,
some companies still practice the “who you know” policy. At the end of the day, such
companies lose their credibility and integrity as a fair organization and sacrifice the
competent people that they let go of in favor of those who were referred by influential
people. Some companies strictly avoid the practice of nepotism and allow fair competition
among applicants vying for vacant positions. These companies observe high standards in
recruitment.
g. Job fairs – applicants flock to job fairs in accessible venues such as malls. Companies
participate in job fairs to minimize costs. Although there is a fee for participation, they
enjoy the influx of job seekers, both fresh graduates and experienced ones. Through job
fairs, companies can conduct preliminary interviews, further interviews, and psychological
tests at the site. There are also many applicants to choose from. However, going to job fairs
is tedious and it entails expense on the participating company.
h. Campus recruitment – the HR department can choose the schools where it can source out
the best graduating students of a particular course. companies which participate in college
fairs usually need fresh graduates willing to accept minimum or a little above-the-minimum
wage as starting salaries. Companies that go to prestigious schools also look for students
who want to be management trainees and potentially become junior managers in the
future. They usually hire the topnotchers of the graduating class.
i. Project basis – companies that are highly technical in nature usually hire project-based
employees. As project-based employees, they may be provided with transportation or meal
allowance, depending on the agreement made with the company. Employee costs in terms
of salaries are contained or regulated, based on the duration of the project. Nevertheless, a
project-based employee may prolong the work intentionally to extend his/her contract,
even though the job has been accomplished.

RECRUITMENT ISSUES
Internal or external hiring raises certain issues. In the case of internal hiring, specifically
promotion, there are at least two factors taken into account.
1. Performance – performance evaluations help monitors an employee’s performance so far,
whether or not he/she has consistently done an outstanding job.
2. Leadership – includes the ability of the employee to be an example to others and to command
respect and authority with conviction and integrity. There are organizations that also review the
employee’s attitude and other people’s overall impression of him/her, as well as his/her future
relationships with subordinates.

Another basis for promotion is seniority. Seniority refers to the tenure or number of years an
employee has been serving a company regardless of performance quality. Traditional organizations
still prioritize people who have been with the company for many years, without considering skills
and the capacity to lead.

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 Companies must always appear as an equal-opportunity employer. They should avoid
discrimination issues especially when it comes to job posting. There are certain discrimination
issues that companies should avoid during the recruitment stage. Many companies specify age
requirements for particular positions. Some companies even indicate their preference for graduates
of certain colleges or universities. Today, companies looking for applicants are extra careful in
placing minimum requirements for vacant positions and, thus, have retained their reputations as
equal-opportunity employers.

ADJUSTMENT
The adjustment function involves the selection and placement of qualified candidates for a vacant
position. It may sound simple, but the HR department should make the necessary adjustments
regarding the selection process particularly the psychological tests used, background checks, and
certain job requirements.

Selection
After screening and sorting out resumes of the applicants, these steps in the selection process
follow:
Applicants who qualify for preliminary screening and sorting are called or notified to fill out the
company’s application form. The schedule of preliminary interview or psychological testing is also
attached.
1. Psychological testing
There are companies that start their preliminary screening with the psychological tests.
Those who pass the psychological tests are qualified for preliminary interview.
There are three (3) types of psychological tests administered to the applicants:
a. Mental ability test or intelligence quotient (IQ) test – this is a test of general knowledge. it
consists of general questions on linguistic and numerical abilities and abstract reasoning.
b. Aptitude test – this is a measure of specific abilities and a test of the applicant’s inclination
to succeed in a particular field. It includes clerical, mechanical, sales and dexterity tests,
among other items which determine specific abilities that are required in certain fields of
specialization like engineering, encoding, sales representation, etc.
c. Personality test – this is a measure of patterns of behavior such as cooperation, initiative,
dependability, responsibility and sociability. These tests are not time-pressured unlike the
mental ability and aptitude tests. Personality tests have no right or wrong answers but can
detect the consistency of the answers through repetitive statements found within the tests.

Psychological tests should follow the criteria of validity and reliability. Validity means that the
test measures what it intends to measure. Reliability means that there is consistency in the
test. It means the test should give the same results whenever and wherever it is given granting
that there are no constraints in the testing conditions.

2. Screen/interview and background check

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 Some companies opt for a preliminary interview of the applicant before administering the
psychological tests. During the preliminary interview, applicants who fail to give a good
impression do not undergo the psychological testing.
The types of interview are the following:
a. Panel job interview – a candidate faces several interviewers who take turns asking
questions. The advantage of using the panel interview method is that decision-makers
(interviewers) are able to gather the same information before making a hiring decision.
However, it may be stressful for the applicant to face several interviewers of equal caliber as
they ask questions. The applicant may not provide the right answers, given the pressure of
facing the members of the panel.
b. Behavioral or experienced-based interview – this is done to clarify incidents in the applicant’s
past such as former jobs or life experiences relevant to the job he/she is applying for. The idea
here is that past behavior can predict future behavior. The interviewer is able to compare and
assess the applicant based on past experiences. However, a future action may not be
necessarily related to what the applicant has experienced in the past.
c. Structured interview - it relies on a pre-established questionnaire, usually based on job
descriptions and specifications. The responses are rated against the pre-established answers.
The interviewer can compare the answers of all candidates. The interview also keeps track of
the time and is, therefore, less time-consuming for both the applicant and the interviewer. The
disadvantage is that the applicant is not given the opportunity to express himself/herself more
candidly.
d. Unstructured interview – the interviewer prepares guide questions and allows the applicant to
be as spontaneous as he/she wants to be in answering the questions. The HR interviewer can
ask follow up questions and the applicant is given the opportunity to express himself/herself
candidly. Sometimes, however, either the applicant or the interviewer may lose track of time
and the conversation may take longer than expected.
The shortlist contains the names of qualified applicants who pass the preliminary interview,
psychological tests, and application screening. These applicants are screened again through
another interview by the requisitioning department. The HR department thoroughly and
carefully evaluates the applicants who will be shortlisted for further interview. Shortlisted
candidates are interviewed by the department head, manager, or supervisor who made the
request. The final two or three candidates will come from the requisitioning department.
Department managers or heads exercise caution and care in choosing the best candidate. The
HR conducts a background check to be assured about the authenticity of the documents
submitted by shortlisted applicants as well as the accuracy of his/her educational background,
job experiences, and references.
3. Job Offer
The HR department offers the job to the chosen candidate. If he/she accepts the offer, the new
hire will be accorded the position title, a summary of the job responsibilities, and a starting
salary.

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 PLACEMENT
Placement is putting the candidate in the position he/she is applying for. Placement is the last
part of the hiring process. Under adjustment, the company makes sure that the newly-hired
employee is placed in the department where he/she is fitted. The functions and responsibilities
are written on the job description where his/her position title is indicated.
1. Post-selection considerations
The HR department prepares the pre-employment requirements. Usually, there are
documents that need to be submitted by the candidate such as the academic transcript of
records, diploma, clearances etc. Medical exam reports such as X-ray, complete blood count,
urinalysis, fecalysis, and drug test are also required. Big companies send the candidates to their
accredited clinics and shoulder the expenses of the prescribed exams.
2. Hiring
After the job offer and the submission of pre-employment requirements and medical
results, the chosen candidate is hired and given a particular date to report for work.
3. Signing of employment contract
An employment contract contains the position title, date employed, conditions of
employment, starting salary, and a summary of the job responsibilities. It is also important to
note the status of employment, such as probationary, contractual, or project-based. The usual
term for probationary period is six months, except in the academe where a probationary
teacher or professor has a term of three years before regularization.
Another contract which is actually unwritten is called a psychological contract. The
psychological contract is a non-written utterance of expectations of the newly-hired employee
as well as the employer’s expectations of the employee. More importantly, the employee lays
down all his/her expectations such as his/her career path, employment benefits, security of
tenure, and the company’s plans for his/her career.

Handout 3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

 With the vast changes in technology, e-commerce, knowledge workers, competitive

advantages, total quality management, and good governance, companies saw the need
to train and develop employees to level up and keep abreast of new trends.

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  The training cycle consists of the following stages: identifying needs, preparation,
training delivery, and application of learning.
 The training process consists of the following steps: training needs assessment,
formulation of training objectives, designing of training program, determination of
appropriate training techniques, validation of training program, implementation of the
training program, and feedback.
 Needs assessment is conducted in order to identify specific problem areas in the
organization, obtain management support, develop data for evaluation, and determine
the cause and benefits of training.
 The types of training needs analysis are the following: organizational analysis, task
analysis, and individual analysis.
 The steps in conducting a training needs analysis are: gather data in the training needs
of employees; determine what needs can be met by training and development; propose
solutions; and develop a training proposal.
 The methods for gathering needs data are the following: surveys and/or questionnaires,
interviews, performance appraisals, observations, tests, assessment centers, focus
group discussions, document reviews, and advisory committees.
 The three types of learning objectives are knowledge, attitude, and skills.
 The three components of a learning objective are behavior, condition, and criteria.
 The six principles in designing a training program are structure, flexibility, relevance,
evaluation and feedback, transferability, and cost-efficiency.
 The following are the steps in designing a training program: (1) think of an appropriate
title to the program and rationalize the conduct of the program; (2) state the program
objectives; (3) determine the specific contents of the program; (4) select the learning
methodology and indicate the time frame; (5) determine the duration and venue; (6)
identify standards and evaluation measures; (7) select the resource speakers; and (8)
calculate and prepare the budget.
 The cognitive methods of training techniques include the following: lecture,
demonstration, discussion, computer-based training, programmed instruction, virtual
reality, distance training, brainstorming, and worksheet.
 The behavioral methods as training techniques are the following: games and
simulations, management development programs, and on-the-job training.
 The types of games and simulations are business games, case study, equipment
simulators, behavior modeling, in-basket technique, and role playing.
 Management development program techniques are goal-setting, team-building, total
quality management (TQM), executive coaching, executive monitoring, and job rotation.
 A good trainer should lead by example with high integrity and credibility; know the
would-be participants; exercise humility; use humor sparingly; show enthusiasm; and
get the support of top management.
 The preferred approach in implementing a training program assumes that the
participants are willing to learn if they are given the materials in an environment which
is conducive to learning.

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  The training evaluation model developed by Donald Kirkpatrick is the most widely used. 
It has four levels: reaction, learning, behavior, and results.
 The Phillips model measures training outcomes in five levels: (1) reaction; (2)
satisfaction and planned action; (3) learning; (4) application and implementation; (5)
behavior; (6) business impact; and (7) return on investment (ROI).

The three M’s of training and development ate maintenance, motivation, and
measurement.  With the tremendous changes in technology, e-commerce. Body of new
knowledge, competitive advantages, total quality management, and good governance,
companies saw the need to train and develop employees to level up and keep abreast of
these new trends.  In addition, organizational growth hindered by the lack of knowledge
and training of employees prompted companies to invest in developing and enhancing the
skills of their human capital.

Training is defined as a process of method of providing programs that may modify,

change, increase, or improve the level of performance of employees.  Training is a planned
effort by a company to enhance and facilitate the learning of job-related competencies. 
These competencies include knowledge, skills, or behavior that is critical in performing a job
successfully.

Development is a method of allowing employees to grow by giving them opportunities

take on greater or bigger responsibilities in preparation for more challenging tasks in the
future.

Training and Development refers to the official and ongoing educational activities
within an organization designed to enhance the fulfillment and performance of employees. 
Many companies have realized the importance of training in gaining a competitive
advantage and attaining organizational objectives.  High-leverage training uses an effective
instructional design process to ensure that training is linked to the fulfillment of company
goals.  It also serves as a benchmark for the training programs of other companies. 
Continuous learning provides employees with the chance to study the whole system that
includes the interrelationships among jobs, their work units, and the company.  Through
continuous learning, they are expected to acquire new skills and knowledge which they can
apply on the job.

The training cycle is a systematic approach developed by Roger Buckley and Jim Caple. 
The following diagram illustrates this cycle.

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 The Training Cycle

1. Identifying Training Needs

Buckley and Caple identified two ways of determining if there is a training need.

a. Reactive (Present) approach

There are six stages in identifying whether training is the best
means to overcome a current shortfall in performance or not:
 Define the problem and focus on past performance by studying
quality standards, productivity levels, customer complaints, and
accident rates.
 Identify who is responsible for solving the problem.
 Define the method to be used in solving the problem.
 Analyze the problem.
 Identify the probable solution to the problem.
 Prepare a report as a form of feedback.
b. Proactive (Future) approach
To determine if future performance is linked to the organization’s
objectives, the focus should be placed on the following:
 Corporate strategy. Training is an important aspect of the
company’s long-term strategy.
 Manpower and succession planning. The implementation of
training can somewhat affect corporate strategy.
 New technology, products and services.  These can usher in the
need for training and development.
 New laws.  Legislation can necessitate new training and
development programs in the organization.
 Ongoing personnel procedures.  Surveys and reviews can create
new training and development needs.

The two approaches can be used in three different levels: company,

team, and individual.

2. Preparation
Once the training needs are identified, the training delivery, schedule, materials,
manner of presentation, venue, budget, food, accommodations, and the means of
informing the target audience should be prepared.

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 3. Training delivery
It is essential to consider the venue and location and the equipment to be used.  The
training itself should be led by competent and experienced trainers or facilitators.  In
this case, training should be regarded as a rewarding and valuable experience for the
participants.  The facilitators should deliver their lectures in an appropriate
communication style and language.
4. Applying learning
The trainees should be encouraged to practice what they have learned to appreciate
the new insights they have gained from training.  They should be encouraged to get out
of their comfort zones and accept mistakes as part of the learning process.
5. Evaluation
It is important to find out the extent of the learning gained from the training
program.  There are quantifiable measures of training success such as increased sales,
higher production volume etc.  the qualitative measures include attitude modifications,
satisfaction levels etc.

MAINTENANCE

    The first M in the training and development function is maintenance.  Maintenance means
that the company invests in its employees through training and development to enhance
loyalty to the company.  It also means that the firm tries to maintain or enhance the
employees’ good performance.

    There are various training programs a company can provide.  The first is the new employee
orientation program.  This program aims to provide new employees with pertinent information
about the company, specifically the following: (1) the company’s prevailing culture; (2)
products/services; (3) work hours; (4) breaktimes; (5) key personnel and members of the top
management; (6) the organizational chart; (7) general policies like dress code, grace periods,
major company events, immediate supervisors, benefits etc.; and (8) the company’s vision,
mission, philosophy, and values.  It is also best to introduce new employees to people they will
work closely with such as those who are in the department where they will be assigned to. 
New employees should not be isolated, but immediately welcomed on the first day.

                                            The Training Process

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 1. Training needs assessment
This calls for the identification of present organizational needs as well as current
needs of jobholders. Conducting a needs assessment is vital to the success of a training
program.  It is very risky for an organization to conduct a training program without a
needs assessment because some training sessions may over-train employees, miss some
areas, or yield unsatisfactory results.
There are four main steps in conducting a needs assessment prior to the actual
designing of a training program;
a. Identify specific problem areas in the organization
The HR should first identify the pressing issue rather than merely
accommodate a single idea or suggestion.  For example, before team-building is
done to improve relationships in an organization, the HR should first identify
whether team-building will really solve a current company issue or not.  

b. Obtain management support

To obtain management approval and support for a training program, the
projected outcomes of a training program should be seen as relevant to the
company’s long-term objectives.
c. Develop date for evaluation
Training needs assessment tests the effectiveness of a training program
prior to its implementation.
d. Determine the costs and benefits of training
Prior to the conducting of the training program, training needs assessment can
determine the costs and benefits of the program.  The HR can also justify the
costs and benefits gained by the organization as a whole.  Training can be
justified as a way of increasing productivity which, in turn, leads to higher profits.

    The types of training needs analysis are the following:

a. Organizational analysis.  It examines which specific department or area needs

training.
b. Task analysis. Training is also based on the kind of task employees perform.
c. Individual analysis. Training can also be based on the employee’s individual
performance.  If an employee has certain has certain deficiencies based on
his/her performance evaluation, the HR and the employee’s immediate
supervisor can recommend a training program that will help the employee meet
a certain performance standard.

The following are the four steps in conducting a training needs analysis:

a. Gather data on the training needs of employees

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 There are several methods of gathering data and the selection of a certain
method depends on the type of analysis to be done.  The following are the
methods of gathering needs data:
 Survey or questionnaires. The HR can use the survey method to gather
data.  Questionnaires are prepared and distributed to the employees. 
They are easy to disseminate and reach a large number of people.  They
survey questionnaire is really an economical and easy method to gather
and analyze data.  However, there is little room to get a free response,
and it may take some time to develop a good survey questionnaire and
there are certain pieces of information or ideas which cannot be fully
expressed using this method.
 Interviews. The interview format provides a leeway to be casual or
formal.  There is a provision to dig deeper into the real causes or needs
which cannot be fully revealed by a survey or questionnaire.  The data
gathered in an interview has depth; spontaneity is achieved because
feedback is given right away and clarifications are done more openly. 
Downside is that, interviews can really be time-consuming and analyzing
data is difficult.
 Performance appraisals. These evaluations should be done regularly o be
more consistent and updated in gathering data.  The strengths and
weaknesses of employees are recorded.  Deficiencies are also identified
based on actual performance. However, there are biases that accompany
performance appraisals through the managers who conduct them.
 Observations.  The use of observations yields both qualitative and
quantitative data.  This method is not disruptive of the normal workflow
of employees under observation. The data gathered is also realistic since
actual performance is being observed. Downside is that, it is time-
consuming and that employees may not also like being observed while
they are working.
 Tests. Testing can be done in the office or taken home by employees. 
Tests are used to assess the employee’s comprehension skills.  It is also
easy to quantify and interpret.  However, there may be inconsistencies
especially when the test is brought home.  Also, the knowledge and skills
being assessed may not be related or applicable to the job.
 Assessment centres. Assessment is used in the area of management
development wherein employees are given exercises to find out their
strengths which should be developed.  It can easily identify people who
have the potential for further advancement, thus reducing the bias in
selecting people for promotion.  However, it is time-consuming and
expensive to do.  Also, passing the exercises is the only gauge and there
are no criteria to follow in determining people with high potential.
 Focus group discussions.  It is a common method of gathering data that
allows the free flow of various ideas and helps employees listen to

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 contrasting viewpoints.  In the process, employees become better
analyzers, problem-solvers, and decision-makers.  Downside, it is difficult
to quantify and interpret the results.  It is also time-consuming for the
employees and discussion group leaders.
 Document reviews.  Training needs can be identified by perusing
documents such as employee records, accident reports, policies,
organizational charts, memos, etc.  Gathering data is done objectively
because evidence for pertinent information is documented.  However,
documents only reflect past, not current, inputs.  The documents do not
indicate what causes the problems that need to be solved.
 Advisory committees. These are groups of people who are in a position to
provide reliable information regarding the training needs of employees. 
One such group is also easy to organize.  It also permits interaction of the
committee members, thus strengthening and opening communication
lines among them.  
b. Determine what needs can be met by training and development
After gathering data related to training needs, the HR is tasked to identify
what needs can be met by conducting training and development sessions.  There
are certain issues or needs such as salary and benefit issues which are not
addressed in training, but should be brought to the attention of top
management.
c. Propose solutions
The HR should determine if training is the best solution because there are
instances when what is really needed is not training but more polishing or
enhancing of the employee’s skill.
d. Develop a training proposal
If a lack or inadequacy is identified and the need to conduct a training
program is justified, the HR must present a training proposal.  This includes the
expected results, the people to be trained, and the possible consequences if the
training is not conducted.

2. Formulation of training objectives

Once the needs of the employees are identified, the next step is to formulate the
main objectives of the proposed training program.  These goals should be clear,
achievable and must address the needs of the organization and the employees.In
formulating training objectives, it is important to understand the role of the trainers and
trainees.  The trainer’s role is expressed in the form of “aims” whereas the trainee’s role
is expressed in the form of “objectives.”  To formulate the trainer’s aim, he/she should
answer two questions: “What am I going to teach?” and “Why am I teaching it?”
Three types of learning objectives’

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 a. Knowledge objectives – these usually include the acquisition of new information. 
Learning is easily quantified.
b. Attitude objectives – these learning objectives include a change of feelings or belief. 
Thus, the training is regarded as the most difficult among the three types because the
participants should be convinced that the change of attitude will benefit them in some
way. 
c. Skills objectives – these objectives include the ability of participants to do something
new or acquire new ways or methods of doing a task.  Learning is gauged according to
the changes in the way they do a task.  

Three parts of learning objective: behaviour, condition, and criteria.

a. Behavior:what will the trainee’s demonstration of learning be?  The

performance must be observable.
 Knowledge learning: list, describe, report, debate, hold, approach.
 Attitude learning : role-play, discuss, critique
 Skills learning: demonstrate, lead, perform
b. Condition: where, when and how will it be done?  Are there special
conditions present while on the job?
 Knowledge learning:  without the aid of notes, without coaching.
 Attitude learning – without talking or moving your hand.
 Skills learning – given the situation, without her sample.
c. Criteria – level and quality of performance that is acceptable.
 Knowledge learning:  as judged by your superior, as judged by
your peers.
 Attitude learning – to the opinion of your leaders and peers.
 Skills learning – to the satisfaction of your supervisor, no more
than three errors.

Every session of the training program should have learning objectives so the
participants can check whether the objectives are achieved or not.

3. Designing of Training Programs

After formulating the objectives, the training program is designed in
accordance to budgetary considerations.  Other things to consider are the
following:  the specific number of employees to be trained, the duration of the
training program, accommodations (if any), and venue and food costs.  There are
six principles in designing a training program:
1. Structure – this includes the appropriate connection of topics, specific
goals, and activities, and how they interrelate with one another in the
achievement of learning objectives.
2. Flexibility – the training program should attend to anticipated needs
and adapt to varying circumstances.
3. Relevance – the program should focus on the needs of the trainees.
4. Evaluation and feedback – the program should validate learning.

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 5. Transferability – knowledge, skills and attitude changes should be
ingrained in the participants after the training.
6. Cost-effectiveness – the program should provide the greatest benefit
at the least cost.

The following are the steps in designing a training program:

    Outline of a Training Design

a. Provide an appropriate title for the program and rationalize the reason for conducting
the program.
b. State the program objectives.
c. Determine the specific contents of the program.
d. Select the learning methodology and indicate the time frame.
e. Determine the duration and venue.
f. Identify standards and evaluation measures.
g. Select the resource speakers.
h. Calculate and prepare the budget.

4. Determination of appropriate training techniques

    While the training program is being designed, different training techniques should be
studied and considered if they are appropriate.  The training program should fulfill the
training objectives.

MOTIVATION

    The second M is motivation.  Motivation in the training and development function discusses
the different techniques in training and developing employees to boost their morale and
encourage them to grow and to perform better.  The success of training programs rests on the
caliber of the trainers selected.  Therefore, the selected trainers should effectively
communicate the content of the program.  Trainers should not only be articulate but also
tactful, flexible, and innovative.  The HR department may have in-house trainers or may decide
to hire consultants or third parties depending on the program objectives.  There are training
techniques which are subdivided into cognitive and behavioral methods.  The selection of a
training method depends on the background and skills of trainees.  Trainers also need to
understand the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

Cognitive Methods

    Cognitive methods pertain to the rules on how to carry out, demonstrate, or relate concepts. 
The methods aim to make changes in the participants’ attitude and for them to gain additional
knowledge.

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 1. Lecture. This is one of the most popular and oldest methods that helps trainees
understand a particular concept and trainers to influence behavior and attitude. 
Training is accompanied by lectures, no matter which method is used as the main
training tool. Straight lecture is a sub-type of the lecture method in which the trainer
discusses the topic to the participants without interacting with them.  
    Advantages
 The lecture method is not costly and can be the done with a fairly large
number of people in one session.  
 Trainees build their knowledge based in what they hear from the
trainer.  

    Disadvantages

 It requires a long inactivity to the trainees as they are expected only to

listen.
 There is no chance to clarify any misunderstanding.
 Knowledge-building tends to rely on the ability of the trainees to grasp
information and since not all of the participants have the same capacity
to understand and comprehend what is being discussed, it is not known if
all of the trainees have learned what they are supposed to learn.
 It tends to bore participants and thus limit their attention span.
2. Demonstration. This method is good for showing how something works or how to do a
certain task.  A demonstration is accompanied by a lecture to make it more effective.
    Advantages
 There is a visual display of how something works as well as a description,
so participants can focus more on what they see and hear.

    Disadvantages

This method is expensive.  The materials and equipment needed for

demonstration can be costly.
 The trainer also charges more than he/she would normally charge for a
plain lecture because he/she should have a specific skill or expertise on
what he/she is demonstrating to convey or elucidate well how it works.
3. Discussion. This method does not stick only to the straight lecture but is also supported
by interaction among the trainees and between the trainer and the trainees.  This
method is useful because a higher level of knowledge is achieved since interaction takes
place between the participants and the trainer.
    Advantages
 Two-way communication is enhanced.
 There is room for clarification as well as verbal and non-verbal feedback.
 Trainer will have an idea if what he/she discussed is understood well by
the participants.
 Questioning helps participants in recalling what has been tackled.

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    Disadvantages

Not all participants are open for discussion

There are trainees who do not express themselves well and are thus
unable to participate in the discussion.
4. Computer-based training. Many companies now use computer-based training instead
of classroom-based training.  The Internet has become a venue for delivering training.  
    Advantages
 Computer-based training is advantageous because face-to-face
interaction is not required.
 It reduces costs and trainees’ learning time.
 The trainees can master the training module through repetition and by
working on the material at their own pace.
 They are not pressed for time and are not pressured or forced to attend
training as scheduled.
 They have easy access to training and some degree of own privacy and
convenience.

    Disadvantages

Feedback is not guaranteed since participants may not go through a

particular material all at the same time.
 Learning is more difficult to quantify and the achievement of training
objectives is not readily known.
5. Programmed instruction.  It is a form of computer-based training that utilizes graphics,
multimedia, and text stored in memory.  The program is in a company system and
participants can access the program through the content of the material, answer
questions, and go to the next level if they get correct answers.
    Advantages
 Participants can learn at their own pace.
 It also depends on the participants’ comprehension.
 The company uses books, videos, and other platforms to save costs.
 The trainees also acquire a substantial amount of information and are
then tested based on their comprehension.

    Disadvantages

 Feedback is not known at once since the participants go through the

material at their own speed.
6. Virtual reality. This method allows the participants to experience a 3-D environment.
    Advantages
 It provides the participants experience in certain situations that actually
happen on the job.
 It is also flexible and participants need not go out of the company for
training.

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  There are savings from food, lodging, and other accommodation costs of
the participants.

    Disadvantages

It tends to be time-consuming though and requires excellent

infrastructure.
 Provide the costly equipment needed for this kind of training like headset
for audio and visual information, gloves for tactile information, treadmill
for movement, and other sensory devices so that trainers can keep track
of the participants’ responses in the virtual workplace.
 It is really expensive.
7. Distance training. Corporate training is gradually changing.  The HR makes use of the
power of technology to train employees.
    Advantages
 Acquire the know-how in the process of troubleshooting.
 Distance training is not expensive.

    Disadvantages

It may take time to access or download the important information from
the Internet.
 It creates pressure, especially for troubleshooting purposes.
8. Brainstorming. It is a group activity in which participants generate possible solutions to
a problem.
    Advantages
 It stimulates and uses the participants’ experiences and ideas to solve a
problem.

    Disadvantages

 It is time-consuming and participants may not cooperate.  

 Some tend to be passive and not contribute a lot of ideas.

9. Worksheet. This method is used to perform quantitative exercises.

    Advantages
 A participant can relate their general learning to the specific areas of
their work.

    Disadvantages

 It is time-consuming and difficult to prepare.

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Behavioral Methods

    These methods provide practical training for participants and are used to develop their skills.

1. Games and Simulations. These are commonly used to simulate events or

processes that take place on the job.  Games refer to training exercises where
participants compete with one another according to some clearly defined set of
rules.  Simulations refer to computer games that imitate how a particular event
might happen in a real-life situation.
a. Business games
    They simulate the whole organization and allow participants to
experience what it would be like in a particular situation and give
them opportunity to decide which action will be favourable to the
organization.
Advantages
 The trainer gives them feedback on the impact of the
decision.
 Business games develop leadership skills and promote
management skills as well.
 It helps solve complex problems in the organization.

                  Disadvantages 

 They focus on the whole organization and not on the

specific functions of each position.
b. Case Study
    It simulates a particular situation and trainees decide on a
particular solution to an organizational problem highlighted in the
case.  This approach is recommended because participants are
trained how to pinpoint a particular problem in a situation.  It also
provides them with relevant facts that will help them in solving the
problem and allows them to come up with alternative courses of
action that may solve a problem.
Advantages
 It enhances their interpersonal and communication skills
during the discussion with the other participants.
 It also meets knowledge, skills, and attitude objectives.

                  Disadvantages

 It is time-consuming.
 Participants may not agree or determine the same
problem

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 It may spark conflict among the participants who may
have different perspectives regarding the problem in the
case study.
c. Equipment simulators
    These are mechanical devises that simulate the physical
surroundings of the participants’ workplace.  The physical
surroundings, relationships with colleagues, time pressures, and other
demands in the workplace are simulated so that trainees may closely
match what they experience in the workplace.  This type of training is
ideal for taxi drivers, telephone operators, ship navigators, air traffic
controllers, maintenance workers, product development engineers,
airline pilots, and military officers.
Advantages
 The trainees can experience a real-life situation that
happens in the workplace without interrupting normal
work hours.

                  Disadvantages


Actual situations may not be tackled during the simulation
exercise.
d. Behaviour modelling
    This method uses a videotape to demonstrate a particular
behaviour.  The trainees watch the tape and then practice what they
saw through role plays or other simulation techniques.

Advantages
 It is preferably for sales, safety, and interview trainings.
 It is not expensive and time-consuming.
 A particular skill is defined well in videotapes.

                  Disadvantages 

Participants can have different interpretations of what

they have watched.
e. In-basket technique
    In this method, memos such as complaints from customer, a
request for additional orders, an application letter for vacation leave,
from a subordinate, a list of charitable programs, an e-mail from the
president about a request to relieve him because he has a speaking
engagement, etc. are placed in a container or basket and the
managers pick a memo and try to resolve it.  Since the in-basket
technique is usually used for managers, they are evaluated on the
basis of how they would prioritize and analyse the contents of each

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 memo and the quality of their decision and responses within a certain
time limit.
Advantages
 It encourages decision-making and enhances interpersonal
skills.
 It also develops analytical thinking.

                  Disadvantages


The documents used may not be challenging as to warrant
the application of decision-making and analytical thinking
skills.
f. Role-playing
    This method uses an actual work situation and participants are
given a role to play and act out.  Some examples of work situations
are employees in conflict, misinterpretation of a memo, and so on. 
Advantages
 It helps in managing conflicts and developing interpersonal
skills and communication skills.

                  Disadvantage


The disadvantage is that not many people are comfortable
with role-playing.
 Some participants may either exaggerate or underplay a
particular role.
2. Management development programs
        The manager’s role in the workplace has become more crucial in today’s
competitive environment.  Companies are presently tasked with providing
management development programs to enhance managers’ knowledge, skills,
and attitude (KSA).  Some management development techniques are as follows:
a. Goal-setting. The development of individuals can be enhanced depending on how they
set their goals.  This technique helps them set objectives or goals that are measurable,
clear, and achievable.  
Advantages
 It helps in establishing concrete plans and motivates them
to reach whatever goals they have set for themselves.

                      Disadvantages

 Is limited in formulating goals and does not explain how to

achieve or actualize them.
 There is no way to harmonize the goals employees have
set to help in achieving company objectives and the
personal goals they have set for themselves.

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 b. Team-building.  It is a development process that helps employees
work well in groups, enhances their social skills, and provides the
opportunity to be sensitive to the feelings of other.
Advantages
 Helps the organization in achieving greater efficiency and
productivity in the workplace because employees get to
know each other better.

                  Disadvantages

 Managers may become too comfortable with one another

and this familiarity may affect their decisions in the future.
c. Total quality management (TQM).  It is a company-wide development
technique that requires everyone in the organization to continuously
improve their operations and strive to maintain quality of work in all
departments.
Advantages
 Managers are given more access because of the sensitivity
of their positions.
 TQM instructs managers on how to be conscious about
quality and how to enhance productivity as well.

                          Disadvantages

 TQM is expensive.
d. Executive coaching.  This method is usually used by the company’s
chief executive officer (CEO) and his/her consultant.  This practice
aims to further develop the skills of an executive in his/her job as a
key officer.
Advantages
 Coaching is done at the convenience of the executive.
 It involves one-on-one interaction.
 It can be done through the e-mail or phone.
 It provides an opportunity to get feedback from an expert
in the field.

                    Disadvantages

It is expensive to hire a consultant for coaching purposes.

e. Executive mentoring.  This often happens between a junior executive
who may be new in the company and a senior executive who already
has extensive experience in his/her field of specialization.  Executive
mentoring helps junior executives grow professionally and prepares
them for higher management posts in the future.
Advantages

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  It involves one-on-one interaction and helps in attitude
development.
 It identifies strengths and weaknesses of the mentee.

                Disadvantages

 The disadvantage is that both the mentor and the mentee

are in the organization.
 There are individual pressures on the job.
 May not work well for executives who are pressed for time
and deeply involved in demanding tasks.
f. Job rotation.  This method gives executives the opportunity to
experience other tasks that require managerial skills.  Job rotation is
usually practical in large universities where a department head or
chairperson of a particular discipline may be assigned as the registrar
or head of research.
Advantages
 Managers are given the opportunity to assume different
positions and tasks and have a better perspective of these
various jobs in the process.

                Disadvantages

 This practice provides a feeling of discomfort and

insecurity for managers or executives who are rotated
after becoming familiar with a certain job.

3. On-the-job training
    On-the-job training (OJT) is widely used in small organizations.  The task of
training employees is given to managers or supervisors.  On-the-job training is
frequently undertaken in the workplace; hence it is done in real situation.  There
is no work interruption.  However, if training is not planned, there is no formal
procedure or content.    It is still best to have a formal on-the-job training
program wherein the method, processes, and techniques are well discussed
before, during, and after the training.  The trainee must also have continuous
monitoring and feedback.  Om-the-job training also employs these techniques:
a. Coaching – this practice is observed between a supervisor and a rank-and-file employee.
Coaching is done on the job.
b. Mentoring – through mentoring, the superior provides guidance and understanding to a
subordinate by teaching him/her how to carry out his/her role in the achievement of
company objectives.  The superior prepares a subordinate for a higher position in the
future. 

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 c. Job rotation – employees can also assume other jobs within the same department to
give themselves the chance to experience other tasks and to be promoted to a higher
position later on.

4. Validation of the training program

        A training program should be validated before its actual implementation.  It
is tested using employees who will not be the probable participants of the
training program.  This is usually a pilot run or a pilot test.  Revisions, if any are
required, are done after the implementation of the program.

5. Implementation of the training program

        If the program is workable, the training program is scheduled for actual
implementation.  While it is appropriate to select the best training techniques
available, it is equally important to have a good trainer who will be responsible
for the actual implementation of a training program.  The characteristics of a
good trainer are as follows:
a. Lead by example with high integrity and credibility.   A trainer should be a role model
with utmost integrity and high standard in every aspect of his/her life.  He /she should
be credible.
b. Know the would-be participants.  A trainer should do a background check of the
participants.  Knowing their background can help during training.  He/she should know
their capabilities and knowledge level so that he/she can prepare on how to deal with
them.  These insights can help the trainer in conducting the training session properly.
c. Exercise humility.  Naturally the trainer is more knowledgeable than the participants, but
he/she should be modest about it.  He/she should not look and feel superior as a trainer
and must consider the efforts of the participants.    
d. Use humor sparingly.  There is nothing like an enjoyable training session for the
participants.  A trainer may inject a little humor from time to time to prevent them from
getting bored.  
e. Show enthusiasm.  Enthusiasm shows and it is infectious.  When a trainer sets a good
mood, the trainees will also feel excited to listen and learn.
f. Get the support of top management.  Management should be open to good training
programs.  A trainer should always ensure that there are key players who can support
and recognize the importance of training and how it can help in achieving over-all
company goals.

        There are two approaches in the implementation of a training program.  The first
one is focused on the trainer who controls the contents of the program, and the
other is centered on the participants and learners while the trainer is just acting as a
facilitator and resource person.  The latter is the better approach since it assumes

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 that the participants are willing to learn if they are given the materials in an
environment that is conducive to learning.   

6. Feedback 
        After the training, the program is evaluated in two ways.  First, the
participants of the training evaluate the program itself based on all its aspects
such as venue, food, the speakers and/or trainers, and audiovisual aids.  The
most important feedback comes from the immediate superiors of the
participants after the latter go back to their respective work areas.  These
superiors monitor any change or improvement in the work performance of those
who participated in the program.

MEASUREMENT 

    The last M in the training and development function is measurement.  Evaluating the training
and development programs requires a cost-benefit analysis.  Measurement here is the end
result of training and development programs.  A training program is evaluated according to the
following levels:   

1. Reaction – this level indicates how the participants felt about the training.  It is
very easy to obtain.  Usually after the training, the trainer provides an evaluation
form asking the participants to comment on food, accommodation, venue and
the program itself.  In some cases, the trainer is also evaluated.
2. Learning – this level measures the increase in knowledge before and after the
training.  This is not rapidly measured right away.  Observations and interviews
are common methods of evaluating learning.
3. Behavior – it is the extent of learning applied right on the job.  The assessment of
any change in performance is also done through observations and interviews.
4. Results – this level evaluates the effect of the participants’ performance after the
training and how it affects the whole organization and the society at large.

    To ultimately measure either the training or development aspect of the program, a set of
criteria for evaluation termed as the R’s are as follows:

1. Reactions – these include the actual reactions of the trainees on such factors as
content, venue, food, accommodation, visual aids, etc.
2. Results – these include the end results of the program in terms of job
performance, productivity, and efficiency.
3. Recall – this include the participants’ recall pf what has been learned about the
actual application of what is recalled.  A program well-received, well-delivered,
and effectively implemented will be easily recalled by the participants.

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 4. Retrieval – following recall is the immediate retrieval of information from
memory recall and the eventual application of retrieved learning. 

    The four Rs are essential for any change or modification of behavior on the part of the
employees, and thus, they confirm, that a training or development program is a success. 

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