Strengthening mechanisms

MET246E
Materials Physics • Grain boundary strengthening
• Strain ageing

Strengthening Mechanisms • Solid-solution strengthening

• Strengthening from second phase particles
• Martensitic strengthening
• Strain hardening or cold working
Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Kızıl • Bauschinger effect
Department of Metallurgical and Materials (texture)
Engineering

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Introduction Grain boundary strengthening

The ability of a metal to Strengthening
plastically deform depends techniques rely on
on the ability of restricting dislocation Grain boundaries
dislocations to move. motion to render a
material harder and Grain boundary separates two Grain boundary contains
stronger. grains having different grain boundary dislocations,
To obtain Martensitic crystallographic orientations. which are not mobile
material strengthening
strength Cold working Strain hardening

Grain boundary Strengthening Fibre

strengthening mechanisms strengthening
Sometimes
ductility or
toughness are
sacrificed. Fine-particle
Strain ageing strengthening Schematic atomic model of Dislocation model of grain
Solid-solution a grain boundary boundary
strengthening

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 Polygonization High and low angle grain boundaries
Polygonization occurs when a single crystal is bent to High - angle grain boundary high surface energy
a relatively small curvature and then annealed.
Low - angle grain boundary low surface energy
• Bending results in an excess number of dislocations of similar
sign distributing along the bend-glide plane.

• After heating, dislocations group themselves into the lower- High energy grain boundary High-angle
grain
energy configuration of a low-angle boundary, forming a serves as preferential sites boundary

polygonlike network. for solid state reactions; Low-angle

grain
boundary
1) Diffusion
2) Phase transformation
3) Precipitation

Angle of misalignment
Movement of dislocations to produce polygonization.

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Low angle grain boundaries Deformation of grain boundaries

Discontinuity due to grain boundaries
leads to more complex deformation
• Along the boundary the atoms adjust mode in polycrystals than in single crystals.
their position by localised deformation
to produce a smooth transition from • Individual grain is constrained since
one grain to the other. mechanical integrity and coherency are
maintained along the grain boundaries,
• The atom planes end on the causing different deformation between
grain boundaries, it is therefore neighbouring grains.
considered to have an array of
• A polycrystal macroscopically deforms
dislocations.
as the stress is applied. Slips operate in
each grain which produces overlaps
• The angular difference in low-angle grain boundary and voids at boundaries, Fig. (a),(b).
orientation between the grain is θ.
Ashby’s model of deformation
• These overlaps and voids can be of a polycrystal.
corrected by introducing geometrically
necessary dislocations at (c),(d).

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 Strengthening from grain boundaries
Hall-Petch relation
There are two important roles of the grain boundary which acts as
a barrier to dislocation motion;
A fine-grained material is harder and stronger than one that is coarse
1) Difficulty for a dislocation to
grained since greater amounts of grain boundaries in the fine-grained
pass through two different material obstruct dislocation motion.
grain orientations
Grain boundary
à need to change direction The general relationship between the yield stress and grain size
was proposed by Hall and Petch.
Slip plane

2) The atomic disorder within a σo = σ i + k.D-1/2

grain boundary region Grain A Grain B
contributes to a discontinuity σo = the yield stress
of slip planes from one grain The motion of a dislocation as it encounters
a grain boundary
σi = the ‘friction stress’ or resistance to
to another. dislocation movement
à need to change slip plane k = the ‘locking parameter’ or hardening
contribution from grain boundary.
D = grain diameter

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σ
Hall - Petch relation and ASTM grain size number
dislocation pile-up model
τ
The dislocation model for the Hall-
Petch equation was originally based on D
the idea that grain boundaries act as τ
barriers to dislocation motion.
σ G = −2.9542 + 1.4427 ln (na)
• Dislocations at the centre of a grain with
diameter of D pile up at grain boundary. The stress at the tip of the pile- D = ~ (1/na)1/2
up must exceed some critical
shear stress τc to continue slip
The number of dislocations at the past the grain-boundary barrier G: The ASTM grain-size number G
pile-up is
na: The number of grains per mm2 at a
magnification of 1X
D : grain diameter (mm)

τs is the average resolved

shear stress
k is a factor close to unity

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 Strain ageing
Strain ageing is a phenomenon in which the metal strength is increased
but ductility is decreased while being deformed at relatively low
temperature or cold-working.
Reappearing of the
(higher) yield point after • Reloading at X and straining to Y does not
ageing is obtained produce yield point.
• After this point if the specimen is reloading
after ageing (RT or ageing temp) the yield
point will reappear at a higher value.
• This reappearance of the yield point is due
to the diffusion of C and N atoms to
anchor the dislocations.
• N has more strain ageing effect in iron than
C due to a higher solubility and diffusion
coefficient.
Strain ageing in low-
carbon steel.

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Solid-solution strengthening Effects of solute alloy additions on

stress-stain curve
There are two types of
Solute atoms are introduced into solid solutions; The addition of solute atoms raises the Alloys
the matrix (solvent atoms). yield stress and the stress-stain curve C2 >C1 %solute

1) Substitutional solid solution: as a whole. C1 % solute

the solute and solvent atoms are σ
similar in size, rendering the Pure polycrystal

solute atoms to occupy lattice

point of the solvent atoms.

2) Interstitial solid solution: The ε

solute atoms are of smaller size Effects of solute atoms on
stress-strain curves.
than the solvent atom, rendering
the solute atoms to occupy the
interstitial sites in the solvent lattice.

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 Effects of solute alloy additions on tensile Lattice strain due to solute atoms
properties
Lattice strains produced by the introduction of solute atoms
can be divided into:

1) Tensile lattice strain 2) Compressive lattice strain

Impurity atoms

Tensile strength
Yield stress
Smaller solute atoms are Larger solute atoms are
Ductility introduced, imposing introduced, imposing
tensile lattice strain to the compressive lattice strain to
host atoms. the host atoms.

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Strengthening by two-phase aggregates

Strengthening from second phase
The size of the second phase
particles are of similar size to that of
Many commercial alloys are composed of two or more the matrix
metallurgical phases which provide strengthening effects: Examples:
• Beta brass particles in an alpha
• Two phase aggregates brass matrix
• Pearlite colonies in the ferrite
• Second phase/intermetallic particles Two-phase aggregates
matrix in annealed steels
• Precipitation hardening
• Fibering structure

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 Factors influencing second-phase particle
Strengthening by second phase particles strengthening

Particle size
• The second phase or intermetallic Strength
particles are much finer (down to Particle shape
Ductility
submicroscopic dimensions) than the Number (Vf ) Strain hardening
grain size of the matrix.
Distribution
• The second phase particles produce (interparticle spacing)
localized internal stresses which
alter the plastic properties of the If the contributions of each phase are independent, the properties
matrix. of the multiple phase alloy is the summation of a weighted average
of individual phases.
Examples ;
For example;
• Second
Dispersed second-phase phase Stress σ avg =V1 σ1 +V2 σ 2 +...Vn σ n
particles in the matrix. particles in V1 + V2 +…+ Vn = 1
matrix. Strain εavg =V1ε1 +V2ε 2 +...Vnεn

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Estimate flow stress of two-phase alloy Precipitation hardening

• The average flow stress in the two-phase alloy will increase with Precipitation hardening or age
the volume fraction Vf of the strong phase. hardening requires the second phase
which is soluble at high temperature
1.0 1.0
but has a limited solubility at lower
temperatures.
0.5 Al-Cu phase
σ 0.0 σ 0.5
Solution treating at diagram
0.0
high temperature, Second phase is in solid solution.
At equal strain At equal stress then quenching
ε ε
(a) At equal strain (b) At equal stress Ageing at Precipitation of the second phase,
low temperature giving strengthening effect.
• It is more often that the second phase is stronger than the
matrix but not all second-phase particles produce strengthening Example: Age hardened aluminium alloys
effects. Copper-Beryllium alloys
• The strong bonding between particles and matrix is required to
be able to produce strengthening effects. Note: In precipitate-hardened system, there is coherency between the
second-phase particle and the matrix.
But in dispersion-hardened system, there is no coherency.

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 The formation of coherency precipitate noncoherent vs. coherent
A number of steps occurs during precipitation hardening.
• After quenching from solid solution the
alloy contains areas of solute
segregation or clustering. GP zone.
This clustering is GP[1] produces local
strain giving higher hardness than the
matrix.
Variation of yield stress with
• The hardness of the GP zone increases ageing time.
with ageing time, developing GP[2] or θ ’’.

• Precipitate θ ’ is coherent with the matrix.

further increase in hardness.
• Further ageing produces θ, (not coherent
with the matrix) lowering the hardness.

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Example: Deformation of alloys with fine particle Factors affecting precipitation hardening
strengthening
Example: For a given Vf
Deformation of Al-4.5%Cu single crystal Particle size, shape, volume
fraction and distribution are Particle size Interparticle
• After solution treated and quenched, key factors in improving spacing
Aged to peak
copper is in supersaturated solid hardness precipitation hardening (they are
solution, giving higher yield stress Aged to form not independent).
Shear stress

than pure aluminium. GP zone

Over aged
• High strength alloys seem to
• The yield stress increases when the Solid solution
crystal is aged to form coherent GP zone. consist of fine strong particles
Yield drop and low strain hardening well distributed in deformed
matrix. λ
suggest that dislocations cut through the Pure aluminium Interparticle spacing

zone once the stress reaches a high Shear strain • Fine hard particles increase strength
enough value. by impeding dislocations, dislocation Interparticle spacing λ
• Over-aged condition produces tangles increasing strain hardening.
• Strain hardening significantly
coarse noncoherent particles, giving 4(1−V f )r
increase when the crystal is aged to λ=
low yield stress, high strain 3V f
peak hardness.
hardening.
Dislocations are short and
move around particles. Where Vf is the volume fraction of
spherical particles of radius r.

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 Interaction between fine particles and Fiber strengthening
dislocations
Second phase particles act in two distinct ways to retard the • Ductile metals can be reinforced using relatively stronger fibers
motion of dislocations.
• Very high strength whiskers of Al2O3 or SiC fibres have been used
1) Particles maybe cut by 2) Particles allow dislocation to for this purpose.
dislocation bypass/bow around them. • Fiber-reinforced materials (metal or polymer as matrix) are
known as composite materials.
The matrix:
• transmits the load to the fibers
• protect fibers from surface damage.
• separate individual fibers
• blunt crack from fiber breakage.
• When the particles • In over aged noncoherent precipitates. • High modulus fibers in fiber-reinforced metals
are small / soft. Bowing of dislocations around particles carry more load than dispersion-reinforced metals.
leaving dislocation loops behind.
• Fiber-reinforced materials are highly anisotropic.
• Stress required to force Gb
dislocation between particles; τo =
λ

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Strength and moduli of composites

The rule of mixtures is used to approximate the modulus and

strength of a fibre-reinforced composite.

If a tensile force P is applied The average composite strength σc is

in the direction of the fibre,
σ A
and assuming that the strain σ C= P = f f + σ mAm
of fibre and matrix are similar, Ac Ac Ac
εf = εm = εc σ c = σ fVf +σmVm

P =σf Af +σmAm
Ac = Af + Am
Vf +Vm = 1
Where Af and Am are the cross-
sectional areas of fibre and matrix.
Ec = E fV f + EmVm

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 Theoretical variation of Example:
composite strength with volume fraction of fibres
Boron fibre, Ef = 380 GPa, are made into
a unidirectional composite with an aluminium matrix,
critical fibre volume
Em = 60 GPa. Calculate the modulus of the composite
σ mu − σ m' parallel to the fibres for 10 and 60 vol. %.
V f (crit) =
σfu − σ m'

Ec = E fVf + (1−Vf ).Em

σmu : is the ultimate tensile strength of
the matrix Vf = 0.10 , Ec = 380(0.10) +0.9(60) = 92 GPa
σfu : is the strength of the fibre Vf = 0.60 , Ec = 380(0.60) +0.4(60) = 252 GPa
ı
σm : is the flow stress in the matrix

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Martensite strengthening
• Martensitic strengthening is obtained when austenite is Ausforming process
transformed into martensite by a diffusionless shear-type
process in quenching. Ausforming is a thermo-mechanical process where steel is
plastically deformed (>50%) usually rolling and then quenched to
• Martensitic transformation occurs in many alloy systems but steels has below the Ms to form martensite.
shown the most effect.
• Plastic deformation of austenite should

Temperature
be done without transformation to
pearlite or bainite.
• Highest strengths are achieved by the
greatest possible deformation at the
lowest temperature in which the
Transformation does not occur TTT diagram showing steps
in ausforming process.

• Uniformly distributed dislocations of high density (1011 mm-2) and

precipitation provides sites for dislocation multiplication and
pinning, contribute to very high strength (2-3 GPa) with 40-20% RA.

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 Bauschinger Effect
The Bauschinger effect is associated with conditions where the yield strength of a
metal decreases when the direction of strain is changed. It is a general
phenomenon found in most polycrystalline metals.

When stresses are applied in the

reverse direction, the dislocations are
aided by the back stresses that were
Where to use it: present at the dislocation barriers,
The Bauschinger effect contributes to work hence the dislocations glide easily.
softening of the workpiece thus reducing the
yield strength and enabling greater cold
drawability of the workpiece.

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