Chapter 3

DOSIMETRY PRINCIPLES,
DOSE MEASUREMENTS AND RADIATION
PROTECTION
Diana Adlienė1/, Rūta Adlytė2/
1/
Kaunas University of Technology, Physics Department, Studentų g. 50,
LT-51368 Kaunas, Lithuania
2/
Kaunas University of Technology, Accounting Department, Gedimino g. 50,
LT-44239 Kaunas, Lithuania

1. INTRODUCTION

In radiation processing dosimetry is used to quantify the energy deposited in a

material or absorbed by a human from radiation sources.
Different dosimetry systems are used for different purposes in industry and
research irradiation facilities, which have different requirements for dose de-
terminations. Radiation safety standards and issues involving the radiation
protection of humans against radiation exposure have their own dosimetry
metrology.
Radiation dosimetry is a branch of physical science exploring different
methods for the quantitative determination of energy, which is deposited in a
given material by ionizing radiation, either through direct or indirect exposure.
Dosimetry deals with determinations and calculations of quantities (dose) that
describe the energy absorbed in a material and to some extent its rate of depo-
sition (dose rate). Dosimetry determinations that are performed by exposing a
dosimeter to a radiation source help in evaluating the radiation-induced effects,
physical, chemical, and/or biological, on an irradiated material [1].
To assure that the desired radiation effects (biological, chemical, and/or
physical) are achieved and that the irradiation process is performed safely,
validation and process control procedures are implemented. Process controls
rely on the establishment of a relationship between the source parameters and
the absorbed dose in an irradiated object (for isotropic radioactive source ir-
radiators: dwell time, position in the source rack, and conveyance speed; for
accelerator sources: beam voltage, beam current, scanning width, scanned
uniformity and conveyance speed). Absorbed dose and dose distribution is
56 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

inferred from determinations made with a suitable dosimetry system having

some level of accuracy and precision [2].
Many dosimetry systems used in the radiation processing of materials are
implemented in accordance with corresponding ISO/ASTM international
standards (www.astm.org): ISO/ASTM 52628:2013 (general issues) [3],
ISO/ASTM 51261:2013 (calibration) [4], ISO/ASTM 52701:2013 (charac-
terization) [5], ISO/ASTM 52303:2015 (dose mapping) [6], ISO/ASTM
51707:2015 (uncertainties) [7], ASTM E2232-10 (mathematical modelling) [8],
taking into account that the irradiation facilities also fulfil the standard require-
ments: ISO/ASTM 51649:2015 (high energy electron beam) [9], ISO/ASTM
51818:2013 (low energy electron beam) [10], ISO/ASTM 51608:2015 (X-ray
beam) [11], ISO/ASTM 51702:2013 (gamma facility) [12]. These standards
for dosimetry systems will be referenced in the appropriate sections below.

2. DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES

A quantitative radiation dose is used:

• to predict associated radiation effects and possible material transformation
and modification caused by irradiation;
• to ensure that overall radiation protection and safety are implemented when
working with ionizing radiation.
A number of quantities and units have been defined by the International
Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU Report 60) [13] for
describing the radiation sources. The most commonly used quantities in do-
simetry and their units are listed in Table 1.
It was already noted in Chapter 2 “Radiation interaction with condensed
matter” that absorbed dose is the main characteristic that allows the evaluation
of radiation processing’s impact on an irradiated material.
The absorbed dose is related to the stochastic quantity of the energy imparted
by a source which is the sum of all energies entering the volume of interest,
minus all of the energy leaving this volume, taking into account any mass energy
conversion within this volume [14] and is defined as follows:
d
D (1)
dm
where: ε– is the mean energy imparted, and dm is the mass of a finite volume, V.
The unit of absorbed dose is joule per kilogram (J/kg), or gray (Gy).
In the case of uncharged radiation (photons and indirect ionizing radiation),
energy is imparted to matter in a two-step process.
Chapter 3 57

Table 1. Radiation beam quantities (dN – a number of particles incident on a sphere

of a cross-sectional area dA; E – the energy of particle; ΦE(E) and ΨE(E) – short nota-
tions for the particle fluence spectrum and the energy fluence spectrum differential in
energy E, respectively).

Monoenergetic beam Polyenergetic beam

Particle fluence, Φ [m ]
–2

dN d
  E (E)  (E)
dA dE
Energy fluence, Ψ [J/m–2]
dE dN d d
  E  E  E (E)  (E)  (E)E
dA dA dE dE
 [m–2·s–1]
Particle fluence rate, 

  d

dt
 [J/m2·s]
Energy fluence rate (intensity), 

  d

dt

In the first step, the indirect ionizing radiation transfers energy to secondary
charged particles. The mean energy transferred from indirectly ionizing radia-
tion to charged particles (electrons) per unit mass of the material is defined as
kerma (an acronym from: kinetic energy released per unit mass) [15]:
dE 
K (2)
dm
In the second step, these charged particles transfer some of their kinetic energy
to the material (resulting in absorbed dose) and lose some of their energy in
the form of radiative losses (bremsstrahlung, annihilation).
Different possibilities of energy absorption in the volume due to photon
interactions with material are shown in Fig.1.
Energy absorbed in the volume V of matter is expressed as:
E ab  ( i )1  ( i ) 2  ( i )3  ( i ) 4 (3)
where (Σεi)1 is the sum of energy lost by collisions along the track of the sec-
ondary particles within the volume, V.
Secondary electrons are losing their energy along their tracks (blackened
parts of the tracks shown in Fig.1). Energy is not absorbed at the same location
where it was first transferred to an electron.
58 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

Fig.1. Illustration for the energy absorbed in volume. (Adapted from Ref. [16]).

In the case of the charged particles beam (electrons), most of the energy is
directly absorbed at the place within the volume where it was deposited (energy
absorption). The absorbed dose to a material or medium is related to electron
fluence in the material or medium:
S 
D med   med  col  (4)
  med
where (Scol/ρ)med is mass collision stopping power of the material or medium
for the electrons penetrating material or medium with a certain energy.
Due to the slowing down of electrons in the material or medium, a pri-
mary fluence spectrum, Φmed,E, that ranges from the kinetic energy, Ek, down
to zero, will be always present, even if the electron beam is defined as mono-
energetic. So absorbed dose to the material or medium is an integral of Dmed,
(Eq. (4)):
E max
S  S 
D med  0
 med,E  col  (E)dE   med,E  col 
  med   med
(5)

The dose rate, which is another important parameter in materials process-

ing, may be obtained by differentiation of absorbed dose:

D  dD (6)
dt
In materials processing, one should take into account dose rate effects.
High dose rates lead to the creation of high free radical concentrations → back
reactions → reduced effect; low dose rates lead to the consumption of dis-
solved oxygen → less peroxy radicals → reduced effect [1]. The same reduc-
tion of effects may be obtained by irradiating materials in an oxygen-free
atmosphere.
Chapter 3 59

It is possible to calculate the dose rate from the natural radioactive sources
(60Co, 137Cs, etc.) that are used in different applications such as medical product
sterilization. The calculation is based on the evaluation of the exposure at a
certain distance from the source and followed by the conversion of the exposure
to absorbed dose.
The exposure, X, is usually defined as the sum of the electric charges on
all ions of one sign that are produced when all electrons liberated by the radia-
tion in a volume of air are completely stopped, divided by the mass of air in
that volume: X = dQ/dmair. An exposure X of 1 C/kg provides an absorbed dose
in air, Dair, of 33.97 Gy [13]:
Wair
Dair [Gy]  X (7)
e
with Wair/e = 33.97 J/C, where Wair is the average energy, expended in air to
produce ion pair.
The dose to a material or medium, Dmed, is related to the dose in air, Dair, at
the same location:
  en 
  
 med
D med  33.97 X (8)
  en 
  
 air
The exposure rate in air, Ẋ, is inversely proportional to the squared distance
from the point source of activity, A(t) [17]:

  A(t)
X (9)
r2
where Γ is the specific exposure gamma-ray constant at 1 m distance from the
source.
Specific exposure gamma-ray constants for the nuclides, most commonly
used in radiation processing, are: Γ(60Co) = 2.50 × 1012 Cm2/kg·MBq·s and
Γ(137Cs) = 6.64 × 1013 Cm2/kg·MBq·s [18]. Γ values, provided in different
literature sources, differ slightly due to new recalculations of the radionuclide
properties. Instead of a specific exposure gamma-ray constant, a specific dose
gamma-ray constant might also be used when exposure is converted to absorbed
dose. The formulae used are valid only for point sources. Field arrangements
and geometry factors must be taken into account if calculating the dose from
the complex sources, such as pencil sources in gamma cell, or sources in the
racks of the 60Co unit.
60 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

3. DOSE DETERMINATIONS

3.1. STANDARDS

Radiation measurements cover a broad area of instruments and methods

focusing on assessing different parameters of radiation processing. A radiation
dosimeter is a device, instrument or system that measures or evaluates, either
directly or indirectly, dosimetric quantities. A dosimeter along with its reader
is referred to as a dosimetry system. The inference of dose is extremely import-
ant in industrial and research uses as well as in clinical applications, which are
not covered in this book.
Validation, verification and radiation process control depend on the assess-
ment of absorbed dose. The main requirements for performing proper assess-
ments of absorbed dose and related quantities) should be fulfilled [3, 5, 19-21]:
• Assessments of absorbed dose shall be performed using a dosimetry system
or systems having some level of accuracy and precision.
• The calibration of each dosimetry system shall be traceable. Traceability is
defined as a property of the result of a test that can be related to stated refer-
ences, usually national or international standards, through an unbroken chain
of comparisons, all having stated uncertainties. For example, certificates
issued by a national metrology laboratory in compliance with the Interna-
tional Committee on Weights and Measures (CIPM; Bureau International
des Poids et Mesures – BIPM) Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA) or
any other laboratory accredited to ISO/IEC 17025:2005 can be taken as
proof of traceability and no further action is required by the user [22].
Accurate, traceable dose determinations provide independent, inexpensive
means for quality control in radiation processing.
The classification of dosimetry systems (ISO/ASTM 52701:2013) [5] is
based on the metrological properties of a dosimetry system (Type I and Type
II) and field of its application. Reference or standard systems are Type I. Sys-
tems for routine use are Type II.
• Type I dosimeter – a dosimeter of high metrological quality; its response is
affected by individual influence quantities in a well-defined way so, that it
can be expressed in terms of independent correction factors.
• Type II dosimeter – a dosimeter, the response of which is affected by influ-
ence quantities in a complex way that cannot practically be expressed in
terms of independent correction factors.
• Reference standard systems (Type I) are used to calibrate dosimeters for
routine use and therefore require high metrological quality; low uncer-
tainty and traceability to appropriate national or international standards are
needed.
Chapter 3 61

• Routine systems (Type II) are used for routine absorbed dose assessments,
such as dose mapping and process monitoring. Traceability to national or
international standards is needed.
The hierarchy of standard dosimetry systems as well as particular ISO standards
for radiation processing are shown in Fig.2.

PSDL: Standards laboratory – national standards

Calorimeters, ionization chambers [Dw, Gy (±1%) Dw, kGy (±2%)]
|
SSDL: Reference standard dosimetry systems (±3%), k = 2
Fricke, ceric, dichromate, alanine, calorimeters,
ethanol-monochlorobenzene (ECB), ionization chambers
|
Routine dosimetry systems (±6%), k = 2
Films, plastics, dyed plastics, TLD, OSLD, semiconductor devices…

Fig.2. Dosimetry standards hierarchy.

Primary standards are instruments of the highest metrological quality that

permit determination of the unit of a quantity from its definition. The accuracy
of primary standards has been verified by comparison with standards of other
institutions operating at the same metrological level. Primary standards are
recognized by the primary standards dosimetry laboratories (PSDLs) in about
20 countries worldwide. Regular international comparisons between the PSDLs
and with the CIPM (BIPM) ensure international consistency of the primary
dosimetry standards. Radiation detectors used for the calibration of radiation
sources for industry, research or medicine, must have a calibration coefficient
traceable (directly or indirectly) to a primary standard. Primary standards are
not used for routine calibrations, since they represent the unit for the quantity
at all times. Instead, the PSDLs calibrate dosimeters for secondary standards
dosimetry laboratories (SSDLs) that in turn are used for calibrating the refer-
ence instruments of users, such as therapy level ionization chambers (hospitals)
or calorimeters (radiation processing). This allows for the transfer of informa-
tion from an accredited standards laboratory to an irradiation facility with es-
tablished traceability (comparing absorbed dose assessments). Reference do-
simeters are further used for calibration of dosimetry systems for the routine
determination of absorbed dose.
The result of a dose determination is only an approximation or estimate of
the dose value and is complete only when accompanied by a quantitative state-
ment of its uncertainty. In dosimetry, the uncertainty associated with the deter-
minations is often expressed in terms of accuracy and precision (Fig.3).
62 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

High precision High precision Low precision Low precision

High accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy Low accuracy
Fig.3. Illustration of precision and accuracy. (Adapted from Ref. [16]).
Accuracy specifies the proximity of the mean value of a measurement to
the specified value.
Precision specifies the degree of reproducibility of a determination. High
precision is associated with a small standard deviation of the distribution of
determination results.

3.2. CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION OF DOSIMETRY

SYSTEMS

In radiation processing, validation and process control (as for sterilization,

food irradiation, etc.) and the whole irradiation performance depend on the
assessment of absorbed dose. This is performed using dosimetry systems hav-
ing an acknowledged level of accuracy and precision. In dosimetry, accuracy
is associated primarily with a quantity, which can be directly traceable to a
primary standard system. Traceability is achieved by the calibration of a do-
simetry system. Calibration is performed by determining the relationship be-
tween dosimeter response and the absorbed dose of reference or a primary
standard. The effects of the influence factors, such as dose rate, temperature,
storage time, storage conditions, humidity and light, should be minimized to
attain optimal calibration conditions. Calibration is needed for reference stand-
ard dosimeters as performed in national or accredited laboratory; for transfer
standard dosimeters, as performed according to class distinction requirements;
and for routine dosimeters, as performed in a calibration laboratory, or in-plant
facility. Primary standard dosimeters do not require any calibration.
Both components of a dosimetry system – dosimeters and the measuring
or read-out equipment – shall be calibrated and traceable to internationally
recognized standards:
• Calibration of measurement equipment is performed measuring certain
parameters of the equipment and comparing them with a set of reference
values. If measurement equipment cannot be calibrated (e.g. signal amplitude
from an EPR (electron paramagnetic resonance) spectrometer), the stability
of the equipment has to be demonstrated by the use of measurement standards
(e.g. stable EPR spin standards).
Chapter 3 63

• Calibration of dosimeter is performed by following a sequence of steps: a)

irradiate the dosimeters, b) read the information provided by the dosimeters
using a calibrated instrument, c) generate a calibration curve or response
curve, d) compare the response curve with an initial calibration verification
having periodic confirmation of validity, and e) compliance with a traceabil-
ity chain that provides consistency of the performed measurements with the
appropriate national or international standard.
More details on calibration procedures are found in ISO/ASTM 51261:2013
[4], and NPL Report CIRM 29 [23].
In order to verify the calibration, calibration curves prepared for routine
dosimeters in a calibration laboratory or in an in-house calibration facility
should be verified for the actual conditions of use in the irradiation production
facility. Routine dosimeters should be irradiated together with reference or
transfer standard dosimeters to at least three different absorbed doses. Absorbed
dose results given by two types of dosimeters should be analysed with respect
to any systematic trends for potential corrections if needed.

3.3. UNCERTAINTIES

The current methodology for estimating measurement uncertainty is given

in the document “Evaluation of measurement data – Guide to the expression
of uncertainty in measurement” (JCGM 100:2008) [24]. This is referred to as
the “GUM”, which defines the uncertainty as a parameter associated with the
result of a measurement that characterizes the dispersion of measured values
(= range of the values) that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand
(= absorbed dose). This document is prepared in line with a standard ISO/ASTM
51707:2015 [7]. Uncertainties are based on probabilities and are often expressed
as standard deviations (standard uncertainties), σ. The distribution of possible
values often approximates a Gaussian or normal distribution (Fig.4).
There two types of uncertainties are investigated in performing measure-
ments: type A (random) and type B (non-random, systematic):
• Type A standard uncertainties, uA, are evaluated by statistical analysis of
series of measurements (e.g. standard deviation of the mean) and are re-
lated mainly to some precision of the dosimeter response.
If a measurement of a dosimetric quantity x is repeated N times, then the
best estimate for x is the arithmetic mean of all measurements xi:
1 N
  x   xi (10)
N i 1
The standard deviation σx is used to express the uncertainty for an individual
result xi:
64 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

Fig.4. Gaussian distribution of measurement probability. Values μ corresponds to the

arithmetic mean of all measurements; σ is standard deviation. The probability of a value
being within ±1σ is ~68% (coverage factor k = 1); the probability of a value being
within ±2σ is ~95% (k = 2); the probability of a value being within ±3σ is ~99.7%
(k = 3). (Adapted from Ref. [25]).

1 N
x  
N  1 i 1
(x i  ) 2 (11)

The standard deviation of the mean value is used to express the uncertainty
for the best estimate:
N
1 1
u A  x 
N
x  
N(N  1) i 1
(x i  ) 2 (12)

• Type B standard uncertainties, uB, cannot be estimated by repeated measure-

ments and are evaluated by means other than statistical analysis (based on
judgement and previous experimental data). Type B uncertainties include
influences on the measuring process, the application of correction factors or
physical data taken from the literature and are related to a calibration (ac-
curacy). Type B evaluations vary, but their outcomes should be converted
into a standard uncertainty in order to allow for the mathematical combina-
tion of all components of uncertainty.
Having evaluated standard uncertainties associated with each component
of a measurement, the combined uncertainty, uC, associated with a particular
measurement is obtained by summing in quadrature standard uncertainties of
the individual component, i.e. by taking the square root of the sum of the squares
of the individual components:
Chapter 3 65

uC = (u12 + u22 + u32 + ...)1/2 (13)

The results of such analyses are often presented in a table, known as an uncer-
tainty budget. An example of uncertainty budget of routine polystyrene calo-
rimetric dosimetry system is provided in Table 2.

Table 2. Measurement uncertainties of routine polystyrene calorimetric dosimetry systems

from Risø High Dose Reference Laboratory, at k = 2. (Data are adapted from Ref. [26]).
Component of uncertainty Type A [%] Type B [%]
Calibration of irradiation dose 3.2
Temperature measurement of calorimeter (at 3 kGy) 1.0
Temperature extrapolation of calorimeter (at 3 kGy) 1.0
Change of temperature sensitivity of specific heat
0.5
of polystyrene
Heating effects 0.5
Quadrature sum 1.5 3.2
Overall quadrature sum 3.5

The combined uncertainty uC is assumed to exhibit a Gaussian distribution

(confidence level of 68%).
The expanded uncertainty, U = k × uC, with a coverage factor k = 2, cor-
responding to 95% confidence level, is often used to represent overall uncer-
tainty, which relates to the accuracy of the measurement of a certain quantity.

4. DOSIMETRY SYSTEMS

Quality assurance programmes and implemented quality control measures are

aimed to prove that the irradiation process was carried out within prescribed
dose limits. This requires careful selection of the dosimetry system and its
proper use after selection. The scope of application is one of the most important
criteria for the selection of a suitable dosimetry system:
• field (industry, medicine, research and development),
• process to be controlled,
• standard (primary standard, reference, transfer, routine dosimetry),
• measured quantity (absorbed dose, dose rate and other dosimetric quantities,
dose mapping and others),
• physical properties of dosimeter (radiation-induced physical and chemical
processes in detector material that are related to the measured or evaluated
dosimetric quantity),
66 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

• physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous, combined),

• measurement type (internal, external),
• measurement mode (in-situ or ex-situ),
• target substance related measurement (in vivo, in vitro).
Dosimetry systems are based on measurement of radiation-induced physi-
cal or chemical changes in the detector material which can then be attributed
to the absorbed dose. Thus, dosimetry methods are classified as:
• ionization based (ionization chambers),
• temperature change related (calorimeters),
• thermoluminescence (LiF),
• colour change related (Perspex™, radiochromic systems),
• free radical concentration change related (alanine),
• conductivity change related (ECB, alanine solution),

Table 3. Dosimeter system standards. (Compiled on basis of Ref. [28]).

Nominal
Dosimeter Useful dose
Method of analysis precision References
system range [Gy]
limits [%]
ASTM
Fricke solution UV spectrophotometry 3 × 10-4 × 102 1
E 1026-04 [29]
Ceric-cerous ISO/ASTM
UV spectrophotometry 103-106 3
sulphate 51205:2009 [30]
Potassium ISO/ASTM
UV-VIS spectrophotometry 5 × 103-4 × 104 1
dichromate 51401:2013 [31]
Ethanol-mono- ISO/ASTM
Titration, or HF oscillometry 4 × 102-3 × 105 3
chlorobenzene 51538:2009 [32]
ISO/ASTM
L-alanine EPR 1-105 0.5
51607:2013 [33]
Perspex ISO/ASTM
VIS spectrophotometry 103-5 × 104 4
systems 51276:2012 [34]
ISO/ASTM
FWT-60 film VIS spectrophotometry 103-105 3
51275:2013 [35]
ISO/ASTM
B3/GEX film VIS spectrophotometry 103-105 3
51275:2013 [35]
Cellulose ISO/ASTM
UV spectrophotometry 104-106 3
triacetate 51650:2013 [36]
ISO/ASTM
Calorimetry Resistance/temperature 1.5 × 103-5 × 104 2
51631:2013 [37]
LiF Optically stimulated ASTM
50-3 × 103 3
(Sunna film) luminescence E2304-03 [38]
ISO/ASTM
TLD Thermoluminescence 1-104 2
51956:2013 [39]
Chapter 3 67

• radiation chemical oxidation based (Fricke),

• radiation chemical reduction based (dichromate, ceric-cerous),
• optically stimulated luminescence (OSL, Al2O3, Sunna),
• production of radiation defects in semiconductors (diodes, MOSFETs),
• others.
Information on standards applicable for dosimetry systems used in radiation
processing is presented in the Table 3. It can be also found on the web pages:
www.iso.org, and www.astm.org/COMMITTEE/E61.htm. Essential and very
useful information on the dosimetry systems used in materials processing is
found in Refs. [2] and [27]. Table 3 summarizes the description of most of the
important dosimetry systems.
Primary standard dosimetry systems
Calorimetry and ionization chambers are considered as primary standard
methods to determine dose. Calorimeters are used when establishing standards
for dose in the radiation processing of materials. Calorimeters and ionization
chambers are used to establish dose for medical applications. Dosimeters for
medical applications, not discussed here, are described in detail in several
publications including Refs. [15, 40-43].
Calorimetry is the most fundamental method used as a primary standard
for absorbed dose, since the measured rise in temperature is the most direct
consequence of energy absorption (energy-to-heat conversion) in a thermally
isolated mass. Measured energy per unit mass or the average dose to the me-
dium assuming no heat loss is:
hT
D (14)
1 
where h is specific heat capacity of the medium, and δ is the thermal defect
(this small fraction of the energy that does not appear eventually as thermal
energy because of a chemical reaction).
The principle of calorimetry is illustrated in Fig.5.
A graphite calorimeter is used by several PSDLs as a primary instrument
to determine absorbed dose. Graphite is an ideal material for calorimetry.
Gaphite has a low atomic number, Z, so that all of the absorbed energy reap-
pears as heat, without any loss of heat in other mechanisms (such as heat defec-
tion) and its specific heat capacity is 7.1 × 102 J/K, so that temperature changes
of a few μ°C can be measured.
Water calorimeter is also used by PSLDs as a primary standard to determine
the absorbed dose to water in a water phantom. An example of a water calo-
rimeter is shown in Fig.6.
Water calorimeter at Physicalisch Technische Bundesanstalt [44], is able to
determine Dw for 60Co radiation under reference conditions with a standard
measured uncertainty of approximately 0.2%. Highly purified water is used
due to low operationing temperature of 4°C.
68 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

Fig.5. The temperature curves were extrapolated from T0 and Tc to mid-point of the
irradiation time at T0’ and Tc’, respectively. ΔT = Tc’ – T0’ is used for dose calculation.
Regions I, II and III are before, during and after the irradiation, respectively. (Adapted
from Ref. [15]).

The advantage of using graphite instead of water is a lack of thermal defects.

Graphite, water and polystyrene calorimeters, classified as Type II detectors
(ISO/ASTM 52628:2013) [3], are also defined as process calorimeters. These
calorimeters may be used as internal standards at an electron beam irradiation
facility, including their application as transfer standard dosimetry systems for
calibration of other dosimetry systems, or they may be used as routine dosi-
meters provided they are used under static, non-moving conditions. Calori-
meters are highly sensitive (water calorimeter – 3.4 kGy/°C, polystyrene calo-
rimeter – 1.4 kGy/°C, graphite calorimeter – 0.75 kGy/°C) to absorbed dose
within the range of 1.5-60.0 kGy measured using 4-10 MeV electron beams.

A B C
Fig.6. Water calorimeter at Physicalisch Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB, Germany):
A – an overall view of the construction, B – cubic water phantom surrounded by poly-
styrene containing walls, C – calorimetric detector filled with highly purified water.
(Adapted from Ref. [44]).
Chapter 3 69

However, calorimetry has not been conducted under the high speed operating
conditions common to electron beam processing.
Special polystyrene calorimeters are used for dose measurements at 1.5-4 MeV
electron beam energies and that the development of a calorimeter for low
energy (80-120 keV) electron beams under static, non-moving conditions is
ongoing [28].
Reference standard chemical dosimetry systems
(Fricke, ceric-cerous, potassium dichromate, alanine, ECB dosimeters)
In chemical dosimetry systems, the dose is determined by evaluating the
chemical change produced by radiation in the sensitive volume of the dosimeter.
Fricke dosimeters use a water solution of FeSO 4 (7H 2 O) or
Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2(6H2O) with additives of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and sodium
chloride (NaCl), and are the most widely used chemical dosimetry standard
(Fig.7).

A B
Fig.7. Fricke dosimeters: (A) as prepared Fricke solutions, (B) application of Fricke
dosimeter in research related to food irradiation. (Adapted from Ref. [28]).

When irradiated, ferrous ions Fe2+ are oxidized into ferric ions Fe3+, that ex-
hibit a strong absorption peak at a wavelength of 304 nm, whereas ferrous ions
Fe2+ do not show any absorption at this wavelength. The response of Fricke
dosimeter is expressed in terms of the yield of ferric ions Fe3+. It is nearly inde-
pendent of the photon and electron energy in the range of 5-16 MeV. The aver-
age dose to Fricke solution is given by a change in optical density at 304 nm:
OD
DF  (15)
GL
where: ε – the molar extinction coefficient (217.4 l/mol·cm at 25°C), G – the
yield of ferric ions Fe3+ (1.617 × 10–6 mol/J), ρ – the density of Fricke solution
(1.023 kg/dm3 at 25°C), L – the path length over which the optical signal was
red (typically 2-4 cm). The absorbed dose within the range of 40-400 Gy can
be measured using Fricke dosimeter.
70 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

Potassium dichromate is known as reference dosimetry system for gamma

facilities. It uses a potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and silver dichromate
(Ag2Cr2O7) solution in perchloric acid (HClO4). Dose measurements within the
range of 10-50 kGy are based on colour changes in the solution at a wavelength
of 440 nm due to the radiolytic reduction of dichromate ions to chromic ions.
The Ag2Cr2O7 solution in HClO4 allows the determination of doses down to
2 Gy, but the dose response then (colour change) is observed at 350 nm (Fig.8).

A B
Fig.8. Dichromate dosimeters: A – as prepared (left) and irradiated (right) dosimeters,
B – UV-VIS absorbance spectrum of irradiated potassium dichromate. (Adapted from
Ref. [28]).

Ethanol-monochlorobenzene dosimeter contains monochlorobenzene

(C6H5Cl) in an aerated ethanol-water solution. The concentration of mono-
chlorobenzene may vary between 4 and 40 vol% based upon request, but in
radiation processing a solution containing 24 vol% of monochlorobenzene is
used. This dosimeter is based on the formation of hydrochloric acid (HCl) upon
irradiation via dissociative electron attachment, since monochlorobenzene is a
good electron scavenger and reacts with “dry” and solvated electrons. The
determination of absorbed dose is carried out by measuring the concentration
of HCl using alkalimetric or mercurimetric titration [45]. This dosimeter is used
in reference (also transfer) dosimetry systems for dose measurements at electron
and X-ray facilities. Doses from the range of 10 Gy-200 kGy can be measured
when the electron beam energy is higher than 4 MeV, while the doses measured
at X-ray beams (> 2 MeV) can be from the range of 10 Gy-2 MGy. This do-
simeter is nearly independent of irradiation temperature.
Alanine dosimeters (pellets or films) are based on an amino acid which
forms stable free radicals when irradiated:
Chapter 3 71

The concentration of free radicals is measured using EPR spectroscopy (Fig.9)

and is proportional to the absorbed dose, which can be determined within the
range of 10 Gy-100 kGy. Alanine is used for gamma and electron reference
dosimetry. However dose response dependency on environmental conditions
(humidity, temperature) should be considered when performing measurements.
A

B 102

Signal
Amplitude
101

100

3 Species, 1 Specimen,
Modulation, Modulation,
2 mT 0.1 mT
10–1

10–2
100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Fig.9. Alanine dosimeters: A – a variety of alanine dosimeters, B – EPR spectrum and

measured value: peak to peak signal. (Adapted from Ref. [2]).

Routine dosimetry systems

(Perspex™, films, ECB, ceric-cerous solutions, process calorimeters)
These systems are used in radiation processing facilities for absorbed dose
mapping and process monitoring. They require calibration.
Perspex™ is the trade name of poly(methyl methacrylate) (C5O2H8)n. Cer-
tain dyes are responsible for the colour of Perspex (red, amber, gammachrome
YR). Perspex dosimeters darken when irradiated (Fig.10). The increased ab-
sorption is a result of radiation-induced free radicals that initially react with
72 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

Fig.10. Different types of Perspex dosimeters and their reaction to irradiation. (Adapted
from Ref. [28]).

oxygen present in the polymer to yield peroxy radicals. Radiation-induced

colour changes can be accurately measured by means of a spectrophotometer
and are related to the absorbed dose. Absorbed doses within the interval of
0.1-3.0 kGy can be determined at 530 nm by the Gammachrome YR Perspex,
within interval of 1-30 kGy – at 603 nm by the Amber Perspex and within in-
terval of 5-50 kGy – 640 nm by the Red Perspex dosimeter. Perspex dosimeters
are used in routine gamma dosimetry.
Film dosimeters are mainly used for absorbed dose mapping and process
monitoring at an irradiation facility. Most important film dosimeters are:
• FTR-125 – cellulose triacetate dosimeters are used for routine dosimetry in
electron beam, gamma-ray and ion beam irradiation facilities, mainly for
dose mapping. Absorbed dose within the range of 5-300 kGy can be evalu-
ated according to radiation-induced absorbance changes at 280 nm.

A B C
Fig.11. A – irradiated Risø B3 film; B and C – GEX DoseStix and WinDose dosimeters
made from Risø B3 film, respectively. (Adapted from Ref. [19]).
Chapter 3 73

• FTW-60 is a colourless radiochromic film containing hexa (hydroxyethyl)

pararosaniline cyanide in a nylon matrix. Radiation induces a film colour
changes toward a deep blue. Absorbed dose can be estimated for the range
of 3-30 kGy, if spectrophotometric optical density measurements are carried
out at 605 nm, and for the range of 30-150 kGy, if spectrophotometric opti-
cal density measurements are carried out at 510 nm. Film response is inde-
pendent of the energy and type of radiation (electron beam, gamma ray or
X-ray) and of the dose rate up to about 1013 Gy/s. These dosimeters are used
for process control for gamma as well as for electron beam irradiation.
• Risø B3 (GEX) radiochromic film (Fig.11) is colourless polyvinyl butyral
film containing the leucocyanide of pararosaniline. Radiation induces film
colour changes to deep pink. Heating at 60°C for 5 to 10 min after irradiation
helps stabilize the colour. Absorbed dose can be estimated within the range
of 2-100 kGy performing spectrophotometric measurements at 544 nm.
Films are widely used in gamma and electron beam radiation processing.
• Gafchromic films are radiochromic films consisting of colourless transpar-
ent coatings of polycrystalline substituted diacetylene sensor layers on a
clear polyester base. Radiation induces film colour changes to deep blue.
Absorbed doses within the range of 1 Gy-40 kGy can be evaluated. Spectro-
photometric readings are performed at different wavelengths (670, 633, 600,
500 and 400 nm) depending on the absorbed dose. Films are applicable as
a routine dosimeters in medical applications, industrial radiation processing
and food irradiation.
• Sunna film [46] is a novel OSL dosimetry system and is made by LiF uni-
formly dispersed in a polyethylene matrix (Fig.12).
Irradiation stimulates formation of colour centres in LiF (F-, M-, N-,
R-centre) that correspond to discrete optical absorption bands in the
UV-VIS region. The information related to the absorbed dose can be inferred
by excitation of the irradiated dosimeter with a light at the wavelength of the
colour centre absorption and measurement of a characteristic luminescence
at a significantly higher wavelength. The range of the evaluated absorbed
dose depends on the absorption wavelength:
– for the evaluation of UV absorbance at 240 nm, the dose range is between
5 and 100 kGy;
– for the evaluation of green OSL at 530 nm, the dose range is between
200 Gy and 250 kGy;
– for the evaluation of near infrared OSL at 670 and 1100 nm, the dose
range is between 10 Gy and 10 kGy.
The Sunna films are used in both gamma and electron beam processing for
dose distribution measurements, as well as for routine process control.
• Tetrazolium films [47] are also based on the colour changes after irradiation.
The main component of the film, a tetrazolium salt, is a heterocyclic or-
ganic compound which yields highly coloured water insoluble formazans
74 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

B
B

Fig.12. A – Sunna films UV, green or red (IR) OSL absorption bands; B – sensibility
of Sunna film (green range) to different irradiations. (Adapted from Ref. [28]).

due to radiolytic reduction. The range of the inference of absorbed dose

depends on the measured wavelength at which the absorption peak was
identified:
– for tetrazolium violet (TV): 525 nm measured absorbance corresponds
to the dose range of 10 Gy-30 kGy;
– for tetrazolium red (TTC): 490 nm measured absorbance corresponds to
the dose range of 10 Gy-100 kGy;
– for tetrazolium blue (TB): 520 nm measured absorbance corresponds to
the dose range of 10 Gy-10 kGy;
– For nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT): 522 and 612 nm measured absorbance
correspond to the dose range of 10 Gy-25 kGy.
Some additional information related to Gafchromic films, Sunna dosimeters,
tetrazolium films and other novel dosimetry systems could be found in Ref. [14].
Chapter 3 75

5. RADIATION SAFETY AND RADIATION PROTECTION

Mankind greatly benefits from the use of electron beam, gamma rays and X-rays
in industrial processing and in research and development. Radioisotopes and
fissionable materials are used in medicine, research, and power generation.
These uses involve potential exposure of personel to radiation. Accidental
exposure is also possible. Since radiation exposure presumably involves some
risk to the individuals, the levels of exposure allowed should be worth the result
that is achieved. The overall objective of radiation protection is to balance the
risks and benefits from activities that involve radiation even if these risks and
benefits are hardly measurable directly [48].
The IAEA recommendations for radiation protection are provided in the
Basic Safety Standards (BSS) books [49, 50]. These basic safety standards
represent internationally agreed standards that set out the requirements for a
framework to regulate radiation safety in each country and that, in principle,
have been accepted by all member states. They are based on knowledge of
radiation effects and on established principles of radiation protection, recom-
mended by the ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection):
• Benefit of practices must offset radiation detriment.
• Exposures and likelihood of exposure should be kept as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA principle).
• Dose limits should be set to ensure that no individual faces an unacceptable
risk under normal circumstances.
The ICRP has proposed safety standards to protect the health of workers
and the general public against the dangers arising from ionizing radiation (last
upgraded version: ICRP publication 103 [51]). These recommendations were
laid down in a European Directive: EU Council Directive 2013/59/EURATOM
[52], which has been accepted by the Member States of the European Com-
munity.
The Directive has defined safety standards for the exposed workers in the
following way:
• The limit on the effective dose is 100 mSv in a consecutive five year period,
subject to a maximum effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year. In ac-
cordance with this, most Member States have defined an annual limit of
20 mSv. (Sievert, Sv, is equal to 1 joule of energy deposited in a kilogram
of human tissue).
• The annual limit on the equivalent dose for the lens of the eye is 20 mSv.
• The annual limit on the equivalent dose for the skin is 500 mSv.
• The annual limit on the equivalent dose for the hands, forearms, feet, and
ankles is 500 mSv.
The annual limit for the whole-body dose for the general population, is 1 mSv
in most countries.
76 Applications of ionizing radiation in materials processing

The ICRU has defined radiation protection quantities for dose limitations
to the potentially exposed workers that are different from those described above
in the introduction of this chapter: the equivalent dose (accounts for radiation
type) and the effective dose (accounts radiosensitivity of different organs and
tissues) [13].
Equivalent dose is the dose absorbed in an organ or tissue and multiplied
by the relevant radiation weighting factor, wR:
HT,R = wR DT,R (16)
where DT,R is the average absorbed dose in the organ or tissue T, and wR is the
radiation weighting factor for radiation R (alpha particles, electrons, photons,
neutrons).
Effective dose is a summation of the tissue equivalent doses, each multiplied
by the appropriate tissue/organ weighting factor, wT:

E   w T HT (17)
T

where HT is the equivalent dose in tissue T, and wT is the tissue weighting fac-
tor for tissue T.
The unit of equivalent and also effective dose is J/kg, termed the sievert (Sv).
In order to minimize radiation risks to personnel working in potential ex-
posure conditions, relevant radiation protection measures should be imple-
Table 4. Typical personal dosimeters [42].
Radiation type, Advantages
Dosimeter Principle of operation
measurement range and disadvantages
Can be documented,
Photochemical γ, β
Film badge insensitive for low-energy
blackening 0.1 mSv-5.0 Sv
rays
Very sensitive,
permanently readable,
Pen-type pocket γ
Ionization chamber insensive for α- and
dosimeter 0.03-2.00 mSv
β-rays, cannot be
documented
Permanently Ionization or
γ Permanently readable,
readable dosimeter proportional chambers
0.1 μSv-10.0 Sv cannot be documented
(pocket dosimeter) and GM counters
Suitable for low dose
Thermoluminescence γ, (β)
TLD dosimeter measurements, cannot be
measurement 0.1 mSv-10.0 Sv
documented
Phosphate glass Photoluminescence γ Can be documented,
dosimeter measurement 0.1 mSv-10.0 Sv can be read repeatedly
Albedo neutron Neutron moderation n, γ Calibration depends
dosimeter by the carrier 0.1 mSv-10.0 Sv on human carrier
Chapter 3 77

mented in the work environment and the doses to workers must be perma-
nently controlled and measured using the appropriate dosimeters.
Typical applications of different measurement techniques for personal dosi-
metry are listed in Table 4. More detailed information on personal dosimeters
can be found in Refs. [41, 42, 53].

Acknowledgements
Authors of this chapter are thankful to Mark Bailey, András Kovács, Arne
Miller, Peter Sharpe and Zbigniew Zimek for valuable information provided
during the IAEA training courses in 2015.

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