Construction Materials Lecture note

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Construction:-it is a process of building or assembling of infrastructure. Far from
being a single activity.
Materials:-it is anything made of matter, constituted of one or more substances.
Eg. Wood, cement, iron……
1. Classification of construction materials

Engineering materials can be classified in different groups based on different conditions. The
most convenient way to study the properties and uses of engineering materials is to classify
them into ‘families’ as shown in figure below:

Fig.1. classification of engineering materials.

Ferrous metals

These are metals and alloys containing a high proportion of the element iron. They are the
strongest materials available and are used for applications where high strength is required at
relatively low cost and where weight is not of primary importance. As an example of ferrous
metals such as: bridge building, the structure of large buildings, railway lines, locomotives
and rolling stock and the bodies and highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles.
Non – ferrous metals

These materials refer to the remaining metals known to mankind. The pure metals are rarely
used as structural materials as they lack mechanical strength. They are used where their
special properties such as corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity are required. Copper and aluminum are used as electrical conductors and,
together with sheet zinc and sheet lead, are use as roofing materials. They are mainly used
with other metals to improve their strength.

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 Construction Materials Lecture note

Non – metallic (synthetic materials)

These are non – metallic materials that do not exist in nature, although they are manufactured
from natural substances such as oil, coal and clay. Some typical examples are classified as
shown in figure 2.

Figure 2.classification of non-metallic materials

Non – metallic (Natural materials)

Such materials are so diverse that only a few can be listed here to give a basic introduction to
some typical applications.
Wood: This is naturally occurring fibrous composite material used for the manufacture of
casting patterns.
Rubber: This is used for hydraulic and compressed air hoses and oil seals. Naturally
occurring latex is too soft for most engineering uses but it is used widely for vehicle tyres
when it is compounded with carbon black.
Glass: This is a hardwearing, abrasion-resistant material with excellent weathering
properties. It is used for electrical insulators, laboratory equipment, optical components in
measuring instruments etc and, in the form of fibers, is used to reinforce plastics. It is made
by melting together the naturally occurring materials: silica (sand), limestone (calcium
carbonate) and soda (sodium carbonate).

2. Mechanical properties (Static stress-strain properties)

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Application of forces on solid bodies under equilibrium results in the development

of internal resisting forces and the body undergoes deformations to a varying
degree.

Internal forces are called stresses.

Internal deformations are called strains.

Depending upon the arrangement and direction of the external forces, the stress
produced in a body may be:

(a) Tensile stress

(b) Compressive stress
(c) Shearing stress
(d) Bending stress
(e) Torsional stress
(f) Various combination of the above stresses

A material is said to be elastic if it recovers its original form. On the contrary if it

fails to recover its original form it is said to be plastic. Most engineering materials
are in part elastic and in part plastic.

Materials used for building structures are said to be strong if they are capable of
safely supporting their own weight and any applied loads without distortion.
Strength properties vary with the rate and frequency of loading and, in non-
homogeneous materials, with the direction of load. The moisture content (such as in
timber) and temperature (such as in plastics) also influence the strength properties.

Mechanical Tests
With reference to the arrangement and direction of external forces, the following
classification may be made:
(i) Tension test (Iv) Bending test
(ii) Compressive test (v) Torsion test
(iii) Shear test
With reference to the rate and duration of the load application.
(i) Static tests: made with gradually increasing load.
(ii) Dynamic tests: made with suddenly applied loads.
(iii) Wear tests: made to determine resistance to abrasion and impact.
(iv) Long-time tests: made with loads applied for a long period of time.
(v) Fatigue tests: made with fluctuating stresses repeated a large number of times.
With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen.
(i) Destructive tests: tests on specimens.

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(ii) Non-destructive tests: tests on existing structure.

The tension and compression tests are generally used to provide basic design
information on the strength of materials and as an acceptance test for the
specification of materials.

When a specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing axial tensile force, it is

assumed that the stress is distributed uniformly on the cross section (perpendicular
to the line of action of the force)
P
t 
A0
Where, t = tensile stress
P = applied load
A0 = area of the section perpendicular to the line of action of the applied force.
The stress t and strain  are called the nominal stress and strain since they don’t
include changes due to increase in length and reduction in area of the specimen.
Common types of nominal stress-strain diagrams.

Stress Type a
, Pa Type b
Stress
, Pa

Strain , Strain ,
(a) Ductile
mm/mmmaterials (b)mm/mm
Brittle material

Stress
, Pa

Strain, mm/mm
(c) Non-metallic elastic materials (soft
rubber)

A ductile material will exhibit a large deformation before complete failure whereas
a brittle material will fail without showing much deformation.

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For practical engineering purposes and many engineering materials, the initial stress
strain relations may be assumed to be linear.

 t ( p A0 ) PL0
t =E or E   
 ( l L0 ) A0 l

E, the slope of the straight line, is called the modulus of elasticity.

The stress-strain relation is referred to as Hook’s law.

Stress, Pa
B
c
Stress Stress e
b
, Pa d , Pa
a Plastic range
Ela

Elastic
range

Strain, mm/mm o A Strain , mm/mm

Elastic and Plastic strains for ductile material Determination of yield strength for brittle
materials
Hooks law applies for the elastic range.
Properties for the elastic range
(i) Proportional limit: the greatest stress which the material is capable of
withstanding without a deviation from the law of proportionality of stress to
strain. (point a)
(ii) Elastic limit: the greatest stress which a material is capable of withstanding
without a permanent deformation remaining upon release of stress. (point b)
(iii) Elastic strength - measured by the stress which represents the transition from
the elastic range to the plastic range (a to d are on the boundary between the
elastic and plastic ranges)
(iv) Yield point: stress at which there occurs a marked increase in strain without
an increase in stress (only for ductile materials).
c - Upper yield point.
d - Lower yield point.
It indicates transition from the elastic to the plastic range.

(v) Yield strength: the stress at which yielding occurs.

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Stress-strain relations of most materials do not show specific yield points.

To determine this stress, an offset strain OA = 0 is measured from the original O

(as shown in the second figure) and a line AB is drawn through the point A, parallel

to the straight line portion of the stress-strain curve. The stress, at the intersection

point e, is called the yield stress and is a measure of the yield strength based on the

offset method. A. S. T. M. commonly used values are 0 = 0.002 and 0 = 0.0035.

(vi) Modulus of Elasticity (young’s modulus) : the slope of the initial linear portion
of the stress-strain curve.

(vii) Stiffness: measured by its modulus of elasticity. A stiffer material exhibits a

relatively small deformation in the elastic range.

Properties for the plastic range

In the plastic range a permanent deformation remains in the stressed body after
complete removal of the load.

Plastic strength: it is the maximum stress a material can possibly resist just before
failure. It may correspond to the ultimate strength (ultimate stress) or to the fracture
(rupture) strength.

Stres Stress
Ultimate Ultimate or
s , Fracture , Pa
strength, u Fracture
Pa stress, f
stress, u

Strain , Strain , mm/mm

mm/mm
(a) Ductile material (b) Brittle material

Ductility: it represents the material ability to deform in the plastic range.

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It is measured by the percentage elongation.

L f  L0
De  * 100   f * 100 ; L0 = original length, Lf = length at rupture.
L0

It is also measured by the percentage reduction in area.

A0  A f
Da  * 100
A0

Toughness: materials ability to absorb energy in the plastic range. It comprises both
strength and ductility.
Stres
s

p Strain
f


T   d
f

p

Factors affecting materials properties:

The following are the more important factors which can be influence the properties and
performance of engineering materials.
Heat treatment
Processing
Environmental reactions