Content

SR NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1. Magnetism 1
a) Introduction 1
b) History 3
c) Sources of Magnetism 5
d) Hierarchy of types of Magnetism 5
2. Magnets 6
a) Magnetic Field 6
b) Magnetic Flux 7
c) Magnetic Lines of Forces 8
3. Earth As A Magnet 9
a) Earth’s Magnetic Field 11
4. Electromagnetism 12
c) Introduction 12
e) Electromagnets 13
5. Applications Of Magnetism 15
6. Effects Of Temperature 17
7. Oersted Experiment 18

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure to present the project report on
‘Magnetism’. This project is the result of appropriate mentoring
and guidance of a host of people.

I would like to thank my school institution and management for

giving me an opportunity to work on this project. I avail the
opportunity to convey my sincere thanks to my learned teacher ,
____________ who guided me and gave me valuable suggestions
without which this project would not have been completed.

I acknowledge the support and guidance of my family members

for their encouragement and guidance to complete this project.

I also thank my friends for their assistance in completion of the

project.

MAGNETISM

Introduction:
Magnetic phenomena are universal in nature. The term
magnetism is used to describe how materials respond on the
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microscopic level to an applied magnetic field; to
categorize the magnetic phase of a material. Substances that
are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as
non-magnetic substances. They include copper, aluminium,
water, gases, and plastic.
The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on
temperature (and other variables such as pressure and
applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more
than one form of magnetism depending on its temperature,
etc.
Materials are divided into groups based upon their magnetic
behavior:
 Diamagnetic materials produce a magnetization that
opposes the magnetic field.
 Paramagnetic materials produce a magnetization in the
same direction as the applied magnetic field.
 Ferromagnetic materials and the closely related
ferromagnetic materials and ant ferromagnetic
materials can have a magnetization independent of an
applied B-field with a complex relationship between
the two fields.

 Superconductors (and ferromagnetic superconductors)

are materials that are characterized by perfect
conductivity below a critical temperature and magnetic
field. They also are highly magnetic and can be perfect
diamagnets below a lower critical magnetic field.

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 Superconductors often have a broad range of
temperatures and magnetic fields.
Some of the commonly known ideas regarding
magnetism are:
1. The Earth behaves like a magnet with the magnetic
field pointing approximately from the geographic
south to the north.
2. When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in
the north-south direction. The tip which points to the
geographic north is called the North Pole and the tip
which points to the geographic south is called the
south pole of the magnet.
3. There is a repulsive force when like poles of any two
magnets are brought close together. Conversely,
there is an attractive force between the north pole of
one magnet and the south pole of the other.
4. We cannot isolate the north, or the south pole of a
magnet. If a bar magnet is broken into two halves,
we get two similar bar magnets with somewhat
weaker properties.
5. It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its
alloys.

History
Aristotle attributes the first of what could be called a
scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales, who lived
from about 625 BCE to about 545 BCE. Around the same

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time in ancient India, the Indian surgeon, Sushruta, was the
first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.
In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to
magnetism lies in a 4th century BCE book called Book of
the Devil Valley Master ( 鬼 谷 子 ): "The lodestone makes
iron come or it attracts it." The earliest mention of the
attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between
AD 20 and 100 (Louen-heng): "A lodestone attracts a
needle." The ancient Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031–
1095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle
compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by
employing the astronomical concept of true north (Dream
Pool Essays, AD 1088 ), and by the 12th century the
Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for
navigation.
Alexander Neckham, by 1187, was the first in Europe to
describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1282,
the properties of magnets and the dry compass were
discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer
and geographer.
In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete,
Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure
(On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great
Magnet the Earth). In this work he describes many of his
experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From
his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself
magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed
north {previously, some believed that it was the pole star
(Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that
attracted the compass}.

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An understanding of the relationship between electricity
and magnetism began in 1819 with work by Hans Christian
Oersted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who
discovered more or less by accident that an electric current
could influence a compass needle. This landmark
experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment. Several
other experiments followed, with André-Marie Ampère,
Carl Friedrich Gauss, Michael Faraday, and others finding
further links between magnetism and electricity.
James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these
insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity,
magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism.
In 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory
of special relativity, requiring that the laws held true in all
inertial reference frames.
Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the
twenty-first century, being incorporated into the more
fundamental theories of gauge theory, quantum
electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the
standard model.

Sources of Magnetism
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:

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  Electric currents or more generally, moving electric
charges create magnetic fields (see Maxwell's
Equations).
 Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin")
magnetic moments. Just as each particle, by its nature,
has a certain mass and charge, each has a certain
magnetic moment, possibly zero.

Hierarchy of types of magnetism

Magnets
Objects having magnetic field is called as magnets.
Normally magnets are of two types- Permanent magnets
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and Electro magnets. Permanent magnets are those magnets
which occur in nature and do not depend upon external
source for their magnetic field. On the other hand
electromagnets are those magnets which uses electric
current to generate magnetic field.

Magnetic Field:
The area around a magnet in which its effect is experienced
is called Magnetic Field. It is detected by the force it exerts
on other magnetic materials and moving electric charges.
The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a
direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a
vector field.
A changing magnetic field generates an electric field and a
changing electric field results in a magnetic field.
In view of special relativity, the electric and magnetic fields
are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called the
electromagnetic field. A pure electric field in one reference
frame is observed as a combination of both an electric field
and a magnetic field in a moving reference frame.
In quantum physics, the pure magnetic (and electric) fields
are understood to be effects caused by virtual photons.

There are two types of magnetic fields-

1. Uniform Magnetic Field
2. Non-uniform Magnetic Field

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  Uniform Magnetic Field-

When the intensity of every point of a field are equal at

every point of given field then the field is called Uniform
Magnetic Field.

 Non-uniform Magnetic Field-

When the intensity of every point of a field are

unequal at every point of given field then the field is
called Non-uniform Magnetic Field.

Magnetic Flux:
Magnetic flux (Greek letter Φ (phi)), is a measure of the
magnetic field strength existing on a two dimensional
surface, such as one side of a magnet. In textbook diagrams,
magnetic flux is usually pictured as cluster of vectors
attached to a geometrically abstract surface. Each vector
intersects a separate point on the surface. The SI unit of
magnetic flux is the weber (in derived units: volt-seconds),
and the unit of magnetic field is the weber per square meter,
or tesla. (In cgs units the unit of magnetic flux is the
maxwell.)

Magnetic Lines of Forces:

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A magnetic line of force is a smooth curve in a magnetic
field such that the tangent at any point on it gives the
direction of the magnetic field at that point.

Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paper

PROPERTIES-

 They are closed and continuous curves.

 Outside the magnet the direction is from north to south
and inside the magnet direction is from south to north.
 The tangent drawn at any point on the curve gives the
direction of the resultant force.
 They do not intersect each other.
 They are denser near the poles where the magnetic
field is strong and get separated where the magnetic
field is weak.
 They repel each other in the direction perpendicular to
it therefore the like poles repel each other.

Like poles repel like…

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 They experience tension along the lines of force
therefore unlike poles attract each other.

Opposites attract!

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 Earth as a Magnet
The Earth is a giant magnet. Its hot liquid centre core
contains iron, and as it moves, it creates an electric curent
that causes a magnetic field around the Earth. The Earth has
a north and south magnetic pole.

These poles aren't quite lined up with the geographic North

and South Poles on a map, because the moving inner core's
poles are always wandering around.

The north magnetic pole is currently situated near Bathurst

Island in northern Canada, about 1600 km from the North
Pole. (The south magnetic pole is near the Adélie Coast on
the continent of Antarctica, about 2600 km from the South
Pole). Both pole positions can wander up to 10 km per year.

Because the Earth has a field just like a magnet, it attracts

things. In particular, it will attract a small magnetised
needle. A needle mounted in a case that lets it move freely
will point to the north magnetic pole. We call this needle a
compass.

Using a compass in the north can give you problems. The

needle is actually pointing at the magnetic pole, which is
not right at the geographic pole. So your compass may read
north, when 'north' is actually in a slightly different
direction. Airplane pilots use a compass and map which
provide corrections for this 'magnetic variation', to allow
them to know which way is true north on the map. These
have to be updated every few years as magnetic north
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wanders away from, or towards actual north.

A compass needle on the surface of the Earth will point

along the magnetic field lines, towards the north magnetic
pole. The needle is actually a tiny magnet, with the north
end painted red. This red end is attracted to the 'north
magnetic pole'. This means that, magnetically speaking, the
north magnetic pole of the Earth is actually a south pole!
We call it the 'north' magnetic pole because it's near the top
of the Earth, or geographic north, but really it's a magnetic
'south' pole. That's why a compass needle's north end points
to it.

Earth's magnetic field lines also attract particles from outer

space. As particles stream down through the atmosphere
towards the magnetic poles, they cause the northern lights.

You can also use a special sort of compass to tell you how
far you are from the north magnetic pole. If you mount the
needle sideways, so that it can dip up and down, you have a
dip compass. The closer you are to the north magnetic pole,
the more the needle will tilt downwards. Right at the pole,
the needle will point straight down. Measuring this 'dip' at
the place you're located will tell you how close to the pole
you are.

Earth's magnetic field:

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Earth's magnetic field (and the surface magnetic field) is
approximately a magnetic dipole, with the magnetic field S
pole near the Earth's geographic north pole and the other
magnetic field N pole near the Earth's geographic south
pole. This makes the compass usable for navigation. The
cause of the field can be explained by dynamo theory.
Magnetic field extends infinitely, though it weakens with
distance from its source. The Earth's magnetic field, also
called the geomagnetic field, which effectively extends
several tens of thousands of kilometres into space, forms
the Earth's magnetosphere. A paleomagnetic study of
Australian red dacite and pillow basalt has estimated the
magnetic field to be at least 3.5 billion years old.

ELECTROMAGNETISM
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Introduction:
Electromagnetism is one of the four fundamental
interactions of nature, along with strong interaction, weak
interaction and gravitation. It is the force that causes the
interaction between electrically charged particles; the areas
in which this happens are called electromagnetic fields, also
known as B fields in physics classes.
Electromagnetism is the force responsible for practically all
the phenomena encountered in daily life (with the exception
of gravity). Ordinary matter takes its form as a result of
intermolecular forces between individual molecules in
matter. Electromagnetism is also the force which holds
electrons and protons together inside atoms, which are the
building blocks of molecules. This governs the processes
involved in chemistry, which arise from interactions
between the electrons orbiting atoms. However,
electromagnetic force does not create the "pushing" or
"pulling" between two separate material objects (lifting up
a coffee cup, for example).
The force of electromagnetism is manifested both in
electric fields and magnetic fields; both are simply different
aspects of electromagnetism, and hence are intrinsically
related to each other. Thus, a changing electric field
generates a magnetic field; conversely a changing magnetic
field generates an electric field. This effect is called
electromagnetic induction, and is the basis of operation for
electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers.

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Mathematically speaking, magnetic fields and electric fields
are convertible with relative motion as a four vector.
Electric fields are the cause of several common phenomena,
such as electric potential (such as the voltage of a battery)
and electric current (such as the flow of electricity through
a flashlight). Magnetic fields are the cause of the force
associated with magnets.
In quantum electrodynamics, electromagnetic interactions
between charged particles can be calculated using the
method of Feynman diagrams, in which we picture
messenger particles called virtual photons being exchanged
between charged particles. This method can be derived
from the field picture through perturbation theory.
The theoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the
development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in
1905.

Electromagnets:
An electromagnet consists of a coil of wire wrapped on an
iron core and generates magnetic flux when electricity is
allowed to pass through it. The coil forms the shape of the
tube which is called as solenoid. If ferromagnetic material
is placed inside the coil much stronger magnetic field can
be created. Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced
if a "core" of paramagnetic or ferromagnetic material
(commonly iron) is placed inside the coil.

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 An Electromagnet

How Electromagnet Works?

Electric current when passes through the soft iron core,
produces an energy which is called magnetic flux. If
insulated wire is wrapped around an iron or steel object, a
powerful magnetic field is produced. When electricity is
passed through a coiled wire a stronger magnetic field is
generated. The strength of the magnetic field depends upon
and is directly proportional to the number of coils, the
strength of the current, and the magnetic permeability of the
core material. Apart from these factors, the number of turns
made by the coil will determine the strength of the field.

Working of Electromagnet
Applications of Magnetism
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Electromagnets are utilized as key components of
transformers in power supplies that convert electrical
energy from a wall outlet into direct current energy for a
wide range of electronic devices, and in motors and
generators. High field superconducting magnets (where
superconducting coils generate the magnetic field) provide
the magnetic field in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
devices that are now used extensively in hospitals and
medical centers.
Magnetic materials that are difficult to demagnetize are
used to construct permanent magnets. Permanent magnet
applications are in loudspeakers, earphones, electric meters,
and small motors. A loudspeaker consists of a wire carrying
an alternating current. When the wire is in the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet it experiences a force that
generates a sound wave by alternate compression and
rarefaction of the surrounding air when the alternating
frequency of the current is in the audible range.
The more esoteric applications of magnetism are in the area
of magnetic recording and storage devices in computers,
and in audio and video systems. Magnetic storage devices
work on the principle of two stable magnetic states
represented by the 0 and 1 in the binary number system.
Floppy disks have dozens of tracks on which data can be
digitally written in or stored by means of a write-head and
then accessed or read by means of a read-head. A write-
head provides a strong local magnetic field to the region
through which the storage track of the disk is passed. The
read-head senses stray magnetic flux from the storage track
of the disk as it passes over the head. Another example of
digital magnetic storage and reading is the magnetic strip
on the back of plastic debit and credit cards. The magnetic
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strip contains identification data which can be accessed
through, for example, an automatic teller machine.

A Magnetic Crane

Effects of Temperature

Curie Law
The law is stated as follows :
“The magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to
temperature.”
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  = C/T

where C is the Curie constant.

Many paramagnetic substances obey the simple Curie law,

especially at high temperatures.

Curie-Weiss Law
This law is stated mathematically as follows:

 = C/(T + )

where  is the Weiss constant.

Oersted's experiment
Aim:
To study how the needle is deflected on passing electric
current through a metallic conductor

Apparatus:

Copper wire(50-100 cm) with bare ends, Plotting compass,

Power supply (low voltage)

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Procedure:
a. Using wire strippers, bare approximately 3 cm of each
end of the wire.
 
b. Connect the ends of the wire to the DC terminals (red
and black) of the power supply.
 
c. Switch the supply on so a large current flows through the
wire.
 
d. Hold the compass above and then below the wire.
Observe how it orientates itself in each position.

Result:

Electricity and Magnetism are linked to each other. Electric

current when passed through a wire produces magnetic
effect which deflects the compass needle.

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Bibliography
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Name of Books referred:
 World Of Physics
 Class XII NCERT Textbook
 Class X NCERT Textbook

Name of websites referred:

 www.wikipedia.com
 www.howstuffworks.com

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