SMA3013 LINEAR

ALGEBRA
SEMESTER 1 2020/2021
CHAPTER 1

MATRICES
Chapter 1: Matrices
• 1.1 Matrix notation & terminology
• 1.2 Types of matrices
• 1.3 Operations with matrices
• 1.4 Properties of matrix operations
• 1.5 Elementary row operation
• 1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
• 1.7 The determinant
• 1.8 Inverse
• 1.9 Elementary matrices
1.1 Matrix Notation & Terminalogy
Definition (Matrix):
An m x n matrix is an array of numbers with m rows
and n columns.

It is standard mathematical convention to represent matrices in any

one of the following:

1.An uppercase letter such as

A, B, or C
2.A representative elements/entries enclosed in brackets, such as
[aij], [bij], or [cij]
1.1 Matrix Notation & Terminalogy
3. A rectangular array of numbers

𝑎11 𝑎12⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

𝑎11 ,𝑎12 , 𝑎13 , … are called entries/elements of a matrix.

Note:
The entries – taken from R, C, Z etc

Example:
1.2 Types of Matrices

1. row matrix- a 1 × 𝑛 matrix

Example:

2. column matrix – an 𝑚 × 1 matrix

Example :

3. Square matrix – no. of rows = no. of column

Example:  3 1
C 
 4 5 
1.2 Types of Matrices (cont.)
4. diagonal entries – entries on the main diagonal of a square
matrix; 𝑎11, 𝑎22, … , 𝑎𝑛𝑛.
diagonal matrix – a matrix in which the entries outside the
main diagonal are all zero.
Example : 8 0 0 
D  0 6 0 
0 0 3

5. Identity matrix – a square matrix in which the main

diagonal are 1 and others are zero.
Example : 1 0 0 
E  0 1 0 
0 0 1 
1.2 Types of Matrices (cont.)

6. Scalar matrix – a diagonal matrix whose the

entries on the main diagonal are equal.
3 0 1 0
Example: B = =3
0 3 0 1
1.2 Types of Matrices (cont.)

Definition (Equality of Matrices)

Two matrices A = [ aij ] and B = [bij] are equal if they have the
same size (m x n) and
aij = bij for 1  i  m and 1  j  n
Examples:
Consider the four matrices
2 5 0  3 1
B  C 
 1 4 1   4 5 

-Matrices B & C are not equal because they are of different sizes.
-Matrices D & E are equal if and only if x = 5 and y = 1.
1.3 Operations with Matrices

1.3.1 Matrix Addition

Definition (Matrix Addition)

If A = [aij ] and B = [bij] are matrices of size m x n, then their
sum is the matrix given by
A + B = [aij + bij ].

The sum of two matrices of different sizes is undefined.

Examples
2 5 0 6 2 3 
Let B    and K   1 5  .
 1 4 1   2 

2+6 5 + (−2) 0 + 3 8 3 3
Then, 𝐵 + 𝐾 = =
−1 + (−1) 4+5 1+2 −2 9 3
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)

1.3.2 Scalar Multiplication

Definition (Scalar Multiplication)

If A = [aij ] is a m x n matrix and c is a scalar, then the scalar
multiple of A by c is the matrix given by
cA = [caij].

Examples
Let B   
2 5 0
 and c = 5 .
 1 4 1 

2 5 0 5(2) 5(5) 5(0) 10 25 0

Then, 𝑐𝐵 = 5 = = .
−1 4 1 5(−1) 5(4) 5(1) −5 20 5
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)

Note (Matrix Subtraction):

• – A can be used to represent the scalar product (– 1)A .
• If A and B are of the same size, A – B represent the sum of A
and (– 1)B . That is,
A – B = A + (– 1)B
Examples
Let B    , 6 2 3  and c = 5 .
2 5 0
 K 
 1 4 1   1 5 2 
Then,

2 5 0 6 −2 3
𝐵 − 𝑐𝐾 = 𝐵 + −𝑐 𝐾 = + (−5) =
−1 4 1 −1 5 2
2 + (−5) 6 5 + (−5) −2 0 + (−5) 3 −28 15 −15
= .
−1 + (−5) −1 4 + (−5) 5 1 + (−5) 2 4 −21 −9
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication

Definition (Matrix Multiplication)

If A = [aij ] is an m x n matrix and B = [bij] is a matrix of size n x p,
then the product AB is an m x p matrix given by
A B = [cij]
where

- to find the entry in the ith row and the jth column of AB, multiply
the entries in the ith row of A by the corresponding entries in the jth
column of B and then add the results.
- the product AB is defined if the size of column A = the size of row B.
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication (cont.)
Example

−1 3
−3 2
Find the product AB where 𝐴 = 4 −2 and 𝐵 = .
−4 1
5 0
Solution
A has size 3 × 2 and B has size 2 × 2, so ABhas size 3 × 2. 𝐴𝐵 =
−1 3 𝑐11 𝑐12
−3 2
4 −2 = 𝑐21 𝑐22
−4 1 𝑐31 𝑐32
5 0
to find 𝑐11, multiply corresponding entries in the 1st row of A
and the 1st column of B, and then add the results. That is
𝑐11 = −1 −3 + 3 −4 = −9
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication (cont.)
Similarly, to find 𝑐12, multiply corresponding entries in the 1st row of A
the 2nd column of B, and then add the results. That is
𝑐12 = −1 2 + 3 1 = 1

Continuing this pattern produced the following results.

𝑐21 = 4 −3 + −2 −4 = −4
𝑐22 = 4 2 + (−2) 1 = 6
𝑐31 = 5 −3 + 0 −4 = −15
𝑐32 = 5 2 + 0 1 = 10
Thus,

−1 3 −9 1
−3 2
𝐴𝐵 = 4 −2 = −4 6 .
−4 1
5 0 −15 10
* Can we find the product BA?
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
1.3.4 Matrix Power

If A is a square matrix and r , s are nonnegative integers, then

Example:
1. 𝐴2 𝐴3 = 𝐴2+3 = 𝐴5
2. 𝐴2 3 = 𝐴2(3) = 𝐴6
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
1.3.5 The Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of an m  n matrix A is the n  m matrix AT obtained
by interchanging the rows and columns of A. That is, the i th column
of AT is the i th row of A for all i.

Example.
Find the transpose of each matrix.
2 5 0  3 1
B  C 
 1 4 1   4 5

Answer:
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
Note:
A square matrix A is symmetric if and only if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇

Examples
1 3 2 
 1 2
A   3 5 0  B 
 1 3 
 2 0 4 

𝑇
1 3 2 1 3 2
𝐴𝑇 = 3 5 0 = 3 5 0 =𝐴
2 0 4 2 0 4

𝑇
1 2 1 −1
𝐵𝑇 = = ≠𝐵
−1 3 2 3
Thus, A is symmetric but B is not symmetric.
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)

Exercises:
1 2
1. Let  3 0   4 2 1   
A  , B    , C   3 4 
 1 5  0 2 3  5 6 
 
 0 3   1
D   , E  
 4 2 
 , F   
 2 1  2

Compute the indicated matrices(if possible).

i.A + 2D
ii.C – D
iii.D + BC
iv.BTCT – (CB)T
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
2. Let  2 4 2 
1 0 3   
A  & B   1 0 0 
 2 1 2   1 1 1
 
Find (i) c21 (ii) c13 , where C = AB.
4 −1 0
3. Let 𝐵 =
2 3 1
(a)Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BT B.
(b) Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BBT.

4. Solve for x, y and z in the matrix equation

x y y z 4 x 
4   2   2 
z 1 x 1  5  x 
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
5. Solve the equation for X, given that :
1 2  1 0 
A  and B   
 3 4   1 1 
(i)X – 2A + 3B = 0
(ii)2(A + 2B) = 3X

1 2
6. Consider 𝐴 = .
3 −2

i. Find 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇
ii. Determine whether 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 is symmetric.
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)

Exercise (Answer):
20 2 2 
 3 6   
B T B   2 10 3 
1. i.  
3. (a) (i) 20 (ii) 2
 2 3 1
 5 7  (b) (i) 17 (ii) 5  
17 5 
BB T  
ii. Not possible 
 5 14 

3 3
iii.   4. x = 3 ; y = 2 ; z = 1
19 27   2 4
5 4   3 3 
0 0 0 5. (i) X  (ii) X 
   3 5   10 4 
iv. 0 0 0  3 
0 0 0 
 2 5
6. i. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 = .
2.(i) c21 = -3 5 −4
(ii)c13 = -1
ii. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 is symmetric.
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations
1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication
Theorem:
Let A, B and C be matrices of the same size and let c and d be scalars. Then,
a. A+B = B+A (Commutative property of addition)
b. (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) (Associative property of addition)
c. c(A+B) = cA + cB (Distributive property)
d. (c+d)A = cA + dA (Distributive property)
e. c(dA) = (cd)A (Associative property of multiplication)
f. 1A = A (Multiplicative identity)
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)
1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication
Note:
 Generally, if A1, A2, … , Ak are matrices of the same size
and c1, c2, …, ck are scalars,
we may form the linear combination:

c1 A1  c2 A2  ...  ck Ak

where
c1, c2, …, ck are called as the coefficients of the linear
combination.
 1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)
1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication
Example :
Let

Determine whether A+B is commutative .

Solution
1 2   4 1  5 1
AB       
 2 1 1 2  3 1 

 4 1  1 2  5 1
BA     
 1 2   2 1  3 1 

Thus, A+B=B+A. Therefore, A+B is commutative.

1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Theorem:
Let A, B and C be matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix products are
defined) and c is a scalar, the following properties are true.
a. (AB)C= A(BC) (Associative property of multiplication)
b. A(B+C) = AB + AC (Distributive property)
c. (A+B)C = AC + BC (Distributive property)
d. C(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB)

Note: Multiplication is not commutative. Therefore, it is not necessary AB = BA.

1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Example :
Let

Show that the matrix product is not commutative (AB  BA)

Solution:

Then, AB  BA.
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication

Example :
Let

Determine whether the matrix product is associative.

 1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices

Definition (Zero Matrix)
If A is an mxn matrix and Omn is the m x n matrix consisting entirely of
zeros, then,
A + Omn = A.
The matrix Omn is called a zero matrix (additive identity for the set of
all m x n matrices).

Example :
The additive identity for the set of all 2x3 matrices.
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices (cont.)

Theorem (Properties of Zero Matrix)
If A is an mxn matrix and c is a scalar, then, the following properties are
true
1.A + Omn = A.
2.A + (-A) = Omn
3.If cA = Omn then c = 0 or A = Omn
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

1.4.4 Properties of Transposes

Theorem (Properties of Transposes)
If A and B are matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix operations
are defined) and c is a scalar, then the following properties are true.
1.(AT)T = A
2.(A + B)T = AT + BT
3.If (cA)T = c(AT)
4.(AB)T = BTAT
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

Theorem
a. If A is a square matrix, then A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
b. For any matrix A, AAT and ATA are symmetric matrices.

Proof (a):
(A + AT)T = AT + (AT)T (by property of transpose (no. 2))
= AT + A (by property of transpose (no. 1))
= A + AT. (commutativity of matrix add.)
Then,
A + AT is symmetric . 
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)

Proof (b):
(AAT)T = (AT)T AT (by property of transpose (no. 4))
= A AT (by property of transpose (n0. 1))

Then,
A AT is symmetric . 
 1.5 Elementary Row Operations (ERO)
Note:
ERO – a procedure (an allowable operations) to reduce any matrix to a
matrix in row echelon form (ref) or reduced row echelon form
(rref).
- can be performed on a system of linear equations to transform it
into an equivalent system.

Definition (Elementary Row Operations)

The following elementary row operations can be performed on a matrix:
1. Interchange two rows.
2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of a row to another row.
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (ERO)

Notations for the three elementary row operations:

1. Ri  Rj means the interchange rows i and j.
2. kRi means multiply row i by a nonzero constant k.
3. Ri + kRj means add k times of row j to row i (and replace row i
with the result).

The process of applying elementary row operations to bring a matrix

into ref or rref is called row reduction.
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (cont.)
Example.

a. Interchange the first and second row.

Original matrix notation New row equivalent matrix

 0 2 4   3 5 1
R1 R2
 3 5 1 
  0 2 4 
   
12 4 2  12 4 2 

b. Multiply the third row by ½ .

Original matrix notation New row equivalent matrix

 3 5 1 1 3 5 1 
 0 2 4  R3 0 2 4 
  
 2
 
12 4 2  6 2 1 
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (cont.)
c. Add -2 times the first row to the third row to produce a new third row.

Original matrix notation New row equivalent matrix

3 5 1  3 5 1
0 2 4  R3 ( 2 )R1 0 2 4 
    
6 2 1  0 12 1
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Definition. (Row Echelon Form (REF))
A matrix is in row echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:
1. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros are at the bottom.
2. The first nonzero entry (called the leading entry/ pivot ) of a
nonzero row is always to the right of any leading entries of the row
above it.

Example.
The following matrices are in row echelon form.

2 4 1 1 0 1  1 1 2 1  0 2 0 1 1 3
 0 1 2  0 1 5 0 0 1 3  0 0 1 1 2 2 
      
 0 0 0  0 0 1 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 4 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 5
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Strategy:

Example Work column by column,

from left to right and from
Reduce the following matrix to row echelon form. top to bottom to create a
leading entry in a column
1 1 1  and then use it to create
2 3 1  zeros below it.
  - Use the 2nd ERO to make
1 1 2 
leading entry a 1 (not
strictly necessary)
Solution
1 1 1  1 1 1  1 1 1 
 2 3 1   R2  ( 2) R1
 0 1 1 R3  ( 1) R1
 0 1 1
     
1 1 2  1 1 2  0 2 3
1 1 1 
R3  2 R2
 0 1 1
  REF
0 0 5
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)

Remarks:
 The row echelon form (ref) of a matrix is not unique.
 The leading entry in each row is used to create the zeros
below it.
 The pivots are not necessarily the entries that are originally in the
positions eventually occupied by the leading entries.
 Once we have pivoted and introduced zeros below the leading entry
in a column, that column does not change. (The row echelon form
emerges from left to right, top to bottom).
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Definition (Row Equivalent)

Matrices A and B are row equivalent if there is a sequence of

elementary row operations that converts A and B.

Example

1 1 1  1 1 1 
2 3 1  0 1 1
  and  
1 1 2  0 0 5

are row equivalent.

Theorem
Matrices A and B are row equivalent if and only if they can be reduced to
the same row echelon form.
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Definition. (Reduced Row Echelon Form (RREF) )
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (rref) if it satisfies the following
properties:
1. It is in row echelon form
2. The leading entry in each nonzero row is a 1 (called leading 1)
3. Each column containing a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else.
Example.
The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form (rref).
Note:
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 3 0 0 i. ref not necessary
0 1 0  0 1 5  0 0 1 0  rref
  
0 0 1  0 0 0  0 0 0 1  ii. Not ref →not rref
iii. rref→ref
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO , REF and RREF):

1. Determine whether the matrix is in REF or RREF or neither.

1 0 0 0 2 0 1 3
   0 1 0 0   
(i) 0  1 1 2 (ii)  (iii) 0 1 1 4  
0 0 0 0   1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1
 
1 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 0  1 0 0 0
     
(iv ) 0  1 3 4 (v) 0 0  0 1 0 (vi)0 0 0  1 
0 0 1 0  0 0 0 2 0  0 0 0 0 
   
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO , REF and RREF):
2. Reduce the following matrices into REF.

0 2 3   1 1 1 2 
 1 2 1    
(i)  (ii) 2 3 1 (iii)  2 2  1 3  
 2 3 1   1 1 2   1 1 1 0 
   

3. Show that the given matrices are row equivalent by showing these
two matrices can be reduced to the same REF.

 2 0 1 3 1 1
   
A1 1 0 B  3 5 1 
 1 1 1  2 2 0 
   
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO , REF and RREF):

4. Reduce the following matrices into RREF.

3 5  3 2 1  2 4 7 
     
(i)5  2   ( ) 2 ii 1 1 ( ) 3 iii 6 10
  
2 4   4 3 1  1 2 3 
     
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO, REF, RREF) (Answer):

1. (i) RREF (ii) neither (iii) REF but not RREF (iv) REF but not RREF
(v) neither (vi) REF and RREF

2.

3. Hint: Reduce both matrices until you get the following REF
 1
1 0  2 
 
0 1 1 
 2 
 
0 0 0 
 
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO, REF, RREF) (Answer):

4. 1 0 1 0 −1 1 2 0
(i) 0 1 (ii) 0 1 −1 (iii) 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
Every square matrix can be associated with a real number called
its determinant.

Definition ( Determinant of a 2x2 matrix)

𝑎11 𝑎12
The determinant of the matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑎22 is given by det 𝐴 =
21
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴 = 𝑎 = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12 .
21 𝑎22

Example
Compute the determinant of
2 −3
𝐴=
1 2

𝐴 = 2 2 − 1 −3 = 4 + 3 = 7
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
To define the determinant of a square matrix of order higher than
2, it is convenient to use minors and cofactors.

Minors and Cofactors of a Square Matrix

If A is a square matrix, then the minor Mij of the entry aij , is the
determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting the ith row and jth
column of A. The cofactor Cij of the entry aij is
Cij = (-1)i + j Mij

For example, if A is a 3x3 matrix,

 a11 a12 a13 
A   a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 

then the minors and cofactors of 𝑎21 and 𝑎22 are as follows.
 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
Minor of 𝑎21 : Delete row 2 and column 1

𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑀21 = 𝑎 𝑎33 = 𝑎12 𝑎33 − 𝑎32 𝑎13
32

Cofactor of 𝑎21 , 𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 𝑀21 = −𝑀21

Minor of 𝑎22 : Delete row 2 and column 2

𝑎11 𝑎13
𝑀22 = 𝑎 𝑎33 = 𝑎11 𝑎33 − 𝑎31 𝑎13
31

Cofactor of 𝑎22 , 𝐶22 = (−1)2+2 𝑀22 = 𝑀22

 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
As you can see, the minors and cofactors of a matrix can differ
only sign. To obtain the cofactors of a matrix, 1st find the minors
and then apply the checkerboard pattern of +’s and –’s.
Note:
The odd positions(i+j is odd) have negative signs, and even
positions(i+j is even) have positive signs.

Sign Pattern for Cofactors:

   
    

   
 
3 x3    
4 x4
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
Example:
Find all the minors and cofactors of
0 2 1
𝐴= 3 −1 2
4 0 1
0 2 1
−1 2 0 2 1
3 −1 2 𝑀11 = = −1 3 2
0 1 3 −1 2 𝑀12 = = −5
4 0 1 4 1
4 0 1
0 2 1
2 1 0 2 1
3 −1 2 𝑀21 = =2 0 1
0 1 3 −1 2 𝑀22 = = −4
4 0 1 4 1
4 0 1
0 2 1 0 2 1
3 −1 2 2 1 0 1
𝑀31 = =5 3 −1 2 𝑀32 = = −3
4 0 1 −1 2 3 2
4 0 1
 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix

0 2 1
3 −1 2 3 −1
𝑀13 = =4
4 0 1 4 0
0 2 1
3 −1 2 0 2
𝑀23 = = −8
4 0 1 4 0
0 2 1
3 −1 2 0 2
𝑀33 = = −6
4 0 1 3 −1

Now, to find the cofactors, combine the minors with

checkerboard pattern of sign.

𝐶11 = 𝑀11 = −1 𝐶12 = −𝑀12 = − −5 = 5𝐶13 = 𝑀13 = 4

𝐶21 = −𝑀21 = − 2 = −2 𝐶22 = 𝑀22 = −4 𝐶23 = 𝑀23 = − −8 = 8
𝐶31 = 𝑀31 = 5 𝐶32 = −𝑀32 = − −3 = 3𝐶33 = 𝑀33 = −6
 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
Definition (Determinant of nxn matrix)
If A is a square matrix of order n  2, then the determinant of A is
the sum of the entries in the first row of A multiplied by their
respective cofactors. That is,

det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝑎1𝑗 𝐶1𝑗 = 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎12 𝐶12 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝐶1𝑛

𝑗=1

*when we use this definition, we are evaluating a determinant by cofactor

expansion along the 1st row.

Example
0 2 1
Find the determinant of 𝐴 = 3 −1 2
4 0 1

det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13

 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix

𝐶11 = −1, 𝐶12 = 5, 𝐶13 = 4

det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 0 −1 + 2 5 + 1 4 = 14

Although the determinant is defined as an expansion by the cofactors in the 1st

row, it can be shown that the determinant can be evaluated by expanding in
any row or column,

2nd row expansion

det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝐶21 + 𝑎22 𝐶22 + 𝑎23 𝐶23

𝐶21 = −2, 𝐶22 = −4, 𝐶23 = 8

det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 3 −2 + (−1) −4 + 2 8 = 14
 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix

1st column expansion

det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝑎11 𝐶11 + 𝑎21 𝐶21 + 𝑎31 𝐶31

𝐶11 = −1, 𝐶12 = −2 , 𝐶13 = 5

det 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 0 −1 + 3 −2 + 4 5 = 14

*The row (or column) containing the most zeros is usually the
best choice for expansion by cofactors.
 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
Example

Compute the determinant of the following matrix using the

cofactor expansion.
 2 3 0 1
5 4 2 0  Which row/ column
A suitable to choose?
 1 1 0 3
 
 2 1 0 0

Choose 3rd column since

it has only one nonzero
entry
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Exercises (Determinant):
1. Compute the determinant of the matrix.
 3 2 1 1 4 2   1 2 1
     
( )i A 4  5 6 ( ) ii 3B 2 0 ( ) iii 2C 4
2 
 2 3 1  1 4 3   1 3 3 
    
1 
2 1 5 
x y 1    0.4 0.4 0.3 
  1  
( iv) D 2  2  1  ( ) v 4E   4 ( )  vi
0.2F 0.2
 0.2 
4
 1 5 1    0.3 0.2 0.2 
   
3 2 2 
 
4 3 2 5  0 2 4 5  1 2 7 9
     
1 6 1 2  3 0 3 6 3 4 5 5
( vii) G   ( viii) H   ( ) ix I  
 3 2 4 5 2 4 5 7 3 6 1 1
     
 6 1 3 2   5 1 3 1  4 5 3 2 
w x y z 
 
21 15 24 30 
( x) J  
 10 24 32 18 
 
 40 22 32 35 
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)

2. Find the determinants of matrices in Question 1 by using the method of

expansion by cofactors.
(a) 2rd row
(b) 3nd column
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Exercises (Determinant) - Answer:
1. ( )i 75
 ( ) ii  ( )2 iii
58
( iv) 7  x3 y8  ( ) v  ( 0.002
43.5 ) vi
( vii) 1098
 ( )5viii
85 ( 136
) ix
( x)65644 w62256
 x12294
 y24672
 z

2. Same answer as in Question 1.

1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Definition (Triangular Matrices)

An m x n matrix is an upper triangular if aij = 0, for all i > j, and is

lower triangular if aij = 0, for all i < j.

A square matrix is a diagonal matrix if

aij = 0, for all i  j.

Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix

1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Examples.

Upper triangular matrices:

Lower triangular matrices are:

 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Theorem
The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of the entries on
its main diagonal. Specifically, if A = [aij] is nxn, then

det A  a11a22 ... ann

Example
To compute the determinant of
det A = 1(4)(1) = 4
1 1 3 
A  0 4 2 
0 0 1 
 1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Exercises (Triangular Matrix):

Find the determinant of the triangular matrix.

5 3 0 
 
i. A  0 1 2 
0 0 8 
 
Answer:
4 0 0 0 i.-40
 
 1 1 ii.-12
ii. 0 0
B  2  iii.7
3 5 3 0
 
 8 7 0 2 

7 8 4 3 1
 
iii. 0 1 5 3 13 
 4 
C 
0 0 2 5 4
 
0 0 0 1 1 
 
0 0 0 0 2 
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Theorem (Conditions that Yield a Zero Determinant)

Let A is a square matrix and one of the following conditions is true, then
det(A) = 0.

1. An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.

2. Two rows (or columns) are equal.
3. One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or column)

Example.

The first row The first & third The 3rd column is a multiple
has all zeros row are the same of the first column
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
1.7.1 Properties of Determinant
Theorem (Determinant of matrix product)
If A & B are square matrices of order n, then
det(AB) = det(A). det(B)

Theorem (Determinant of a Scalar Multiple of a Matrix)

If A is an nxn matrix and k is a scalar, then the determinant of kA
is given by
det (kA) = kn det A.
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
1.7.2 Properties of Determinant (cont.)
Theorem (Determinant of a Transpose)
If A is a square matrix , then
det (A) = det (AT)

Example.

Given . Show that | A | = | AT |.

Answer: det(A) = det(AT) = -6

 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix
Definition (Inverse/ invertible)
An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix A is invertible (or nonsingular) if there exists an
𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix B such that
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼𝑛
where 𝐼𝑛 is the identity matrix of order n. The matrix B is called the
inverse of A. A matrix that does not have an inverse is called
noninvertible (or singular).

- Non-square matrices
do not have inverses.
- Not all square matrix
does have an inverse.
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix

Example

 2 5  3 5
If A    , then A '    is an inverse of A since
 1 3   1 2 
1 0  1 0 
AA’=   and A’A=  
 0 1   0 1 
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix
Theorem (Uniqueness of Inverse Matrix)
If A is invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique. The inverse of A is
denoted by 𝐴−1 .

NOTE:
- Matrix A will have an inverse if
and only if its determinant is
not equal to zero.
- Matrix A will have an inverse if
and only if it is row equivalent
to the identity matrix
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix

Example
1 2 12 −15
Determine whether 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = are invertible.
3 4 4 −5

Solution
We have det A = 1 4 − 3 2 = −2 ≠ 0, so A is invertible
On the other hand, det 𝐵 = 12 −5 − 4 −15 = 0, so B is not
invertible.
OR

1
𝑅2 −13𝑅1 −22𝑅2 𝑅1 −2𝑅2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 0
13 4 0 −22 0 1 0 1
Since the RREF of matrix A is the identity matrix, A is invertible .
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix

1
5
12 −15 12𝑅1 1 −4 𝑅2 −4𝑅1 1 2
4 −5 4 −5 0 0
Since the RREF of matrix B is not the identity matrix, B is not invertible .
 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Theorem

a b 
If A    , then A is invertible if ad  bc  0 , in which
c d 
1 1  d b 
A   a 
case .
ad  bc   c

If ad  bc  0 , then A is not invertible.

Examples

1 2 
Find the inverses of A    .
3 4 
 2 1 
1  4 2  3 
A1  
2  3 1  
1
 
2 2
 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Theorem (Adjoint/Adjugate Method)

Let A be an invertible nxn matrix. Then

1 1
A  adj A
det A

where adj A is the adjoint (or adjugate) of A.

The matrix,  C11 C21 ... Cn1 

C C ... C 
[C ji ]  [Cij ]  
T 12 22 n 2 
 : : : : 
 
C1n C2 n ... Cnn 
is called the adjoint of A, denoted by adj A.
 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Example

Use the adjoint method to compute the inverse of

1 2 1
A   2 2 4 
1 3 3

Solution:

From the computation, det A = -2. Now, the nine cofactors will be,

2 4 2 4 2 2
C11    18 C12    10 C13   4
3 3 1 3 1 3
 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
2 1 1 1 C23  
1 2
 1
C21   3 C22    2
3 3 1 3 1 3

2 1 1 1 C33  
1 2
 2
C31    10 C32    6 2 2
2 4 2 4

The adjoint is the transpose of the matrix cofactors – namely,

 18 10 4 
T
 18 3 10 
adjA   3 2 1   10 2 6 
 10 6 2   4 1 2 
Then,
 3 
 9  5
1  18 3 10  2
1
A  adjA   1  10 2 6   
  5 1 3
det A 2 
 4 1 2   1 
 2 1
 2 
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Theorem (Gauss-Jordan Method)
Let A be a square matrix. If a sequence of elementary row
operations reduces A to I, then the same sequence of elementary
row operations transforms I into A-1.

Example
Find the inverse of
1 2 1
A   2 2 4 
1 3 3
by using the Gauss Jordan method.
 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Solution.

1 2 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 0
R2 – 2R1
[A | I]  2 2 4 0 1 0 0 2 6 2 1 0
1 3 3 0 0 1 R3 – R1 0 1 2 1 0 1

1 2 1 1 0 0 R3 + 2R2 1 0 3 3 0 2
R2  R3 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 1
R1 -2R2
0 2 6 2 1 0 0 0 2 4 1 2

R3 /3 1 0 3 3 0 2 1 0 0 9 3 / 2 5
R2 + 2R3
0 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 5 1 3
R1 – 3R3
0 0 1 2 1/ 2 1 0 0 1 2 1/ 2 1

 9 3 / 2 5
Therefore,
A1   5 1 3 
 2 1/ 2 1 
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)

Theorem (Properties of Inverse Matrices)

If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer, and c is a nonzero

scalar, then A-1, Ak , cA and AT are invertible and the following are
true.

1. ( A1 )1  A

2.

1 1
3. (cA) 1  A
c
4.
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Example.

Given .

Compute A-2 in two different ways and show that the results are equal.

Solution:
1st way – find A2 and then (A2)-1 :

2nd way – find A-1 and then (A-1)2 : Note that each
method
produces the
 same result.
 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)

Theorem (The Inverse of a Product)

If A and B are invertible matrices of size n, then AB is invertible and

(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1

Note:
Previous theorem can be generalized to products of finitely many
invertible matrices:
If A1 , A2 ,..., An are invertible matrices of the same size, then
A1 , A2 ,..., An is invertible and
( A1 A2 ... An )1  An1... A21 A11
 1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Example
Suppose that B is an invertible matrix and A is any matrix with AB = BA. Show
that A and B-1 commute.

Solution:

( To show AB-1 = B-1A )

From hypothesis  AB = BA.

Multiply both sides with B-1.
Then,
(AB)B-1 = (BA) B-1
A(B B-1) = B (A B-1)
A I = B A B-1
B-1 A = B-1 B A B-1
B-1 A = A B-1 .
Therefore,
A and B-1 commute.
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Theorem (The Fundamental of Invertible Matrices)
Let A be an n  n matrix. The following statements are equivalent:
a. A is invertible.
b. Ax =b has a unique solution for every b in Rn.
c. Ax =0 has only the trivial solution.
d. The reduced row echelon form of A is In.
Detailed discussion about this theorem in Chapter 2.
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Exercises (Inverse of a Matrix):

1. Determine whether the following matrix is invertible.

 3 5 2  2 3 1
 3 1    
( )i A    ( ) ii 2B  4 1  ( ) iii0 C5  3 
 2 2   3 0 6   4 6 2 
  
5 3 0 6 4 7 9 1  11 3 8 13 
     
4 6 4 12  6 2 7 0 0 0 11 7
( iv) D   ( ) v E  ( ) vi F   
0 2 3 4  3 6 3 3   0 0 24 9 
     
0 1 2 2  0 7 4 1  0 0 0 15 

2. Determine the inverse of the following matrix by using:

(a) The adjoint Method
(b) The Gauss Jordan Method
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
1 0 3 7 2 1 1 2 3 
     
( )i A 0  1 2 ( ) ii 0B  3 1 ( ) iii 1C 4 
0 
2 1 0   3 4 2  5 6 0 
     
 1 2 0 1
 1 3 0 1 1 1  
    3 2 1 0
( iv) D 2  2  1 ( ) v 1E 1  1 ( )  vi F   
1 0 2 1 
 4 1 1 1 2 4   
    0 3 1 2
 
0 1 0 3 
 
1 2 3 1
( vii) G   
0 0 2 2 
 
 1 2 4 1 
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)

3. Find the value(s) of k such that A has no inverse (singular).

1 0 3  1 k 2
k  1 3     
( )i A  ( ) ii 2B 1 0  ( ) iii2 C0    k 
 2 k  2
4 2 k  3 1 4 
  
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Exercises (Inverse of a Matrix)- Answer:

)i
1. ( det A6 0.Invertible.(
 ii
) det 3 B 0.Invertible.
 
( iii) det C0.Not
 Invertible.( )det iv 0.DNotInvert
 ible.
( v)det E1344  0.Invertible.
 vi
( ) det 0.FNotInver
 tible.
 1 3 3 
 2 4 4 
  2 8 5   24 18 5
2. ( )i A 1
1

3 1
 ( ) ii
 
B3  11 7 ( ) 
1
iii 20C 1 
15 4  

2 2 
   9 34 21  5 4 1 
1 1 1   
   
 2 4 4 
 9 7 13 17 
1 3 3  2 6 2   
1  1  1  12 2 10 8 
( iv) D   2  1  1 ( ) v
1
E 3 3 0 ( )  vi
1
F 1  
5 6 22  5 1 17 7 
 6 13 8   1 3 2   
   
 2 4 2 6 
 7 
2 3 2 4
 
 1 3 3 3 
( vii) G 1   2
 
0 1 0 1
 1 
0 1  1
 2 
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
4
3. ( )i k 1
,4 ( ) ii 24k( ) iii , k1  
3
1.9 Elementary Matrices
Definition (Elementary Matrix)

An nxn matrix is called elementary matrix if it can be obtained from the

identity matrix In by single elementary row operation.

Examples
Let 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 
3 0 0  0 1 0 0  E3  
0
E1   E2   and
0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
     
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1

3R2 R1  R3 R4 – 2R2
1.9 Elementary Matrices (cont.)
Example.

Which of the following matrices are elementary? For those that are, describe the
corresponding elementary row operation.

a.

Elementary - ERO 3R2

b.
Not Elementary since not square matrix

c.
Elementary - ERO R2 + 2R1

d. Not Elementary since two ERO - 2R2 & -1R3

1.9 Elementary Matrices (cont.)
Exercises:

Determine whether the matrix is elementary. If it is, state the elementary row
operation (ERO) used to produce it.

a.
a. Elementary – ERO 2R2
b. Not elementary – two ERO
c. Elementary – ERO R3 + 5R1
b.
d. Not elementary – two ERO

c.

d.
1.9 Elementary Matrices (cont.)
Exercises:

Let A, B, C be

Find,

i.Elementary matrix E such that EA = B

ii.Elementary matrix E such that EA = C
iii.Elementary matrix E such that EB = A