Common Student Misconceptions of Acids and Bases

1. “Substances containing H are acidic; substances containing OH are basic.”

Many substances that contain H are not acids and many substances that contain OH are
not bases. Table sugar (sucrose), C6H12O6, contains H and OH; however, when
dissolved in water it dissolves as intact molecules and does not ionize to produce any H+
or OH– ions, as shown by the equation:
C6H12O6(s) + H2O(l) C6H12O6(aq). Since sugar molecules do not lose any H+ or
OH– ions, sugar is not considered an acid. Alcohols have a characteristic hydroxyl group,
OH, covalently bonded to the rest of the molecule. When alcohols dissolve in water they
also dissolve molecularly and do not ionize. Since no OH– ions are released, alcohols are
not bases—they actually are weak acids! Another approach is to consider the following
substances containing OH groups: NaOH, CH3OH, CH3COOH, and SO2(OH)2. The first
is a strong base in water, the second (methanol) has neither acidic or basic properties in
water, the third (acetic acid) is a weak acid in water, and the latter (H2SO4) is a strong
acid in water. The concept of bonding (see Chemical Bonding module) is useful with this
approach.

2. “When a ‘proton donor’ acid reacts, the nucleus of an atom loses a proton.”
When we speak of acids as proton donors we are talking about the single proton in a
hydrogen ion, H+, not a proton from the nucleus of some other atom. Although chemists
commonly refer to acids and bases as proton donors and proton acceptors, it is important
to realize that H+ is being moved from one chemical species to another, not a proton from
one nucleus to another. Furthermore, if nuclear protons were transferred, then elements
would change their identities in acid-base reactions, since the atomic numbers of the
atoms involved would be altered. Another effective way to deal with this confusion is to
have students draw a “structure” for the hydrogen atom. Attention should be drawn to
what is in the hydrogen nucleus, and students ask, “If weremove an electron from a
hydrogen atom, what is left?” It is then fairly easy for students to understand that a
hydrogen ion is a bare proton, but not theproton drawn from the nucleus of just any atom.

3. “Strength and concentration mean the same thing.”

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 These two terms are often confused by students. Concentration refers to the amount of
solute in some specified amount of solution. Strength refers to the percent of molecules
that ionize and form ions in solution. Hydrochloric acid is considered a strong acid
because in aqueous solutions nearly all the molecules ionize to produce H+ and Cl– ions.
Acetic acid is considered a weakacid because only about 1% of the molecules normally
ionize. It is interesting to note that the percent of acid molecules that normally ionize in a
weak acid actually increases as the acid concentration is decreased through dilution with
water. Thus, acetic acid actually becomes slightly stronger as the solution is diluted.

4. “Concentration and amount mean the same thing.”

Some students have difficulty distinguishing the concepts of amount and concentration. By
international convention (SI), the amount of a substance is measured in moles. Solution
concentration is frequently expressed as Molarity (M), which is a ratio of moles of solute
to liters of solution. Thus, simply stating Molarity does not give amount of substance; the
volume must also be known. The amount of acid, in moles, is found from the relationship:

Moles = Molarity X Volume (in liters) Thus, the amount of solute in these solutions: 1.0 L
of 2.0 M
2.0 L of 1.0 M
0.50 L of 4.0 M
is 2.0 mol in each. It is apparent that the concentrations, 2.0, 1.0, and 4.0 M, are not
identical. Concentration is not, then, the same as amount. This is emphatically illustrated
by discussing the relative effects of 1 drop of concentrated sulfuric acid (0.05 mL of 18 M
H2SO4) and 9 L of 0.1 M sulfuric acid. While both contain 0.9 moles of acid molecules, a
single drop of the former solution causes a painful burn, while the latter is harmless.

Demonstrate this using a paper towel rather than skin! The concentrated acid eats through
the paper, leaving a carbonized patch; but dropping a towel into a plastic bucket of the
diluted acid (1 drop in 9 L) causes no change. You may choose to illustrate concentration
vs. amount using the following visual system, which does not refer to acid-base concepts,
but uses food coloring (see SourceView: Problem Solving, also). Place 3-4 drops of food
coloring in a 100 to 250-mL graduated cylinder filled about a third full with water. Stir.
Set this on an illuminated overhead projector stage. Add water, having students observe

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 from top and side. Ask if any more dye was added. Point out that the side view shows the
dilution effect while the top view (color constant) indicates the total amount of dye
substance. For an explanation of how color and concentration are related, read on.
The color varies according to Beer’s Law.
A = abc where,
A = Absorption
a = Molar absorptivity (a constant for a given colored species)
b = Light path length or solution “thickness,” and
c = Concentration of colored species
As water was added, a remained constant, c decreased, cross section b remained constant.
Thus from the side, A = abc decreased. From above, however, b increased as much as c
decreased so A = abc was constant.

5. “Ammonium hydroxide is the name of the solution formed when ammonia gas
dissolves in water.”
Ammonia gas does readily dissolve in water. After it has dissolved, the equilibrium
represented by the following expression is eventually attained.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq).
Sometimes this solution is called ammonium hydroxide. However, the equilibrium lies far
to the left; few ammonium ions, NH 4+, or hydroxide ions, OH–, are present. The
compound NH4OH has not been isolated. Water solutions of ammonia are weak
electrolytes. Aqueous ammonia is a better name. Ammonia is a weak base.

6. “A neutral solution always has a pH equal to 7.”

The percent of water molecules that ionizes depends a great deal on temperature. Only at
25 oC does [H+] x [OH–] = 10–14, giving a pH of 7 at neutrality. As temperature
increases so does the percent of water molecules that ionize. Thus, at higher temperatures
the pH of neutrality decreases. At body temperature, 37 C, the pH of neutral water is
6.81.

7. “A neutralization reaction produces a neutral solution.”

A neutralization reaction is one in which acid and base properties disappear when an acid
solution is added to a base solution. A solution of an ionic compound (a salt) results. This

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 solution may or may not be “neutral’ (that is, have a pH of 7; see the Hydrolysis section
under Extensions ).

8. “A pH = 0 means that no acid or base is present.”

A solution with a pH = 0 would be very acidic—in fact, the solution would have a
hydrogen ion concentration of 1 M. [pH = –log(1) = 0]

9. “The compound HNaO would be considered an acid.”

Students often think that the way a compound’s formula is written determines whether the
compound is an acid or a base. Because of the way that Na, O, and H interact, they
produce a compound commonly known as sodium hydroxide. No matter how we write
the formula (HNaO or NaOH), the same basic compound is produced. A similar
confusion can arise when acetic acid is written as HC2H3O2 or CH3COOH. In both cases
an acidic compound is represented. The difference is that the first is written to correspond
to the way most mineral acids are written, while the second gives a better indication of its
actual organic carboxylic structure. It’s not how we write the formulas, but how the atoms
in the structure actually interact that determines the properties of compounds.

10. “The end point and neutralization point in a titration are the same.”
Not so—neutralization involves consuming all acid and base; end point depends on
indicator color change.

11. “A concentrated acid is a pure substance.”

Acids are usually used in aqueous solutions and are mixtures, not pure substances.

12. “Concentrated acids are much more dangerous than concentrated bases.”
Most beginning chemistry students have some knowledge of the dangers of concentrated
acids. (Battery acid, horror movies, etc.) These same students have little or no knowledge
of bases and their properties. Students should be reminded that most “bowl cleaners” are
concentrated bases because they are good at dissolving organic material. When students
realize they are made up of organic material, they begin to build a healthy respect for
bases.

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13. “Only pH values of 1-14 exist.”
The definition of pH (–log[H+]) permits values of pH outside the 1-14 range, although
they are seldom encountered. Substituting molarity of commercial concentrated
hydrochloric acid (12 M) in the definition equation gives a pH = –1.1; for 18 M sulfuric
acid, the pH = –1.3. Similarly, the 8 M sodium hydroxide solution used to make soap
from animal fat has [H+] = 1.25 x 10–15 (that is, 1014/8), and a corresponding pH = 14.9.
Solutions of such extreme concentrations are seldom used, except as concentrates for
making the dilute solutions of pH 1-14.

14. “For sulfuric acid, to say that dissociation is complete means the acid has lost both
protons.”
When we say that dissociation of sulfuric acid is complete, we are not saying that the
species in solution are two hydrogen ions and one sulfate ion for each molecule dissolved.
The fact is, sulfuric acid is “strong” only in regard to removal of the first hydrogen ion.

Common Student Misconceptions of Atomic Structure

1. “Electrons orbit the nucleus like the planets around the sun.”
This incorrect model of the atom can still occasionally be found in popular science literature
or in old reference books. If it arises, students should be told that it is a poor model, but early
in this century, in the early development of atomic theory, it was an important starting point
in the acceptance of quantized energy for electrons in atoms. This model is also called the
Bohr model; one might also refer to Bohr atoms.

2. “Each orbital exists alone in space.”

Students fail to recognize that in an n = 2 shell, the 2s, and all three 2p-orbitals are
superimposed in space and have about the same size. They also don’t recognize that the
different energy levels (n = 2 and n = 1 for instance) exist in the same space.

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3. “Radiometers (hollow glass globes with a free-moving vane inside) prove that photons
of light have mass.”
Indeed, when a light shines on the vane, it rotates nicely. Actually, there is a small amount of
air in the bulb. Air molecules on the black side of the vane’s projections warm up more
quickly than those on the shiny side. The warmed gas molecules move faster, pushing against
the vane, so it moves.

4. “An orbital is the same as an orbit.”

Orbits (associated with the planetary Bohr atom model) specify fixed trajectories for electron
movement. An orbital, representing a three-dimensional region within which one or two
electrons can be found, provides no information regarding specific electron movement.

5. “There is an edge, or boundary, to an atom.”

Atoms and orbitals have no “hard” edges. Instead, the contour of the orbital, as we show it in
pictures and models, corresponds to the space of highest probability for electron location.

6. “Air exists between particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) in atoms.”

There is no matter, air or otherwise, between atomic particles, since they are the matter.

7. “The electromagnetic spectrum extends from red to violet light.”

Light is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye, but the entire
spectrum includes X-rays, radio waves, infrared radiation, and ultraviolet radiation, as well.

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 Common Student Misconceptions of reduction and Oxidation

1. “All the bonds formed are ionic, as shown by the use of oxidation numbers.”
Oxidation numbers are assigned to atoms in molecules or ions that are described as being
made up from essentially covalent bonds.

2. “Oxidation number represents the actual charge of the atom in a molecule.”

This is not so. For example, the iodine atom in IO4 – is not thought of as a 7+ cation
surrounded by four 2– anions, but instead as having electron pairs shared between the iodine
and each oxygen atom.

3. “All reactions are redox reactions.”

Acid base reactions are not redox reactions; precipitation reactions such as BaSO4(s) from
Ba2+(aq) and SO4 2–(aq) are not redox reactions.

4. “Oxidation always involves oxygen.”

Oxidation involves a loss of electrons. Oxygen atoms are good at gaining electrons, but so are
fluorine atoms, chlorine atoms, etc

5. “Electrons are lost when something is ‘reduced.’”

Electrons are ‘lost’ when captured by certain radioactive nuclei or when they react in
negative electron/positive electron pairs. Electrons are not lost (i.e., are not consumed) in
redox reactions. Instead, they may be thought of as moving from one species (the reducing
agent) to another (the oxidizing agent).

6. “A half reaction can occur by itself, e.g., oxidation without reduction.”

In real systems, reduction and oxidation are paired. The electrons required to bring about a
reduction come from an oxidation. If an oxidation were to occur by itself without
accompanying reduction, the electrons would still need to go someplace—and extra
electrons, in large numbers, repel one another with enormous force.

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7. “All oxidation numbers must be integers.”
Oxidation number rules sometimes lead to fractional oxidation numbers. For example, the
oxidation number of oxygen in potassium superoxide (KO2) is –1/2 (see Other Rules in
Language of Chemistry).