STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD (USD)

Using this method, the service loads are multiplied by certain factors to determine the
load at which failure of the structure is considered to be eminent. The resulting load
is called the factored load and the strength reduction factor ∅ shall be as follows:
Table 421.2.1
Strength Reduction Factors (NSCP-2015)

Action or Structural Element Exemptions

∅

(a) Near ends or pretensioned

Moment, Axial force or combined moment
members where strands are
and axial force
0.65 to 0.90 not fully developed,

Additional requirements are

given in Section 421.2.4 for
(b) Shear 0.75
structures designed to resist
earthquake effects.

(c) Torsion 0.75 -

(d) Bearing 0.65 -

(e) Post-Tension anchorage zones 0.85 -

(f) Brackets and Corbels 0.75 -

Struts, Ties, nodal zones, and bearing

(g) areas designed in accordance with strut 0.75 -
and tie method in Section 423

Components of connections of precast

(h) members controlled by yielding of steel 0.90 -
elements in tension

(i) Plain concrete elements 0.60 -

0.45 to 0.75 in
accordance
(j) Anchors in concrete elements -
with Section
417

For low values of axial compression ∅ shall be permitted to be increased in

accordance with the following:
 a) For members in which fy does not exceed 415 MPa, with symmetric
(ℎ−𝑑 ′ − 𝑑𝑠)
reinforcement and with not less than 0.70, ∅ shall be permitted
ℎ
to be increased linearly to 0.90 as ∅ Pn decreases from 0.10 fc’ Ag to zero.

Where:
h = overall thickness of the member in mm
d’ = distance from the extreme compression fiver to centroid of compression
reinforcement in mm.
ds = distance from the extreme tension fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement
in mm.

b) For other reinforcement members, ∅ shall be permitted to be increased linearly

to 0.90 as ∅ 𝑃𝑛 decreases from 0.10 fc’ Ag or ∅ Pb which ever is smaller to
zero.

LOAD FACTORS FOR VARIOUS LOAD COMBINATIONS

1) Structures subjected to Dead Load and Live Load:

U = 1.4D + 1.7L

2) Wind load is included in the design

U = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)

U = 0.90D + 1.3W for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L

3) Earthquake loads (E) is included in design.

U = 1.3D + 1.1L + 1.1E

U = 0.90D + 1.1E for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L

4) Earth pressure (H) is included in design

U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7H

U = 0.90D + 1.7H for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L

5) Fluid pressure (F) is included in design

U = 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.4F

U = 0.90D + 1.4F for zero value of L but not less than U = 1.4D + 1.7L
 6) Structural effects (T) of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, expansion of
shrinkage – compensating concrete or temperature change maybe significant
in design:

U = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.4T + 1.7L) but not less than U = 1.4 (d + T)

WHITNEY RECTANGULAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION

The actual stress distribution in the compressive area of concrete has the form of a
parabolic segment, a fictitious equivalent stress distribution was proposed by C.S.
Whitney by replacing it by an equivalent rectangular stress distribution with an
average strength of 0.85fc’ and a depth “a” where a = 𝛽c, c being the distance to the
neutral axis.

THREE TYPES OF BEAM FAILURE

1) Balanced Section
The steel starts to yield at the instant when the concrete attains its ultimate
strain capacity of 0.003 and starts to crush. At this stage of failure, the
permissible concrete compressive strain is 0.003 while the strain of steel

𝑓𝑦
when 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑐 = 0.003
𝐸𝑠

2) Over-Reinforced Section

This type of failure occurs when there is more reinforcement that that required
for balanced condition. Failure is initiated by crushing of the concrete. at this
condition, the steel strain is less than the yield strain.
𝜀s < 𝜀y
3) Under-Reinforced Section

This type of failure occurs when the area of steel reinforcement is less than
The required for balanced condition. Failure here is caused by yielding of steel
which continues to elongate as the strain exceeds the yield strain.

𝜀s > 𝜀y
BALANCED CONDITION

Es = 200000MPa
𝑓𝑦
𝜀𝑦 =
𝐸𝑠
𝑓𝑦
𝜀𝑦 =
200000
From the fig., by ratio and proportion

0.003 𝜀𝑦
= Cb 𝜀 y = 0.003d – 0.003Cb
𝐶𝑏 𝑑− 𝐶𝑏
0.003𝑑
Cb (𝜀 y + 0.003) = 0.003d Cb =
0.003+ 𝜀𝑦

0.003𝑑
Cb = 𝑓𝑦
0.003+
200000
600𝑑
Cb =
600+𝑓𝑦
 T=C

Asb fy = 0.85 fc’ a b

0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑎 𝑏
Asb = a = 𝛽Cb
𝑓𝑦

0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝛽𝐶𝑏 𝑏
Asb =
𝑓𝑦

𝜌 𝐴
𝑏= 𝑠𝑏
𝑏𝑑
Substitute values:
0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽𝐶𝑏 𝑏 0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600𝑑)
𝜌𝑏 = 𝜌𝑏 =
𝑓𝑦 𝑏 𝑑 𝑓𝑦 𝑑(600+ 𝑓𝑦)
𝟎.𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒄′𝜷(𝟔𝟎𝟎)
𝝆𝒃 =
𝒇𝒚 (𝟔𝟎𝟎+ 𝒇𝒚)

3
As = Asb
4

3
𝐴𝑠 𝐴 3
4 𝑠
𝜌= 𝜌= 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑏 𝝆max = 0.75 𝝆𝒃
𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑 4

MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBER

1. At every section of a flexural member where tensile reinforcement is required
by analysis, the steel area As provided:
shall not be less than
𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = √𝑓𝑐 ′
4 𝑓𝑦
And not less than
1.4 𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = where bw = b (width of rectangular beam)
𝑓𝑦
 1.4
𝜌min =
𝑓𝑦

2. For statically determinate T-beam with flange in tension, the area As min shall
be equal to or greater than the smaller value given either by:
𝑏𝑤 𝑑 𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = √𝑓𝑐 ′ or As min = √𝑓𝑐 ′
2 𝑓𝑦 4 𝑓𝑦

With bw = b (width of flange)

Note: This requirement may not be applied if at every section the area of tensile
reinforcement provided is at least one third greater than that required by
analysis.

ULTIMATE STRENGTH DESIGN

C = 0.85 fc’ a b (compressive force of concrete)

T = As fy (tensile force of steel reinforcement)

𝑎
Mn = T (d - )
2
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - ) Nominal moment capacity
2
MU = ∅ M n
𝑎
MU = ∅ As fy (d - ) Ultimate moment capacity
2
 𝑎
MU = ∅ C(d - )
2
𝑎
MU = ∅ (0.85 fc’ a b) (d - )
2
T=C

As fy = 0.85 fc’ a b

As fy
a=
0.85 fc’ b
As fy 𝑎
MU = ∅ (0.85 fc’ b) (d - )
0.85 fc’ b 2
𝑓𝑦
As = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑑 𝜔 = 𝜌 𝑓𝑐′
𝜌 𝑏 𝑑 fy 𝑎
MU = ∅ (0.85 fc’ b) (d - )
0.85 fc’ b 2
𝑓𝑦 As fy
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜌 b d [d -
𝑓𝑐′ 0.85 fc’ b(2)
𝜌 𝑏 𝑑 𝑓𝑦 𝑑
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜔 [ 𝑏 𝑑2 − ]
2 𝑓𝑐 ′ (0.85) 𝑏

2 𝑏𝑑 2 𝜌𝑓𝑦
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜔 [𝑏𝑑 − ]
0.85(2)𝑓𝑐 ′
𝜔
MU = ∅ fc’ 𝜔 b d2 (1 - )
2(0.85)

MU = ∅ b d2 fc’ 𝝎 (1 – 0.59 𝝎)

Rn = fc’ 𝜔 (1 – 0.59 𝜔) coefficient of resistance

MU = ∅ b d2 Rn

Mu
Rn = coefficient of resistance
∅ b d2
 𝟎.𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒄′ 𝟐𝑹𝒏
𝝆= [ 1 - √𝟏 − 𝟎.𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒄′ ]
𝒇𝒚

𝑎
Mu = ∅ As fy (d - ) (Ultimate moment capacity)
2
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - ) (Nominal moment capacity)
2
BETA FACTORS

INVESTIGATION OF BEAMS REINFORCED FOR TENSION

1) Case 1 fs = fy if steel in tension will yield (Under reinforced)

 (𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌 < 𝜌max )
C=T
0.85 fc’ a b = As fy
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
a=
0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏

a=𝛽 𝑐
0.003 𝜀𝑠
=
𝑐 𝑑−𝑐
0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
𝜀𝑠 =
𝑐

When 𝜀𝑠 > 𝜀𝑦
Safe resisting ultimate moment = M
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - )
2
MU = ∅ Mn (Ultimate moment capacity)
𝐴𝑠
Actual 𝜌 = > 𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌max
𝑏𝑑
1.4
Check: 𝜌min =
𝑓𝑦

𝜌max = 0.75 𝜌𝑏
0.85 𝑓𝑐′𝛽(600)
𝜌𝑏 =
𝑓𝑦 (600+ 𝑓𝑦)

2) fs = fy if steel in tension does not yield (Over reinforced)

(𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌max < 𝜌 )

Assume first fs = fy to determine the values of “a” so we could draw the strain
𝑓𝑦
diagram and check for the actual values of 𝜀𝑠 if less or greater than 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑠
C=T
0.85 fc’ a b = As fy
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
a=
0.85 𝑓𝑐 ′ 𝑏

a=𝛽 𝑐
0.003 𝜀𝑠
=
𝑐 𝑑−𝑐
0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
𝜀𝑠 =
𝑐
𝜀 𝑓𝑦
𝑦=
𝐸𝑠

𝜀𝑠 < 𝜀𝑦 (steel does not yield)

0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
fs = 𝜀𝑠 𝐸𝑠 (Hookes Law)
𝑐
0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
fs = 𝐸𝑠
𝑐
T=C
As fs = 0.85 fc’ a b
Express in terms of c:
 0.003 (𝑑−𝑐)
(As) 𝐸𝑠 = 0.85 fc’ 𝛽 𝑐 b
𝑐
Solve for “c“ which is the only unknown value: the equation form will be a
quadratic equation.

a=𝛽 𝑐
𝑎
Mn = As fy (d - )
2
Mu = ∅ Mn (Ultimate moment capacity)

Check:

(𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝜌max < 𝜌 )

𝐴𝑠
𝜌=
𝑏𝑑
Note: for minimum reinforcement of flexural members>

√𝑓𝑐 ′ 1.4 𝑏𝑤 𝑑
As min = 𝑏𝑤 𝑑 and not less than
4 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS AND COLUMNS

NSCP provides that the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate shall not be
larger than:
1) 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms, nor
2) 1/3 the depth of slab, nor
3) 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcement bars or wires,
bundles of bars, or prestressing tendons or ducts.